Ocean Currents

Since first setting sail on the open ocean, people have known that ocean water does not stand still, but rather flows at
velocities of up to several kilometers per hour in fairly well defined streams called currents. When the captains of sail-
ing ships planned their routes from Europe to North America, they paid close attention to the directions of the currents,
for sailing against a current slowed down the voyage substantially. If they headed due west (toward North America) at a
high latitude (closer to the North Pole), they would find themselves battling an eastward-flowing current, the Gulf
Stream.
Oceanographic studies have demonstrated that circulation in the sea occurs at two levels: surface currents affect the up-
per hundred meters of water, and deep currents keep even water at the bottom of the sea in motion.

1. In describing streams as "well defined," the author means that the streams
A. are strong
B. can be dangerous
C. can be clearly identified
D. flow over large areas

2. Paragraph 1 suggests which of the following about the effects of currents on how captains sailed their ships?
A. Captains had to sail their ships at a high latitude in order to get from Europe to North America.
B. Captains had to plan for a very slow voyage on their way back to Europe from North America.
C. Captains had to choose routes that avoided the Gulf Stream when sailing from Europe to North America.
D. Captains could increase the speed of their ships by several kilometers per hour as they sailed from Europe to North
America.

Surface currents occur in all the world's oceans. They result from interaction between the sea surface and the wind—as
air molecules move across the surface of the water, the friction between air and water drags the water along. But the
movement of water resulting from wind does not exactly parallel the movement of the wind. This is a consequence of
Earth's rotation, which generates the Coriolis effect. This phenomenon causes surface currents in the Northern Hemi-
sphere to veer toward the right and surface currents in the Southern Hemisphere to veer toward the left of the average
wind direction.

3.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? In-
correct choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A. Surface currents occur because winds can blow either across or along moving water.
B. Surface currents are caused by friction between wind-blown air molecules and the sea surface.
C. The friction between air and water can slow down the wind, as air molecules drag the water.
D. At the sea surface, friction caused by wind leads to an interaction between air and water molecules.

4. According to paragraph 2, why might the movement of water have a different direction than that of the wind?
A. Earth's rotation causes surface currents to change their direction.
B. Winds in the Northern and Southern hemispheres blow in opposite directions, affecting currents that cross the equa-
tor.
C. The Coriolis effect may cause a sudden change in the direction of the wind.
D. Currents, but not winds, are generally parallel to the direction of Earth's rotation.

Deep currents exist because at various locations, water must sink or rise in the vertical direction.
Oceanographers have now identified downwelling zones, places where near-surface water sinks, and upwelling zones,
places where subsurface water rises. What causes upwelling and downwelling? First, along coastal regions, these two
phenomena exist because as the wind blows, it drags surface water along. If surface water moves toward the coast, then
an oversupply of water develops along the shore and excess water must sink-that is, downwelling takes place. Alterna-
tively, if surface water moves away from the coast, then a deficit of water develops near the coast and water rises to fill
in the gap-upwelling takes place. Upwelling of subsurface water also occurs along the equator because the winds blow
steadily from east to west. The Coriolis effect causes water to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
left in the Southern Hemisphere. Upwelling replaces this deficit and causes the surface water at the equator to be cooler
and rich in nutrients. The nutrients foster an abundance of life in equatorial water.

5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about water near the bottom of the ocean?
A. It has an abundant supply of nutrients.
B. It becomes cooler when upwelling occurs.
C. It generally flows east to west.
D. it tends to move faster than water near the surface does.

Upwelling and downwelling can also be driven by contrasts in water density, caused by differences in temperature and
salinity (salt content). Ocean water contains an average of 3.5 percent dissolved salt. although this varies around the
world from about 1 percent to 4.1 percent in specific locations. Higher salinity means higher density of water. The aver-
age global sea-surface temperature hovers around 17°C, but it ranges between freezing near the poles to almost 35°C in
restricted tropical seas. The correlation of average temperature with latitude exists because the intensity of solar radia-
tion varies with latitude. Water temperature in the ocean also varies markedly with depth. Waters warmed by the Sun
are less dense and tend to remain on the surface.

6. Why does the author mention that waters heated by sunlight "tend to remain on the surface"?
A. To emphasize the important role of latitude in the ocean's surface temperatures
B. To explain why the ocean has more temperature variation on the surface than at depth
C. To help explain temperature differences at various ocean depths
D. To establish that the ocean's average water density does not vary significantly

We refer to the rising and sinking of water driven by density contrasts as thermohaline circulation. During thermohaline
circulation, denser water (colder and/or saltier) sinks, whereas water that is less dense (warmer and/or less salty) rises.
As a result, the water in polar regions sinks and flows back along the bottom of the ocean toward the equator. This
process divides the ocean vertically into a number of distinct water masses, which mix only very slowly with one an-
other. In the Atlantic Ocean, for example, the Antarctic Bottom Water sinks along the coast of Antarctica, and the North
Atlantic Deep Water sinks in the north polar region. The combination of surface currents and thermohaline circulation,
like a conveyor belt, moves water and heat among the various ocean basins, moderating global climate.

7. The word " moderating" in the passage is closest in meaning to

8. According to paragraph 5, thermohaline circulation contributes to all of the following EXCEPT

【 】Upwelling and downwelling can also be driven by contrasts in water density, caused by differences in temperature
and salinity (salt content). 【 】Ocean water contains an average of 3.5 percent dissolved salt. although this varies
around the world from about 1 percent to 4.1 percent in specific locations. 【 】Higher salinity means higher density of
water. 【 】The average global sea-surface temperature hovers around 17°C, but it ranges between freezing near the
poles to almost 35°C in restricted tropical seas. The correlation of average temperature with latitude exists because the
intensity of solar radiation varies with latitude. Water temperature in the ocean also varies markedly with depth. Waters
warmed by the Sun are less dense and tend to remain on the surface

9. Look at the four squares 【 】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

Water density is also affected by temperature: the colder the water, the denser it generally is.

10.Sea travel, the nutrient content of water, and the global climate are all influenced by ocean currents.
A. The existence of both surface and deep currents was first recognized after ships began sailing between Europe and
North America.
B. The movement of surface water drags subsurface water with it, but because of the Coriolis effect, these two types of
currents do not parallel each other.
C. The process of thermohaline circulation increases the nutrient content of surface water at the equator and causes
water from different oceans to mix.
D. Surface currents created by wind do not precisely parallel the wind's direction as they turn in different directions in
the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
E. Wind causes accumulation or shortage of water in some parts of the ocean surface, leading to downwelling and up-
welling, which, in turn, result in deep currents.
F. Water's density varies depending on its level of salinity and differences in temperature across latitudes, and these
contrasts in density make water rise or sink, contributing to ocean currents.