A LABORATORY MANUAL

OF
INTRObUCTORY AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

* I

%
' €:

Resham B Thapa
Fanindra P Neupane
Dhamo K Butani

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PROTECTION

INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL SCIENCE
TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
RAMPURj CHITWANj NEPAL,
 - ---

A LABORATORY MANUAL

OF

INTRODUCTORY AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

Resham B Thapa

Fanindra P Neupane

Dhamo K Butani

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PROTECTION

INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL SCIENCE

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

RAMPUR, CHITWAN, NEPAL.

1984

----------------------------------------------------
 ALL RIGHT RESERVED

Published by: Tribhuvan University

Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science
Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.

First Edition: 1984 (2041)

Printed by: Secretarial Support Services Pvt. Ltd.

Post Box No. 1217,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
 PREFACE

million described
Insects are ubiquitous. There are about a
still undescribed. A
species in this world and a large number even beneficial
a few
vast majority of them is no doubt harmless, as destructive.
but about 2 percent species have been reported contaminate stored
They damage almost all our cultivated crops,domesticated animals,
food articles, annoy and sting man and the act as vectors of
and last but not the least, some insects That's why the
viruses and other disease causing pathogens. creatures and people
insects are looked down upon as undesirable
often think of killing them. the ravages of
To safe guard our plants and property from these little
all about
insect pests, it is necessary to know
is to collect the
beinjs. First and forenost step naturally
insects and study their appearance (morphology), physiology
With this
(function) and marks of identification (classification). beginners a
give the
aim in view, this manual is prepared to as also some
preliminary knowledge of introductory entomology It covers the
information about pesticides and their appliances.
of Agriculture
Core Course (ENT 3131) curriculum of the Institute
and Animal Science, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.
manual all
It is not possible to include in this small number of
the huge
the information nezessary for identifying
upto Order and family
insect species, so it has been carried only
adult stage. To start
level and that too by studying only the dealt with.
with, only 12 most important orders have been Tribhuvan
The au-thors are grateful to Dean, IAAS, Rampur,
in preparing this
University, for the interest shown by him in drawing some of
manual. The help rendered by Mr. N.R.Devkota
sincere efforts of Mr.
the diagrams as also the assistance and Computer Centre, in
Padam P Sharma and Ms. Laxmi Baral of IAAS time is highly
word processing the manuscript in such a short L. Whittier,
Herbert
appreciated. Thanks are also due to Dr. Project for the
Chief of Party, MUCIA and the IAAS/MUCIA/USAID this edition of the
encouragement and finanpial aid in printing
manual. this manual, are
Suggestions, if any, for the improvement of
welcome.

Resham B. Thapa
Fanindra P. Neupane
Airgust 21, 1984 Dhamo K. Butani
TAAS, Rampur.
 CONTENTS

Page No.

Lab No. Topic Lab Ex. Guide

1. Study of a microscope 3 47

2. Collection and preservation of insects 7 49

3. External morphology of an insect 11 52

4. Mouth parts and their modifications 12 53

5. Antennae and their modifications 17 55

6. Legs and their modifications 19 56

7. Winos and their modifications 21 57

8. Internal anatomy of an insect 23 58

9. Insect metamorphosis 27 63

10. Types of larvae and pupae 29 64

11. Life cycle of honey bee 31 65

12. Modern bee hive and its parts 33 66

13. Life cycle of mulberry silkworm 35 67

14. Life cycle of lac insect 37 68

15. Classification of insects 39 69

16. Pesticides 41 83

17. Pesticide appliances 42 87

Selected readings 95
LAB EXERCISES
 LAB 1: STUDY OF A MICROSCOPE

OBJECTIVE:
Microscopes are used for enlarging t1 ; image of a given
object. The various appendages of insects being too small to
study the same clearly with naked eyes, help of microscopes is
sought to bring out the clearity and aetails, which
facilitate the proper study of such parts.

MATERIALS:
1. Dissecting and binocular microscope
2. Occular and stage micrometers
3. Glass slides.

METHODS:
1. Take out microscope from cabinet using both hands, one
on the bottom and other on the handle; keeping the
microscope in straight position.
2. Place the microscope on the working table and arrange
the light.

PROBLEMS:
1. Identify various parts of dissecting and binocular
microscopes and label them in the diagrams (Fig. 1).
2. Calibrate occular and stage micrometer and measure the
size of a given object.

a. The index of occular micrometer in .... (power) of

magnification.
------------------------------------------------------
S.N. No. of division of occular No. of divisions of
micrometer stage micrometer
---------------------------------------------------------
1
2
3

--------------------------------------------------------
Total
--------------------------------------------------------
Average
----------------------------------------------------

3
b. Calculate the index of an occular micrometer.

c. Measurement of a given specimen

size of specimen ...... in ...... (power) of magnification.

No of divisions of occular micrometer.

----------------------------------------------------------
S.N. Length Width
---------------------------------------------------------
1
2
3

---------------------------------------------------------
Total
---------------------------------------------------------
Average
---------------------------------------------------------

d. Calculate the actual size of the given specimen.

3. What are the precautions to be taken while handling a

microscope?

5
 IISECT KILLIMG JARS

ASPIRATOR

IN CTCATCING NET.

CAMEL A[R BRUSH K"4I

COLLECTION BAG

P.2. INSECT COLLECTING EQUIPMENT

6
 LAB 2: COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECTS

OBJECTIVE:
To study any object, first step is to collect that .object.
If the insect thus collected is to be kept for further studies,
it does
it should be properly killed, set and preserved, so that
can be seen in the
not get spoiled. Well preserved specimen
museums where they may be lying for past several decades.

MATERIALS:
1. Killing jar 7. Fine thin pins
2. Catching net 8. Pinning block
3. Forceps 9. Collection box
4. Camel hair brush 10. Spreading boards
5. Collection bag 11. Labels
6. Aspirator 12. Collecting vials
13. Preservatives.

METHODS: (For details refer to page 49)

1. Prepare abinsect killing jar.
2. Identify the various materials required for collection
and preservation.
3. Observe proper pinning position, setting on board and
preservation of adults and immatures.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label the various parts (Fig. 2), proper pinning position
(Fig.. 3) and spreading board (Fig. 4).
2. Continue collecting, pinning and preserving insect
specimens throughout the year. Mount properly and
identify them.
3. What precautions will you take while preparing and using
the insect killing jar?

7
 GRASSHOPPER

PA INTED BUG CICADA

\. .- BEETLE

BUTTER FLY

HOUSE FLY

BUMBLE BEE EARWI Nj

rY
I PINNIjCG POSITION.1S

8
 "t
1i. ... . .­ ­

I I.,

LABELS
INSECT PINg

\ /

COLLECTION 1430

SPREADIN6 BOARD -

PIN N ING BLOCK

IMMATLIES

F INSECT PRESERVATION
I.4

9
 WING

G RASSHOPPER.

/-- ~~*-LEG

4 OVIPO61TOR

ANTEWMJA

L- --

If
I o\! /-
-~ *
v.-?I---.. -­

* 2'HORAX
ABDOMEN

MORPHOLOGY OF A
FM.5. EXTERNAL
GRASSHOPPER

10
 LAB 3: EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF AN INSECT (GRASSHOPPER)

OBJECTIVE:
of insects
It is necessary to study the external morphology
functions and classify
in order to know their body structures,
them on the basis of their morphological characters.

MATERIALS:
1. Freshly killed grasshopper
2. Dissecting microscope
3. Forceps
4. Needles

METHODS: (Refer page 52 for details)

a grasshopper and identify its three body regions
­
1. Take
head, thorax and abdomen.
and
2. Study and identify various appendages on head thorax
abdominal regions.
wings and
3. Separate various parts such as antennae, legs,
identify their different parts.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label various structures (Fig. 5).
are the appendages of head ? Write their
2. What
distinguishing characteristics.

from a
3. How do you differentiate a male grasshopper
female?

11
 LAB 4: INSECT MOUTH PARTS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

OBJECTIVE:
The mouth parts undergo various modifications on the basis
of their feeding habits. There is a definite correlation between
the type of mouth parts and the damage they do to the crops.
This
study helps to recommend appropriate control measures.

MATERIALS:
1. Insect specimens with different mouth types
2. Permanent slides
3. Forceps
4. Camel hair brush
5. Needles
6. Dissecting microscope
7. Glass slides.

METHODS:

A. Biting & chewing type:

1. Take a grasshopper or cockroach and separate head from

thorax.
2. Keep head between two slides and press gently.
3. Remove the appendages and arrange them on slide (Fig. 6).
4. Observe under a microscope.

B. Piercing and sucking type:

1. Take a red cotton bug.

2. Separate the head and place it on a slide.
3. Separate anu a stylets on the slide (Fig. 7).
4. Observe its various parts under microscope. For
comparision, take a mosquito and complete the process
same as above, observe mosquito mouth parts and compare
them with that of red cotton bug.

C. Chewing and lapping type:

1. Take a honeybee, remove head from the thorax, and gently

press it between two slides.
2. Observe the parts and identify them.

D. Siphonging type:
1. Take a buttErfly or moth, separate head from thorax,
press between two slides and observe under microscope.

E. Sponging type:
1. Take a housefly, separate head from thorax, and
observe under microscope.

12
 LABRUM

MAt,,DIBLE

ILLA ,MA , -.

LABIUM . -

R .G.MOUTH PAPTS OF GRASSHOPPER

13
 "'"> r,"

i< .. 2 d

II
~; ' CHEINGz
LAPPING TYPE .v --­

. --

PIERCING SUCKING TYPE

SIPHONING EYPN

---. SPONGING TYPE

PIERCING SUCKING TYPE - - - -

N. 7 MOUTH PARTS ANDJ THEIR MoDICATIoN

14
Problems%

1. Label the various types of mouth parts (Fig.6 and Fig.7).

2. List two types of mouth parts of insects damaging

crops and describe their feeding mechanisms.

Which mouth type is fit for feeding on solid and liquid

3.
food ? Give an example.

4. How will this knowledge nelp you to select an appropriate

pest control measure?

15
 -7a ---
R M

MON Ibl F.ORrI ANTENIA(TYPICAL.)

SER.RATE

P.LJMOSE
CLAVAT E A

\t-1LAMELLATE

,ETACEOUS

PECTI NATE - GENICLJIATE

BIPECTINAT -

PLAVELI, ATE ARISTATE

Pi .8. ANTENNAE AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

16
 LAB 5: ANTENNAE AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

OBJECTIVES:
an insect. Various types
Antennae are the sensory organs of Study
in different insects.
of modifications have been observed their
of these modifications is helpful in distinguishing
characteristics which help in classification.

MATERIALS: of antennae
1. Insect specimens with different types
2. Permanent slides
3. Dissecting microscope
4. Forceps
5. Pins
6. Glass slides.

METHODS: the base and

1. Take an insect, remove its antennae from
observe the various parts under the microscope. them
2. Separate antennae from other insects and compare
with the permanent slides.

PROBLEMS:
1. What are the different parts of an antenna?

between a clavate and capitate type of

2. Distinguish
antennae.

3. What types of antennae are found in following insects?

a. Click! beetle d. Honey bee

b. t:osquito e. Housefly

c. Silkworm f. Termite

17
 FOSSORIA. LE6(,ryplC#.L) CURSORIAL
.
%

• " ~
"~
";.: -..
,

SCA NLSDRIA,5

SALTATORIA
/ RA

POLLENI FEROUS

Fi. .9.
LEGS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS
 LAB 6: LEGS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

OBJECTIVE: organs.
Insect legs primarily function as locomotive
have been observed according to
However, various modifications
Tni3 study is informative to
the functions they oerforri.
with legs.
understand various activities associated

MATERIALS:
of legs
1. Insect specimens representing various types
2. Permanent slides of various types of legs
3. Pins
4. ?orceps
5. Dissecting microscope
6. ClEss slides

METHODS: from
1. Take a qrasshopper or cockroach, remove its legs
parts of the legs.
oleural areasand observe the various
2. Similarly, separate legs of other insects and compare
them with permanent slides.

PROBLEMS:
1. Give examples of various leg types (Fig. 9).

What are the

2. What type of legs does a honey bee have ?
various specialized parts?

3. Distinguish between the followings:

a. Saltatorial and crusorial type of legs

b. Fossorial and raptorial legs

19
 -.- - - -. -,­ -.

WI NG( HYPOTHEITIC41L)

.....

BUTT~RLY flJAGONFLY

nTHR Pr

BEETLE . .
HOUSE FLY

HONEYBEEL

TRUE BtJC;
G HOPPER

.. o Nlti\GS AND THEIR MODIICATIONS

20
 LAB 7:WINGS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

OBJECTIVES:
Wings are flight organs of an insect. There are various
depending .pon the habits and habitats of the
modifications
The wing structure and venation are important
insect.
diagnostic characters for insect classification.

MATERIALS:
1. Insect specimens with different types of wings
2. Permanent slides of various wing types
3. Forceps
4. Needles
5. Microscope
6. Glass slides

METODS:
1. Take a wing of housefly and observe the venation.
other types of wings and observe and compare
2. Separate
them with permanent slides and sample specimens.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label a typical housefly wing (Fig 10).
2. Label other wing types.
3. Name insects having following types of wings:
a. Fringed b. Scaly

c. Tegmina d. Halters

4. Distinguish between the followings:

a. Jugum and Frenulum

b. Elytra and Hemelytra

21
 ..........­

........... . i'ERVOUS SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE EY6EM VEJTRAL

" NERVE CORD

... . . - S'ORRpRUCTn
.
, YYSTEM

',','
i.............
OVARIOLE

TESTICLE

F\ .11. INTERNAL ANATOMY- DIGESTIVE,

NERVOUS AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

22
 LAB 8: INTERNAL ANATOMY OF AN INSECT
Systems:
(a) Digestive, Nervous and Reproductive

OBJECTIVE: to relate the

Study of these systems is necessary insect behavior,
organs with
physiological processes of internal means to be taken for their
development, their survival, and the
control.

MATERIALS:
1. Freshly killed specimen (cockroach)
2. Dissecting tray
3. A pair of scissors
4. Pins
5. Sample dissection

METHODS:
1. Take a freshly killed cockroach.
2. Cut off its legs and wings. tray and pin on its
3. Place the cockroach in dissecting
head, cover with water. region towards the
4. Give a dorsal cut from the posterior
head with the help of scissors.
help of a pin and
5. Remove dorsal body wall with the
forceps.
them at an angle of 45
6. Pin the lateral margins placing air sacs, tracheae and
degree . Remove all fatty tissues,
muscles.
observe its various
7. Bring alimentary canal apart and
parts (Fig. 11).
thoracic ganglia.
8. Observe the ventral nerve cord andremove alimentary canal
9. To observe reproductive parts, rectum streaching
separating it from rectum, pin the
posteriorly. their various parts
10. Seperate ovaries, testis and observe
(Fig. 11). with sample
11. Compare different systems and their parts
dissection.

PROBLEMS: nervous, and

1. Label various parts of digestive,
reproductive system (Fig 11).
its function.
2. What is malpighian tubule? Write

a male and a female

3. How will you distinguish between
reproductive system?

23
 CIRCULATORY 6YSTEM

POSrrloKl OF DIFFERENT
SYSTEMS.

r
i9"

RESPIRATrORY SYSTEM

Fi§. 12. INTERNAL ANATOMY- CIRCULATORY

AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMNS.

24
(b) Circulatory and Respiratory Systems:

OBJECTIVE:
Study of these systems helps to identify the various
parts, their position, and functioning mechanisms.

MATERIALS:
1. Freshly killed grasshopper or cockroach
2. Dissecting tray
3. Pins
4. Forceps
5. Sample dissection
6. A sharp blade

METHODS:
1. Take a freshly killed grasshopper or cockroach.
2. Remove its legs and wings.
3. Place the specimen in tray covering with water.
4. Make a laterodorsal cut on both sideswith the help of a
sharp blade.
5. Remove tergum carefully and observe heart and alary
muscles.
6. On both sides observe the silvery white tracheae
running parallel to heart.
7. Remove digestive tract and observe visceral
longitudinal tracheal trunk and spiracular tracheae.
8. Also observe ventral pair of longitudinal trachea.

PROBLEMS:
1. Identify the positions of circulatory , digestive and
nervous systemsin aninsect body and label them (Fig 12).
2. What are alary muscles? fHow do they function in blood
circulation?

3. How exchange of gases does take place in an insect?

25
Pig.13. INGECT METAMORPHOSIS
* (AMETABOLA 4-FiEMIMETABOLA)

Pi§.14. INSECT METAMORPHOSIS

(PAUROMETABOLA 4 HOLOMETABOLA)

26
 LAB 9: INSECT METAMORPHOSIS

OBJECTIVE:
an insect,
Study of different stages in develupment of
forcasting the
helps in timing the control operations as also
insect epidemics.

MATERIALS:
including various stages of :
1. Preserved specimens
a. Silverfish
b. Grasshopper
c. Mayfly
d. Butterfly

METHODS:
those insects
1. Observe the different growth stages of
in the laboratory(Fig. 13 and 14).
external characteristics of adults and
2. Note the
immatures (young, nymph, naiads larvae and pupae).

PROBLEMS:
1. Label the various st ages (Fig. 13,14).
2. How does a nymph differ from its adult?

3. Differentiate between the gradual and

incomplete metamorphosis.

a
4. Name the various stages of development in
moth, and write their characteristics.

27
 6AWFLY C'ABBaGE BUTTERFLY

HAWK MOTH
HONEy BEE

HOUSEFLY

CAB1AGE SEMILOOPER
INCH WORM

LONG-HORNED BEETLE

CHAFFER BEET E
IN t:T ylCLICK BEETLE
LADY BEETLE

B3EETLE BUTTERFLY MOTH HOUSEFLY

;.15. TYPES OF LARVAE A D PUPAE

2-o pupoe

28
 LAB 10: TYPES OF LARVAE AND PUPAE

OBJECTIVE:
study helps us to identify the various
This
and pupal forms which will help to recognize their
larval
be taken for their control.
presence and the necessary stepsto

MATERIALS:
1. Various forms of larval and pupal specimens.
2. Dissecting microscope.

METHODS:
such as
1. Observe the external characteristics of larvae
head, thoracic legs and prolegs (abdominal legs) with
the help of dissecting microscope.
2. For pupae, observe the pupal shape and body appendages
-free or glued to the main body.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label the various larval and pupal forms (Fig. 15).
2. What are larvae and pupae?

3. Differentiate between the followings:

a. Legs and prolegs

b. Maggots and grubs

c. Loopers and semiloopers

d. Obtect and exarate pupae

29
 ADULTS

EGG /u /APA

GRI] .
F'i.1. LIFE CYCLE OF HON0E BEE

IINNER COVER

-L --- .-..-- , QUEEN EXCLUDER

- -- ........ ___--
_
E . BROOD FRAME

Fip.17 PARTS OF A -BEE HIVE

30
 LAB 11: LIFE CYCLE OF HONEY BEE
(Apis indica Fabricius)

OBJECTIVE:
This study is very much informative to understand their
social, behavioral, communication and developmental aspects.

MATERIALS:
1. Various growth stages of a honey bee including queen,
drone and worker.
2. Bee comb with queen , worker and drone cells.

METHODS:
1. Observe different developmental stages (egg to adult)
and caste (queen, drone and worker) on the basis of
their body characteristics.
3. Have a close look on queen, drone and
worker cells and their arrangement in a comb.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label the different caste of honey bee (Fig. 16).
2. How would you recognize workers, drones and queen? Give
their characteristics.

3. How long does it take to produce a queen? What kind of

food is given to a designated queen grub?

31
 SRUSH

VEIL

WIVE TOOL

BEE SMOKER

t[ GLO\E

HIVE SCRAPER

COVER ALL

F\ 18 BEEKEEPING EQUIPMENT

32
 LAB 12: MODERN BEE HIVE AND ITS PARTS

OBJECTIVE:
hive and beekeeping equipment are basic tools for the
Bee
This study is necessary to familiarize with modern
beekeepers.
bee hive, its parts, functions, and beekeeping equipments for
better management and care of a bee colony.

MATERIALS:
1. A modern bee hive (Langstroth's hive)
2. Bee keeping equipment

METHODS:
1. Open the sample bee hive removing its parts one by one
and then arrange them back in the same position.
2. Observe the various parts of a bee hive.
3. Visit Qrj apiary, observe demonstrator using various bee
equipment , (Fig. 18) and handling a bee colony.
4. Observe a queen, drones and workers inside the hive and
be familiar with the brood cells, honey and pollen
storage in a comb.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label the various parts of a bee hive (Fig. 17).
2. T'hat is super? How does it differ from a brood chamber?

3. What do you mean by the followings?

a. Queen gate:

b. Queen excluder:

c. Bee space:

33
 EGGS

A~ulvrs

"'°'

LARVA
PUPA

.19 LIFE CYCLE OF MULBEi SILKWORM

34
 LAB 13: LIFE CYCLE OF MULBERRY SILKWORM
(Bombyx mori Linnaeus)

OBJECTIVE:
This study is aimed to identify the different stages of
mulberry silkworm which helps for their proper care during
different developmental stages and obtain better cocoon
production.

MATERIALS:
1. Preserved various stages of mulberry silkworm
2. Cocoons

METHODS:
1. Observe the various developmental stages of a mulberry
silkworm:eggs, larvae, pupae (cocoons)and adults .
2. Visit a silkworm rearing house and be familiar with
rearing condition, different larval stages, their
feeding, mounting and cocoon harvest.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label the larval developmental stages of a mulberry
silkworm (Fig. 19).
2. Distinguish between a male and a female
silkworm adult.

3. What do you mean by larval mountage?

4. What is cocoon? How does a silkworm larva produce cocoon?

35
 ADULTS STICK LAC

NYMPH

rig.20. LIPE CYCLE OF LAC INSECT

36
 LAB 14: LIFE CYCLE OF LAC INSECT
(Kerria lacca Kerr.)

OBJECTIVE: are
Knowledge of lac insect and its different growth stages
lac
essential for the proper management to ensure a good
production.

MATERIALS:
1. Different growth stages of a lac insect
2. Stick lac

METHOD:
1. Observe different growth stages of a lac insect.
2. Have a close look on stick lac and be famiiiar with it.

PROBLEMS:
1. Label immatures and adults (Fig. 20).
2. Distinguish between a male and a female lac insect.

3. What is a stick lac? How is it formed?

37
 THYsAyjUpA ODONATA ORTHOPTERA

ISOPTERA THYSANOPTERA 1-EI.IPTERA

HOMOPTERA COLEOPTERA DIPTERA

LEPIDOPTERA HYMENOPTERA 61PHOAPTERA

Pr§.2i. INSECT CLASSIPICATION - ORDEIS

38
 LAB 15: CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS

OBJECTIVE:
This study is very useful to apply the previous
morphological characteristics for identifying insects and use of
taxonomic key to classify them into their respective orders and
families.

MATERIALS:
1. Specimens representing different oriers
2. Dissectinct microscope
3. Taxonomic key to the order of insects
4. Sample specimens

METHODS:
1. Use the taxonomic key provided to you and follow
identifying characteristics observing insects under
dissecting microscope.
2. Note the external characteristics of an insect and
conform by comparing with the sample specimen.

PROBLEMS:
1. Give one or two examples of insects belonging to each
order (Fig. 21).

3. Name various types of mouth parts and wing structures

observed in different orders.

4. Write down one or two important characteristics of

different families (Fig. 22 to 28).

39
5. Distinguish between followings:

a. Hemiptera and Homoptera

b. Diptera and Hymenoptera

c. Butterfly and moth

d. Beetle and weevil

e. Treehopper and planthopper

f. Mole cricket and field cricket

g. Red cotton bug and gundhi bug

6. How would you identify the followings:

a. Housefly

b. Honey bee

c. Fruitfly

d. Mosquito

e. Ant

f. Skipper
g. Stink bug

40
 LAB 16: DILUTION OF PESTICIDES

OBJECTIVE:
It is essential to develop skill of pest:cide calculation at
a desired concentration for the economic use of pesticide and
saving crops from pesticide injury.

MATERIALS:
1. Pesticide in liquid or solid form
2. Diluent (water, sand or saw dust)

METHODS:
1. Read the instructions on the concentration of pesticide to
be used for spray or dust.
2. Read the pesticide label for concentration available in
the market.
3. CpIculate the amount required by using formula
(page 86).

PROBLEMS: forms
1. What is pesticide? What are the different
available in the market?

2. 200 ml of methyl-parathion (Metacid 50 EC) is added to

100 litres of water in a spray tank. What is the
concentration of spray?

3. Calculate the amount of carbaryl (Sevin 50 WP) to prepare

1000 litres of spray solution of 0.1% concentration.

4. How many kg of BHC (40%) dust will be required to prepare

500 kg of dust containing 5% concentration?

41
 no-

P§.22.PARTS OF A HAND COMPRESSION SPRAYER

42
 LAB 17: PESTICIDE APPLIANCES

OBJECTIVE: of pesticide appliances,

It is impor:ant to have knowledge
This helps to identify the
their various parts and functions. care and maintenance.
problem of appliances, their proper use,

MATERIALS:
1. Sprayers
2. Dusters
3. Soil injectors
4. Flame thrower
5. Seed dressing drum

METHODS: appliances
1. Observe the various types of pesticide
(Fig. 30 and 31). a
the various parts of
2. Learn to separate and assemble
hand compression sprayer.

PROBLEMS: compression sprayer

1. Label the various parts of a hand
(Fig. 22).
How does a sprayer differ
2. What are sprayers and dusters?
from a duster?

while using a
3. What are the precautions to be taken
pesticides appliance?

43
Calibration of a Sprayer:

OBJECTIVE:
This study will help to develop skill in spraying and find
out the exact amount of spray at desired rate per unit area.

MATERIALS:
1. Sprayer (in good working condition)
2. Stop watch
3. MeaSurifnq tape
4, Water (spraying g-111tion)

METHODS:
I. Fill a tank with water, provide required pressure and
record the discharge in ml/min.
2. Spray in "he field, note the amount sprayed (ml),
and the distance travelled (m) with width (m).
3. Calculate the spraying liquid required (lit/he),
by formula (page 93).

PROBLEMS:
1. A sprayer having a nozzle discharge of 650 ml/min can
cover 40 m long distance with 1.5 m swath width.
Calculate the amount of spray and time required for 5
hectares of land.

2. A sprayer having a nozzle discharge of 600 ml/min can

cover 50 m long distance covering a with of 1 mecer.
Calculate the amount of spray and number of runs
required per hectare.

44
STUDY GUIDE
 1. STUDY OF A MICROSCOPE

Microscope is an important instrument used in biological

A
sciences. To-day there is a vast range of microscopes available
the electronic microscope, to suit each and every
including
requirement of the scientists.
of
The main function of a microscope is to enlarge the image
to study the
an object with the help of lenses. This makes easier
and other characteristics
morphological, anatomical, histological
It also facilitates measuring sizes of smaller
of an objezt.
objects.
types of microscopes used by students in the
The common
microscopes.
field of entomology are the dissecting and binocular

of a microscope: A binocular microscope has

A. Parts
following parts (fig 1):

1. Eye piece
2. Eye tube
3. Focusing knob
4. Stage
5. Clips
6. Mirror
7. Base (stand)
8. Magnifying knob
9. Power body
10. Locking screw.

B. Care and handling of a microscope: Proper care and handling

to keep the microscope in sound working
is necessary
addition, it also increases life expectancy of a
condition. In
microscope. Pay attention to the following points:

1. Carry the microscope in an upright position, by putting one

hand.
hand on the handle and supporting the base with other
2. Avoid tarring suddenly.
3. Keep microscope free from dirt and dust.
4. Clean lenses with lens paper only.
5. Always use -lean glass slides with specimen on it.
6. Reflect the mirror towards the light source.
object in
7. Always start focusing with low power to bring the
gradually.
the objective field. Use higher magnifications
8. Clean the microscope after finishing your work.
it.
9. Store the microscope in a cabinet with a cover over

° j' l k '17
C. Use of stage and occular micrometers: Objects are measured
by using occular and stage micrometers. Calibration is done
for each magnification to determine the value of a division
of occular micrometer by measuring it with the known units
on the stage micrometer.
1. Stage micrometer: This is a glass slide in which one
millimeter scale is divided into 100 equal divisions and each
division measures 0.01 mm (10 microns).
2. Occular micrometer: This is a small glass disc which can be
fitted into an eye piece. It has a scale of one centimeter
long, divided into 100 equal parts and each division
meesures 0.1 mm (100 microns).

3. Calibration method:
i. Place the occular micrometer into the eye piece and the
stage micrometer on the microscopic stage.
ii. Focui the scale of both micrometers.
iii. Record the division of occular micrometer and stage
micrometer from the point of one coincidence to the next.
Repeat this process several times.
iv. Take the average of the occular and stage micrometer
readings separately.

4. Formula for calibration:

I = S/O x 10 microns.

where, I = Index of occular micrometer

S = Divisions of stage micrometer
0 = Divisions of occular micrometer
Multiply the length and width of a given object by this index.
Keep in mind to use the same magnification for calibration and
specimen measurement.

48
 2.INSECT COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION

Insect collection is an art. Some people collect insects as

a hobby while others make the collection as their profession.
They study the fascinating creatures in detail including their
identification, habits and habitat. The scientists who specialize
in this field are known as entomologists.
Insect collection is a rewarding hobby. It increases
knowledge of insect biology, ecology and their feeding habits.
Properly set, pinned, arranged and preserved collection has a
great scientific value.

A. Where to find insects?

Insects are found almost everywhere except deep down in the
oceans. Periodical visit to the following places and collection
will make you a good insect collector.

1. Plants: Look under the leaves, flowers and inside dead

branches. A large number of insects feed on grasses, various
crops, vegetables, fruits and forest trees.
Example: Butterflies, beetles, grasshoppers, whiteflies etc.

2. Soil: There are subterranean insects that live in the soil.

Some will be found inhabiting compost, mulch and plant
debris as well.
Example: Termites, cutworms, wireworms, crickets etc.

3. House and barn: Insects live in cracks and crevices under

boxes and dark corners (silverfish, house-crickets etc).
Storage grains have various coleopterian and a few lepidopterous
insects. Livestock also serves as a good host and harbour many
lice, flies and mosquitoes.

4. Light: At night insects are often seen hovering around

lights. Place a trap below a light and collect the insects.
Examples: Noctuid moths.

5. Water: Many insects live in ponds and streams. They are

known as aquatic insects. Collect them from the surface as
well as from the bottom of water.
Examples: Dragonflies, damselflies, water bugs, water beetles.

49
B. How to prepare a killing jar?
There are different types of insect killing jars.
Preparation of two common killing jars are given below:

Ethyl acetate killing jar (Fig. 2):

1. Keep 1.5 to 2.0 cm layer of dry sand or saw dust on the
bottom of a jar.
2. Pour over this, 1.0 to 1.5 cm thick layer of wet plaster of
paris and set it to dry.
3. Saturate it with ethyl acetate.
4. Label the jar "POISON'"
5. Place a filter paper on top of the dry plaster layer and use
it for killing insects.
6. Keep the cork or lid tight so that gas does not leak.
7. Recharge after 2-3 days.

2.Cyanide killing jar(Fig. 2):

1. Put approximately 5 - 10 gm of sodium cyanide on the bottom
of a wide mouth bottle with a tight cork or lid.
2. Cover the cyanide with 1.5 to 2.0 cm thick layer of saw dust.
3. Pour 1.0 to 1.5 cm layer of plaster of paris over the saw
dust.
4. Make small holes on the well set plaster of paris layer.
5. Put a filter paper on the top of the plaster layer.
6. Lebel the jar "POISON"
Though cyanide jar lasts longer than one with ethyl acetate,
it is more nazardous and should be avoided as far as possible.

C. How to pin insects?

Insects are usually pinned on the thorax. Use a pinning
block to maintain the proper height of an insect and labels on
the pins. Various pinning positions have been given in Fig. No. 3
for major insect orders.

i. Mesothorax(in between the two fore wings): For butterflies,

moths, mantids, cockroaches, flies, wasps, bees, etc.

2. Pronotum (posterior part): For grasshoppers, crickets, tree­

hoppers, leaf-hopppers, plant- hoppers, spittle bugs.

3. Scutellum: For all true bugs, pin slightly towards the rignt
of the middle line.

4. Elytron (right fore wing): For beetles and weevils. Pin on

the right elytron slightly cight of the straight line.

50
D. How to set insects?
Setting is necessary to get the specimen arranged in a neat
and attractive fashion as in case of butterflies, moths,
skippers, dragonflies and damselflies.

1. Pin insect in the groove of the spreading board.

2. Bring the fore- and hindwings forward (Fig. 4) and spread a
small stripe of paper over them. See that the inner margin
of forewing makes a right angle with long axis of the body.
3. Pin the paper on four corners.
4. Keep antennae and abdomen in proper position providing
supports with pins.
5. Sr ill ; (15 mm long, thin
insects are pinned with a minut ..
fine pin) and mounted on a piece of card, and the card is
itself mounted on a regular pin.
6. Insects too small to pin are mounted on a triangular piece of
card (3-4 mm base, 8-10 mm long). The insects are glued
properly near the tip of the card, and the card is set on a
regular pin.

E. How to preserve insects?

Adult insects after pinning and.setting, are dried and
preserved in collection boxes. A few naphthalene balls are kept
inside the boxes as repellent. Silica gel is also used to absorb
moisture inside the boxes thereby preventing fungal growth. One
should check the specimen regularly and these can also be dried
in the sun periodically.
Immatures are preserved in various types of solutions. Kill
them in hot water (put them for 3-4 minutes in boiling water) and
transfer in a small vial containing either 70-75% solution of
alcohol or 8-10% formalin solution.

51
 3. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF AN INSECT (GRASSHOPPER)

Insects are small animals. Adult insects possess

distinct three
body regions: head, thorax and abdomen; a pair of
antennae, three pairs of jointed-legs, usually a pair of
compound eyes and two pairs of wings, sometimes one pair and
rarely none.
External morphological study of insects is essential in
order to understand the body structures, their positions,
functions and coordination with other organs of the
insect body.
Insect classification (systematics) is mainly based on the
external morphology like wing structures, types of mouth parts
and metamorphosis.

Insect body regions:

A. Head - The first body region consisting of following parts:

1. Compound eyes: Two large shiny, oval eyes situated laterally
one on either side of the head.
2. Ocelli: Simple eyes located a little dorsomedially to
compound eyes.
3. Antennae: A pair of long segmented, thread like structures,
articulated to the head in front of compound eyes.
4. Mouth: Located on the ventral part of head; bearing many
appendages such as labrum, mandibles, maxillae and
labium.

B. Thorax - Second body region consisting of three segments­

pro-, meso- and metathorax.
1. Prothorax: It bears a pair of forelegs.
2. Mesothorax: This bears a pair of middle legs, forewings and
mesothoracic spiracles.
3. Metathorax: It bears a pair of hindlegs, hindwings and
metathoracic spiracles.

C. Abdomen - Third and largest region of insect body. It is

usually 11 segmented. Sex is easily distinguished by
abdominal appendages like external genitalia. Females have
comparatively larger abdomen with hook like projections at the
end (Fig. 5). The terminal portion of the male is hood-shaped.
Each abdominal segment ( I to VIII) has a pair of spiracles
located on the lateral sides.

52
 4. MOUTH PARTS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

Mouth parts and their appendages form very important organs

of
of an insect head. They are used in procurement and ingestion
with
food. Most insects feed on plants. We are mostly concerned of
those insects that are pests on agricultural crops. Nature
insect.
crop damage is related to the type of mouth parts of an
is one of the important aspects which
Thus, study of mouth parts to
and the steps to be taken
helps to identify the crop damage
prevent them.

In general, insects have the following mouth types:

A. Biting and chewing type (Fig. 6): This is a generalized

primitive mouth type . It is used for ingesting,
biting, chewing and swallowing of food. Examples : Grasshoppers,
cockroaches, crickets, caterpillars, grubs etc.

1. Labrum: It forms the roof of the the mouth cavity and is

known as the upper lip.
2. Mandibles: A pair of mandibles lies just below the labrum.
They have teeth like structures used for grinding
the food.
3. Maxillae: A pair of ma.illae lies below the mandibles. They
are used to catch, hold and also partly grind the
food.
4. Labium: It forms the floor of mouth cavity and known as
lower lip. It has feeler appendages known as
labial palpi.
5. Hypopharynx: This is tongue, and it lies in the buccal
cavity. It is supposed to be an organ of taste.

B. Piercing and sucking mouth type (Fig. 7): Insects having

this type of mouth parts suck the plant juice.
cotton
Such mouth parts are found in true bugs (bed bug, red
bug, rice earhepd bug) aphids, jassids, scale insects,
mosquitoes etc.

1. Labrum:A very small tapering or triangular lobe often

called labrum epipharynx.
long
2. Mandibles and maxillae: They are modified to form
slender bristle like stylets which pierce into the
one
plant or animal tissue. These stylets form two channels,
tissue
to inject the saliva, and the other to pump up the
fluid. also
3. Labium: It is modified into a 3-4 segmented long sheath like
called rostrum or beak, which holds the bristle
stylets.

53
 .. Chewing and lapping mouth
type: This type
of mouth parts are
used for taking solid and
pollen and nectar. Example: liquid food, such as
ioney bees.
I. Labrum and maxillae:
They are modified to form
cylinder or tongue. Galeae a long
a pair of blade like structures. are elongated to form
reduced and glossae elongated Paraglossae are greatly
which terminates distally to form a united hairy tongue
D. in honey spoon or labellum.
Sponging mouth type: The mokith parts ate modified
sucking up the liquid food. for
This type is found in
the houseflies.
1. Labrum and hypopharynx:
They form a long snout
structure which consists of like
2. Mandibles: Mandibles are absent. a food channel.
3. Maxillae: These are represented by
a pair of maxillary
palpi.
4. Labium: This is greatly
modified to form a proboscis
which
has:
i. Rostrum: A proximal cone like structure bearing
maxillary
ii. Haustellum: Middle portion palpi.
with a mid dorsal groove
serving as a food passage.
iii. Labellum: Distal oral disc.

E. Siphoning mouth type: This

is highly specialized for
up the juice from flowers. sucking
have this type of mouth parts. Moths and butterflies
1. Labrum and mandibles: They
2. Maxillae: are greatly reduced.
Maxillary palpi are rudimentary;
greatly elongated and joined galeae are
tube whi:h is coiled up under to form a long hollow
stretches up to -the basal the head. -his coiled tube
portion of flowers and sucks
the nectar. up
3. Labium: It is represented by large
hairy three segmented
labiab palpi and a very small
basal plate.

54
 5. ANTENNAE AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

All insects (except Protura) possess a pair of antennae. They are

sensory in function. Besides, antennae alsc are used as air
funnel for respiration in some water beetles.

An antenna consists of the following parts:

1. Scape: A basal segment bearing a notch proximally.
2. Pedicel: The second globular segment.
3. Flagellum: A chain of segments after pedicel.

Antennak are of several different types:

1. Filliform (thread-like): All segments are of nearly uniform
thickness and gradually reduce to distal end.
Example: Grasshoppers.
2. Moniliform (neckless-like): All segments are more or less
globose and constriction occurs between the segments.
Example: Termites.
3. Serrate (saw-like): Segments are more or less triangular
projecting in one direction.
Example: Click beetles, mango stem borers.
4. Clavate (club-like): Segments gradually enlarge in size
towards the tip and the last segment is almost
triangular in shape.
Example: Butterflies.
5. Capitate (knob-like): Last 2-3 segments enlarge abruptly
forming a knob like structure.
Example: Sap beetles.
6. Setaceous (bristle-like): Each segment becomes smaller and
smaller ending to a point.
Example: Cockroaches.
one
7. Pectinate (comb-like): Segments have long projections on
side and only in one direction forming a comb-like
structure.
Example: Fire-coloured beetle.
8. Bipectinate (feather-like): Segments have long projections
on both sides looking like a feather.
Example: Silk moth.
9. Flavellate (cobra-like): Terminal segment extends laterally
and enlarges forming like a head of a cobra.
Example: Cedar beetle.
10. Aristate (bearing arista): It has only 3 segments; the last
segment is longer and bears a bristle-like structure
called arista.
Example: Housefly.
11. Plumose: Segments produce bunch of hairs from each joint.
Example: Male mosquitoes.
12. Lamellate (leaf-like): Last three segments extend in one
side forming a leaf like structure.
Example: Dung beetle.
angle
13. Geniculate (elbow-like): Antennae bend abruptly at an
at the distal end of scape forming like a bent knee or
elbow.
Example: Ants, weevils.

55
 6. LEGS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS

Insects have three pairs of legs, one pair on each thoracic

segment (Fig. 4). Each leg consists of five segments (Fig. 9).
1. Coxa: A small basal segment which is attached freely with
the pleuron and sternum through the membrane.
2. Trochanter: A small segment with dicondylic articulation
with coxa and rigidly connected with femur.
3. Femur: The largest and the stoutest part of a leg.
4. Tibia: Long shank of a leg.
5. Tarsus: The last segment of a leg. In most insects, it is
subdivided into 2-5 tarsomeres. Pretarsus usually ends in a
pair of claws.
Insect legs are mcdified to perform various functions such
as running, jumping, digging, swimming etc.

Leg modifications:
1. Fossorial (Digging): The coxa is very large, tibia is strong
and tarsi with ventral pads, enCing in a pair of claws
which are used for digging purpose.
Example: Front legs of mole-cricket.
2. Natatorial (Swimming): Coxa is long, tibiae and tarsi bear
hairs and flattened to form a oar like structure for
swimming.
Example: Hind legs of water beetle.
3. Raptorial (Grasping): Coxa is elongated, femur and tibia
bear rows of spines. They help in catching the prey.
Example: Fore legs of mantids.
4. Saltatorial (Jumping): Hind femur is greatly enlarged. The
powe for jumping is provided by the sudden extension
of the hind tibia.
Example: Hind legs of'grasshopper.
5. Scansorial (Clinging): Tarsus is single segmented and
terminated into a powerful claw for clinging.
Example: Legs of body louse.
6. Cursorial (Walking and running): A typical insect leg
used for walking. It has five segmented tarsus, both
femur and tibia bear spines.
Example: Legs of cockroach.
7. Polleniferous (Pollen carrying): The femur and t'Lia are
provided with brush like hairs. A comb in tne inner
side of pretarsus is used for pollen collection. A
rake at the base of tibia is used for scrapping and
collecting pollen in the pollen basket.
Example: Honey bee (worker).

56
 7. WINGS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS
The meso­
Adult insects have qenerally two pairs of wings.
and the metathorax bears
thorax bears the first pair (forewings)
the second pair (hindwings). venation.
a wing is full of a network of
In general, of
network in wings
Venation ranges from extensively complex
system found in
dragonfiies to highly reduced and simplified
veins and cross
wasps. The veins are divided into longitudinal
veins (Fig. 10).

A. Longitudinal veins: B. Cross veins:

1. Costa (C) 1. Humeral (h)
2. Subcosta (Sc) 2. Radial (r)
3. Radius (R) 3. Sectorial (s)
4. Radial sector (Rs) 4. Radio-medial (r-m)
5. Media (M) 5. Medial (m)
6. Cubitus (Cu) 6. Medio-cubital (m-cu)
7. Cubito-anal (cu-a)
7. Anal (A)
however, there are
The primary function of wings is flight, used
these may be
several modifications of insect wings so that
for different purposes.

Wing modifications:
forming a
1. Elytron: Thickened, leathery and arched forewing
protective armour for membranous hindwing.
Example: Beetles.
2. Hemelytron: Partly thickened or hardened forewing with
distal portion membranous.
Example: Bugs.
margin of
2. Stigma: Thickened opaque spot along the costal
both pair of wings.
Example: Dragonflies and 1amselflies. and
3. Halter: Rudimentary; hindwing slender proximately
modified into a 9mall knob-like structure distally.
Example: Flies and mosquitoes.
or long hair.
4. Fringed: wing having well developed fringes
Example: Thrips.
5. Membranous: Thin, firm and more or less transparent wing.
Example: Dragonflies.
with scales or setae.
6. Scaly: Fore and hindwings are covered like pro-
This type of wings in moths have bristle hook on
(frenulum) in hindwing or a short
jection
posterior part of forewing (jugum) in butterflies.
Example: Butterflies and moths.
leathery forewing.
7. Tegmen: Parchment-like, thickened and
Example: Grasshoppers and cockroaches.
the anterior margin of
Note: Series of minute hooks present on Thickened opaque
hindwings of honeybees are called hamuli.
pairs of wings of
spot present on the costal margin of both
drangonflies and damselflies is known as stigma.

57
 8.INTERNAL ANATOMY OF AN INSECT

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM(Fig.l1):

Every cell in an insect body, regardless of its function,

requires some source of energy for its maintenance, and
synthesizing activities. For this it is necessary to take food,
digest the same and transport the nutrients to the individual
cells and throw out the undigested material (excreta).
The various parts associated to perform these processes are
the mouth-parts and the alimentary canal. Between these two,
there is a pair of salivary glands. The alimentary canal extends
from an anterior opening (mouth) to a posterior anus. It can be
divided into three distinct regions - foregut, midgut and
hindgut. The fore- and hindguts possess a chitinous lining.
Foregut - Mouth or buccal cavity is followed by pharynx and
oesophagus. Pharynx is an elaborate musculature concerned with
ingestion and deglutition of the food. Oesophagus is a simple
narrow tube leading to midgut, its hind part is symmetrically
dilated to form a crop. The crop serves as a temporary reservoir
for the food taken by the insect. The crop is followed by
muscular proventriculus often provided with a strong cuticular
plates or teeth for mixing the food.
Midgut - The most active part of alimentary canal, being
concerned with digestive and absortive functions. Opening ante­
riorly into midgut are 2 to 6 gastric caecae. At the junction of
midgut and hindgut are malpighian tubules - numerous fine long
tubes of yellow colour. They tunction as excretory organs.
Hindgut - It is differentiated into an anterior ileum;
middle narrow. curved intestine called colon and the terminal
enlarged portion - recturm, which bears six rectal pads and opens
posteriorly as anus. The undigested good material passes out
through anus.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM(Fig. 12):

The circulatory system in insects is rather different from

that of vertebrates and.many other invertebrates in that major
portion of the blood or haemolymph is not found within the
confines of a closed system of conductive vessels but instead
bathes the internal organs directly in the body cavity. Haemo­
lymph is a clear fluid, usually colourless or may have yellowish
or greenish tinge imparted by certain pigments. It carries nutri­
tive substance from the gut to the storage sites where these are
metabolized; it also takes the excretory materials te the
malpighian tubes.
The circulatory system comprises of a dorsal blood vessel
and blood communicating sinuses. The dorsal blood vessel lies
along the mid-dorsal body region and comprises of heart and
aorta. The heart is a long-chambered yellow tube with eight pairs
of lateral ostia. The aorta is a narrow tube, extending from
first abdominal segment to head.

58
NERVOUS SYSTEM(Fig. 11):
is the nerve
The basic functional unit of nervous system 50 microns in
45 to
cell or neuron - a thin-walled tube,
diameter. of a double
The central nervous system of an insect consists
and logitudinal
chain of ganglia connected by lateral
commonly called brain is
connections. The anterior most ganglion in the head. It
very complex and is located dorsal to foregut
and tritocerebrum. It
comprises of protocerebrum, deutocerebrum
and ventral nerve cord.
is followed by suboesophageal ganglion lying in I to V
There are 3 ganglia in thorax and 6 ganglia
behind. Each pair of
abdominal segments, the 6th one little ganglia by two
gangli a is connected with preceding and succeeding
posterior most or
longitudinal cords called connectives. The in the control of
caudal ganglion is intimately involved
copulation ind oviposition.

TRACHEAL SYSTEM (VENTILATORY SYSTEM) (Fig.12):

out carbon
The process of taking in oxygen and throwing
dioxide is known as respiration or ventilation. and some hymenop­
Except in a few insects like springtails
occurs through the
terous larvae where all gaseous exchange an elaborate system of
integument, it is accomplished by means of The intake of oxygen
branching tubules commonly called tracheae.
small lateral openings
is through paired, segmentally arranged thorax and 8 pairs on
known as spiracles - usually one pair on and ramify till their
abdomen. The tracheae divide, sub-divide
ultimate branches called tracheoles (0.1 to 0.2 micron in
further divide into
diameter) end in the tissues, where they
than 0.1 micron in
smaller, finer, capillaries that are less
diameter. trachea that
The spiracles lead into a short, spiracular visceral
;Iivides into a pair of dorsal tracheae,
subsequently on each side of
one lies
tracheae and ventral tracheae. The first canal while the
the heart, second one lies on the alimentarycord covering the
ventral pair lies under the ventral nerve
ventral musculature of legs.

59
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM(Fig, 11):
Reproduction in most insects is bisexual. The male repro­
ductive system functions in the production, storage and delivery
of spermatozoa while the female produces and stores eggs,
receives spermatozoa, is site of fertilization and lays eggs'.
The male reproductive system is located in the posterior
part of abdomen and consists of paired gonads (testes) ±eading to
lateral ducts called vasa deferentia. Each testis consists of a
number of sperm tubules or follicles called testicular follicles
which contain sperms or germ cells in various stages of
development. Each sperm tube leads to a vas efferens and these
vasa efferentia open into the vas deferens. The two vasa
deferentia unite to form median ejaculatory duct, terminal end of
this duct is enclosed in an i->tromittent organ called aedeagus or
penis. One to three pairs of accessory glands are usually
associated with the ejaculatory duct; these glands secrete the
seminal fluid.
The female reproductive system is also located in the
posterior part of abdomen and typically consists of paired gonads
or ovaries. Each ovary is composed of a number of ovarioles or
egg-tubes opening at their proximal ends into oviducts. Each
ovariole contains eggs in various stages of development. The
ovaries are connected by lateral oviducts to a common oviduct
that leads to bursa copulatrix or vagina, which opens to the
exterior and receives the penis during mating. There is usually a
single outpocketing from bursa copulatrix, called spermatheca in
which spermatozoa received from male are stcred prior to
fertilization.

60
 9. INSECT METAMORPHOSIS
in their
Insects go through different stages of development
In general,
life cycle and which is known as metamorphosis.
insects (Fig. 13,14):
there are 4 basic types of metamorphosis in

(No or simple metamorphosis): There are no

1. Ametabola
immatures except size and some
differences between adults and
internal developmental process.
insects.
Example: Apterygotes and secondarily apterygote
Stages: Egg - Young - Adult.
Adults differ from
2. Paurometabola (Gradual metamorphosis):
Immatures
immatures only in having fully developed wings.
gradually develop wings and become adults.
Example: cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers.
Stages: Egg - Nymph - Adults.

Hemimetabola (incomplete metamorphosis): The immatures are

3. from
They differ
aquatic and bear gills for breathing.
adults in appearance.
Example: Mayflies, Dragonflies, Damselflies.
Stages: Egg - Naiad - Adult.

Holometabola (complete metamorphosis): They are completely

4.
different from the above three types. There are four stages
of development. Larvae are worm-like and they do not have
a stage known
compound eyes. After last moult they turn into
as pupa.-Pupae do not eat and move.
etc.
Example: Butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, wasps, bees
Stages: Egg - Larva - Pupa - Adult.

61
 10. TYPES OF LARVAE AND PUPAE
Holometabolous insects have 4 stages of develoment from egg
to adult. The immature stage between egg and pupa is known as
larva, and the other one between larva and adult is called pupa.
The larvae are generally voracious feeders where as pupae do not
feed at all. There are various types of larvae and of pupae
(Fig. 15).

Types of larvae:
A. Polypod - They possess thoracic and abdominal legs (prolegs):
1. Pseudocaterpillar: Larvae having 3 pairs of thoracic legs
and 6 to 8 pairs of prolegs.
Example: Sawfly larvae.
2. Caterpillar: Besides 3 pairs of thoracic legs, they
possess 5 pairs of prolegs.
Example: Cabbage butterfly larvae.
3. Semilooper: Having 3 pairs of thoracic legs and 3 pairs of
prolegs.
Example: Cabbage semi-loopers.
4. Looper: They have 3 pairs of thoracic legs and only 2 pairs
of prolegs.
Example: inch-worm larvae.

B. Oligopod: Larvae that possess 3 pairs of thoracic legs.

1. Campodiform: Larvae are elongated, somewhat flattened and
legs are well developed.
Example: Lady bird beetle larvae.
2. Scarabaeidiform: Having short thoracic legs, and c-shaped
body. These larvae are known as grubs.
Example: White grubs.
3. Elateriform: Having elongated, cylindrical long body
with tough skin, popularly known as wireworms.
Example: Click beetle larvae.
C. Apodous: Larvae lacking thoracic legs and prolegs.
1. Acephalous: Head -greatly reduced. These larvae are
called maggot.i.
Example: Housefly maggots.
2. Hemicephalous: Head slightly reduced.
Example: Honey bee larvae.

Types of Pupae:
1. Exarate: Body appendages loosely attached or free.
Example: Bees, wa,.ps, beetles, etc.
2. Obtect: Body appendages firmly attached to the body.
Example: lemon butterfly pupa.
3. Coarctate: Pupa covered in a hardened exuyiae of the
last larval instar.
Example: Housefly pupa.

62
 11. LIFE CYCLE OF HONEY BEE
(Apis indica Fabricius)

cycle of honey bee is very informative to understand

Life
social behavior, communication and developmental aspects.
their
bees. Besides, they
Honey and wax are valuable products of honey
also help in pollination of various crops. Thus, it is necessary
to learn &"out bee colorny and their development.

Honey bees are holometabolous ipsects that have

Life cycle:
four different stages of development.

mating. She
Eggs: Queen starts laying three to four days after
Eggs are creamy white in
lays as many as 2G00 eggs in a day.
color and banana shaped. Eggs hatch in 3 days.

larvae: Known as grubs, they have no legs and eyes. All grubs
feed on 'royal jelly' for the first 3 days. There after,
workers and drones are given 'bee bread'. This stage remains
7 days for drone, 5 days for queen and worker.

with a
Pupae: On about 9th day, cells containing grubs are sealed
inside the sealed chamber. Grub
wax cap. Pupal stage passes
a thin silken cocoon around itself. This stage
secretes
lasts 8 days for queen, 13 days for worker, and 14 days for
drone.

They come out from the cell by making hole through the
Adults:
cap. They are differentiated into 3 different castes:

She is bigger in size than drones and workers. Queen is

Queen:
the only fertile female in a hive, hatched from fertile
Her grub stage is specially fed on royal jelly. Her
eggs.
duty is to lay eggs and regenerate the colony.

parthenogene-
Drones: They are intermediate in size.They develop
and
tically from the unfertilized eggs. They fertilize queen
sometimes also'regulate the temperature inside the hive.
may
out
Workers: They are the smallest members of the colony, coming
of fertile eggs, but unable to reproduce. Workers possess
various structures in their legs such as 2omb, pollen press,
and pollen basket. They perform various activities, like
of wax and comb foundation, cleaning of cells in
secretion
lays eggs, feeding the queen and grubs,
which queen
collecting pollen and nectar, producing honey, regulating
temperature and guarding hive against robber bees.

63
 12. MODERN BEE HIVE AND ITS PARTS

Honey bees live in a colony and produce valuable products

such as honey and wax. Knowing the value of
honey and wax, people
thought of domesticating the bees by rearing them
in artificial
be hives. The scientific way of bee keeping started
in 1851 with
the invention of modern bee hive by Lorerzo
L. Langstroth.
It is necessary to have an idea of modern bee hive for
better management of honey bees and thereby
insuring good honey
and wax production. A modern bee hive has following parts:

1. Base (stand): It protects the hive from moisture and

unnecessary wear and tear.

2. Floor stand: A basal lover of the hive with a bee entrance

in it. When new bee colony introduced in a hive, a thin
metal sheet with holes known as queen gate is provided
to prevent queen from going out.

3. Brood chamber: A rearing chamber where queen, workers and

drones live together. Frames (wooden bars) are provided
with proper spacing for the movement of queen
and workers
in each frame.

4. Queen excluder: A wire screen, metallic sheet or a thin

wooden plank with holes is placed between the super
and the
brood chamber to prevent the queen entering into
the super.
5. Super: A chamber similar to the brood chamber
but a little
short in height, placed on queen excluder. Only the workers
can reach into this chamber where they store
honey.
6. Inner cover: Upper base with holes on it for proper
ventilation and bee scape. It also serves as space for top
feeding.

7. Top cover: Thatchea roofed wooden block placed

on the inner
cover for protecting hive from sun and rain.

64
 13. LIFE CYCLE OF MULBERRY SILKWORM
(Bombyx mori Linnaeus)

Silk is a very valuable commodity. It has been used by royal

families and rich people from the ancient time. The best quality
is obtained, from the mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori
of silk
Linnaeus. This insect passes through a complete metamorphosis.
to be
The study of life cycle is very important in order
with its various stages of development so that proper
familiar
can be done during the larval instars, for
care and feeding
higher and better quality of cocoon production.

Life cycle:

Eggs: Female lays 300-400 eggs on mulberry leaves or artificially

prepared butter cups. Eggs are oval in shape and creamy
white in color. They hatch in 9-11 days. Proper temperature
and humidity should be maintained for good hatching.

Newly hatched larvae are black or dark

Larvae (caterpillars):
brown in color and become smoother and lighter during
different succeeding instars, There are five larval instars
two instars are known as young worms and rest
- first
instars are called grown up worms. Larvae after last
three
moult, raise their head and search a shelter for resting.
secrete silken thread and cover themselves. Larval
They
stage lasts for 18-24 days.
pupae
Pupae: This is the resting stage or inactive stage in which
covered in the silken cocoon. It lasts for 11-14
remain
days.

Adults come out by making a small hole through the

Adults:
cocoon. They do not eat during their short life span.

65
 14. LIFE CYCLE OF LAC INSECT
(Kerria lacca) (Kerr)

Lac is a recinous secretion of a tiny lac insect. It has

been used for various preparations such as surface coating,
mirror backing, printing drawing, hair liquers, gramophone
records, electric goods etc.
Life cycle study of a lac insect provides an information on
their developmental stages which could be very useful for ino­
culation, harvest and other management aspects.

Life cycle: This insect passes through a gradual metamorphosis

and has 3 different stages:

Eggs: Oviposition starts just after mating. Eggs are laid in

cells inside in crustation. A female lays 300-100 eggs and
dies soon after oviposition. Eggs start hatching within a
few hours.

Nymphs: They thrust hair like proboscis up to the phloem of host

plants and derive their nutrition. Once settled, they do
not move about. Nymphs have 3 moults. After first moult
they loose their antennae, legs and eyes. These appendages
are again developed after second moult. Nymphs are encaged
in their own secretion, and cell size increases with the
increase in the growth of lac insect. Nymphal stage lasts
for about two months.

Adults: A short time after emergence, mating takes place and

female continues laying eggs.

66
 15. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS

and
Carolus A. Linnaeus was the first tu name insect species
a simple classification. He also evovled the binomial
suggest
nomenclature to name the various identified organisms. Since tLen
have suggested various improvements and
so many taxonomists
So it is
naturally there have also been difference of opinions.
that tables of classification given by various
not surprising
differ from one another in many respects. At present
authors
there are as many as 32 Orders under class Insecta.
The Class Insecta is divided into 2 sub-clarses: APTERYGOTA
PTERYGOTA
or Ametabola (without wings and no metamorphosis) -3rd
(having wings and metamorphosis); the latter is
or Metabola
again splitted into two divisions, namely EXOPTERYGOTA or,
(nymphs having wing-pads and simple metamorphosis)
Hemimetabola
and ENDOPTERYGOTA or Holometabola (wings develop internally and
The most important Orders from
complete metamorphosis).
agricultural point of view are:

Apterygota 1. Thysanura (700 spp.): Silverfish

Exopterygota 2. Odonata (5000 spp.): oagonflies, damselfies
3. Orthoptera (25000 spp.): Grasshoppers, crickets
4. Isoptera (2100 spp.): Termites
5. Thysanoptera (4500 spp.): Thrips
6. Hemiptera (40000 spp.): True bugs
7. Homoptera (5000 spp.): Cicadas, aphids, jassids
Endopterygota 8. Coleoptera (290000 spp.): Beetles, weevils
9. Diptera (87000 spp.): Flies
10. Lepidoptera (125000 spp.): Moths, butterflies
11. Hymenoptera (120000 spp.): Ants, bees, wasps
12. Siphonaptera (1100 spp.): Fleas

1. THYSANURA: Primitive wingless insects having elongate body

and chewing type of mouth parts; antennae long
three tail-like appendages at the end of
and many segmented;
filament); body
abdomen ( a pair of cerci and a median caudal
Silver fish is a pest of books and papers.
covered with scales.

ODONATA: Mouth parts chewing, matamorphosis simple; nymphs

2.
aquatic. Adults have two pairs of elongate
and hindwings similar in
membranous, many-veined wings; forewings
shape (Damselflies) or hindwings broader at the base
size and
than fore wings (Dragonflies). Abdomen long and slender; compcund
occupying most of the head; antennae very short
eyes large,
male located
bristle-like and inconspicuous. Copulatory organs of
abdominal segment. Cerci present and in
on ventral side of 2nd
males, functioning as clasping organs during mating.

ORTHOPTERA: Mouth parts biting and chewing; metamorphosis

3.
simple. Antennae hair-like, many-jointed and
Forewings (tegmina) long, narrow, many-veined and
often long.
hindwings membranous, broad with many veins,
somewhat thickened;
when at rest folded fan-like under the forewings. Cerci present.
Grasshoppers, cockroaches, crickets, mantids.

67
4. ISOPTERA: Mouth parts chewing. Metamorphosis simple.
Small, soft-bodied and usually pale coloured.
Social insects with caste differentiation - workers, soldiers,
queen and the reproductive forms. Antennae short and thread­
like. Winged or wingless - winged forms with both pairs of Wings
membraneous and similar in size and shape. Termites are
polyphagous pests.

5. THYSANOPTERA: Mouth parts rasping and sucking type and

asymmetrical (right mandible reduced).
Metamorphosis intermediate between simple and complex. These are
slender, fragile insects, minute in size, 1 to 2 mm long; pale to
blackish in colour. All the four wings are long, narrow, heavily
fringed and having no veins. Thrips are polyphagous pests.

6. HEMIPTERA: Mouth parts piercing and sucking. Metamorphosis

simple. Beak generally arises from anterior part
of head. Forewings thickened at base, membranous at tip;
hindwings membranous and shorter than forewings. All true bugs.

7. HOMOPTERA: Mouth parts piercing and sucking. Metamorphosis

simple. Beak short and arises from hind part of
head. Forewings uniform in texture - membranous or thickened.
Aphids, cicadas, whitef'ies.

8. COLEOPTERA: Mouth parts chewing. Matamorphosis complete.

Forewings horny or leathery nearly always
meeting in a straight line down back and covering hind wings;
hind wings membranous, longer than fore wings and folded beneath
the forewings when not in use. Beetles and weevils.

9. DIPTERA: Mcuth parts sucking (rarely vestigial).

Matamorphosis complete. One pair of wings borne on
mesothorax; hindwings reduced to knob-like structures called
halters. Antennae short and inconspicuous. Compound eyes large,
sometimes meeting oii dorsal side of head. Houseflies.

10. LEPIDOPTERA: Mouth parts sucking, proboscis a coiled tube.

Metamorphosis complete. All four wings
membranous and covered with scales; antennae long, slender and
always knobbed in butterflies. Butterflies, moths and skippers.

11. HYMENOPTERA: Mouth parts chewing and lapping type.

Metamorphosis complete. Wings when present,
membranois with relatively few veins. Females with a ovipositor,
often loncer than body and sometimes modified into a sting. Bees,
ants, wasps and sawflies.

12. SIPHONNPTERA: Small wingless insects, generally less than 5

mm in length and living as ectoparasites on
birds and mammals. Body heavily sclerotized and laterally
flattened; antennae short and legs relatively long. Fleas.

68
 Classification of insect Orders

ORTHOPTERA(Fig. 23):
Wi,ngs well
Acrididae: Pronotum not prolonged over the abdomen.
developed. Tarsi 3-segmented. Short-horned grass­
they feed on various
hoppers (Locusts, rice grasshopper);
crops; locust may cause havocs.
broadly oval, somewhat convex;
Tettigoniidae: Forewings
spines; pronotum
prosternum with a pair of short
Long-horned grass­
as long as wide with two transverse grooves. and other crops.
hoppers; some are serious pests on rice, maize
Somewhat flattened insects; tarsi 3- segmented.
Gryllidae: long and feeler-
Ovipositor long and cylindrical; cerci
are serious pests.
like. Field-crickets and house-crickets
elongated. Mantids
Mantidae: Prothorax and front coxae greatlyinsects.
are the Predators i.e. beneficial
from above by
Blattidae: Body flattened and oval; head concealed slender.
pronotum; antennae very long and
Cockroaches are common household pests.

HEMIPTERA(Fig. 24):
6 mm long;
Cimicidae: Fiat, oval, reddish-brown bugs, 3 to vestigial.
3-segmented. Wings
antennae 4-segmented; tarsi
animals.
Bed bugs suck the blood of man and other
bright
Miridae: Small, eongated and oval in shape, soft-bodied, and
3-segmented
coloured bugs; beak 4-segmented, tarsi are major
forewings with a c aus. Leaf bugs or plant bugs; s.me
Dests of grapes, i, sorghum, and tea.
in
Tingidee: Small i:sects less than 5 mm in length and greyish
sculpturing;
colou; body and wings have reticulate triangular
pronotum has a
antennae and beak 4-segmented; bugs
absent. Lacewing
posterior extersion over scutellum. Ocelli
wild plants.
feed on foliage of number of economic and
elongate or oval
Lygaeidae: Medium sized, 8 to 12 mm long, white or black spots;
in shape, conspicuous by red
tarsi 3-segmented with a
antennae 4-segmented; ocelli present; Membranous
pad at base of each claw; rostrum 4-segmented.bugs are poly-
These
portion of forewings has only 4-5 veins. to cereals, cotton,
phagou pests causing serious damage
other insects.
groundnut, etc., a few are predaceous on
more
Pyrrhocoridae: Similar to Lygaeid bugs but no ocelli and
veins in membranous portion of hindwings;
black markings. Red cotton bug is
brightly coloured in red with
polyphagous pest of cotton, okra, etc.

69
 BLATTUDAEGIYA.

I MANTZDAL >

GRYC.LOTALPTDAE:

ri. 23. F'AMILIES OF ORTHOP1'ERA

70
 13GAUDAEPYRRROCC6RILD4C

CIMICIDAE

MIRIDAE IJIA

PENJTATOMIflAE

Pi~24.FAMILIES OF HEMIPTERA

71
 'Il
I

CICADIDAE MEMBRACII)AE CICADELUDAE

DELPHAtOLti APHIDIEDAE ALE'R.DIDAE

COCCIPAf
F'ig 23. FAMILIES OF HOMOPTERA

72
Coreidae: Medium to large size (over 10 mm in length), dull dark
coloured bugs; head narrower than pronotum; antennae
inserted well up on sides of head; rostrum 4-segmented;
bugs have
hind tibia dilated and leaf-like. These phytophagous fruits
rice,
been reported as pests of various crops including
and vegetables.
mm
Pentatomidae: Broadly oval and somewhat shield-shaped, over 6
in length and brightly coloured bugs; antennae 5­
with weak or no
segmented; scutellum large and triangular; tibia are mostly
Produce a disagreeable odour. Stink bugs
spines. insects.
on other
polyphagous pests, a few are also predaceous

HOMOPTERA(Fig. 25):
long; forewings
Cicadidae: Non-jumping large insects 30 to 50 mm the
membranous. Males have sound producing organs at
Cicadas are common in forests,
base of abdomen on ventral side.
where they lay eggs on trees by making long slits.
in length.
Membracidae: Small jumping insects 12 mm or less over
Pronotum conspicuously prolonged backwards
may be seen
abdomen. A large number of treehoppers and cowbugs
sucking the sap on tree trunks.

Cicadellidae: Small jumping insects, less than 10 mm long; body

are
usually tapering posteriorly. Rice leafhoppers
the most :ommon pests.
apical spur
Delphacidae: Small, short winged insects having largepest of rice.
on hind tibia. Planthoppers are serious
body and wings
Aleyrodidae: Minute, whitish insects, 2-3 mm long; nearly as long
covered with mealy powder. Hindwings
as forewirgs; the wings held horizontally over the body at rest.
common pests.
Cotton whitefly and citrus'whitefly are some of the
with
Aphididae: Soft-bodied, usually pear-shaped, 4 to 8 mm long
posterior end of abdomen.
a pair of cornicles near are
Both winged and wingless. Mustard aphid and green peach aphid
some of the serious pests.
insects.
Cocc..dae: Minite inconspicuous and highly specialized Antennae
Females are wingless, legless and sessile.
rostrum short; many
often atrophid; body segmentation obscure; have 10 to 25
species covered with wax or powdery coating. Males
Mouth parts in
segmented antennae and usually a pair of wings;
males atrophied. Mealy bugs and scale insects are polyphagous
pests; lac insect is beneficial.

73
 SCARAAEIC E LATERII04E C.ERAMBYCI DAE

CU.CULO14IDA CRYSOMELIrAE COCCI NEULLWAE

K
1 ' ­

41"
0
DERMETIDAC BRUCH IDAE

Fig.26. FAMILIES OF COLEOPTERA

74
COLEOPTERA(Fig. 26):
covered with scales
Dermestidae: Elongate to broadly oval; often
fitting in grooves
or hair; antennae short, clubbed
is a pest of stored grains.
below sides of pronotum. Khapra beetle
usually
Elateridae: Body elongate-narrow, somewhat flattened,
and rounded at ends; antennae
parallel-sided
corners of pronotum prolonged backwards into
serrate; posterior
tips. Click beetles
sharp points; forewings slightly pointed at
vegetation and dead wood.
and wireworms feed on decaying
convex
Coccinellidae: Small, broadly oval to nearly spherical,
flat ventrally. Head partly or
dorsally, nearly
Often brightly coloured; yellow,
completely concealed oy pronotum. and club­
red with black markings. Antennae short
orange or
and scale insects.
shaped. Predators on aphids, whiteflies
heavy and usually convex
Elongate-oval, short,
Scarabaeidae: mostly lamellate,
body; antennae s-11 segmented,
Chafer beetles are the major .csts of various
rarely flabellate.
crops.

and cylindrical. Eyes generally

Cerambycidae: Body elongate
arising in tlhe notch;
notched and antennae
as body. Mango stem
antennae always more than half as long
trees causing severe damage.
borers bore into stems of mango
eyes not notched;
Chrysomelidae: Body generally oval in shape;
as body. Red pumpkin
antennae less than half as long
are the worst pests of vegetables.
beetles and tortoise beetles
head concealed
Bruchidae: Egg-shaped body, broadened posteriorly; snout;
and prolonged into short broad
from above
or pectinate. Elytra
antennae clubbed but sometimes serrate
abdomen. Pulse beetles feed
short exposing tip of
always
exclusively on legume seeds.
into a well developed snout;
Curculionidae: Head prolonged
always elbowed; mouth
antennae clubbed Lnd nearly stem
Rice weevil, banana
parts small and partially hidden.
patato weevil are major pests.
weevil, mango weevil and sweet

DIPTERA(Fig. 27):

scales along veins and wing

Culicidae: Wings long and narrow with human beings and transmit
margins. Mosquitoes bite
malaria causinig organisms.
with long legsymoniliform
Cecidomyiidae: Minute delicate insectswing venation is greatly
antennae and legs.
cross veins absent. The gall
reduced to a few longitudinal veins;
midges have diverse habits; some are parasitic or predaceous on
gall midge, mango
aphids and coccids, many are phytophagous(rice
gall midge), and a few are saprophagus.

75
 V\

AGRAN IDAE ANTH OMYIIAE C1ULICP

Rk2. AIIE FDITR

1176
 flies;
Tabanidae: Stout bodied, medium sized (10 to 20 mm long)
eyes very large with
third antennal segment elongate; males
suck blood, while
golden-green or purple marks. Females
feed on nectar,
suture absent;
Syrphidae: Brightly coloured flies. Frontal single
antennae 3-segmented, flagellum usually with other
aphids and
enlarged segment. Many are predaceous on
Homoptera nymphs.
coloured. Wings
Tephretidae: Small to medium size, brightly are the most
usually spotted or banded. Fruitflies
common pests of a large number of fruits.

Agromyzidae: Small to minute flies, black or yellow in colour.

and
Their larvae mine the leaves. Pea leaf miner
pea stem fly are the major pests of vegetables.

Anthomyiidae: Small, elongated flies, atleast one pair of fronto-

orbital bristles bent upwards and with no dorso­
Sorghum shootfly
central bristles in anterior part of mesonotum.
is a serious pest of young sorghum plants.
bristles
Muscidae: Medium sized flies with fleshy proboscis and
a nuisance and vectors
on mesonotum. Houseflies are
and typhoid.
for several diseases of man including cholera
in colour with
Tachinidae: Small to medium sized, brown to black pteropleural
well developed hypopleural and
and abdomen covered with
bristles; prominent post-scutellum
bristles. These are endoparasites of various larvae and pupae,
hence beneficial.

LEPIDPTERA(Fig. 28):

Gelechiidae: Small sized moths; fore wings narrowly rounded or

pointed at apex; hind wings somewhat trapezoidal.the
leaf miner are
Potato tuber moth, pink bollworm and groundnut while
major pests of potato, cotton and groundnut respectively,
angournois grain moth attacks stored grains.
moths; fore wings
Tortricidae: Small, grey or brown coloured (Cu) in hind
rather square-tipped; Cubitus vein
roof-like over the
wings lacking; when at rest the wings are held etc.
body. Polyphagous pests of tea, cotton, castor,

Pyralidae: Small, delicate moths; fore wings elongated-

and hind
triangular with vein Cu appearing 4-branched
of larvae vary
wings usually broad and rounded. Feeding habitsbore inside the
greatly; some young ones feed on foliage then
a few are even
stems, others feed on roots or stored grains and
of pests like sugarcane
aquatic. This includes a large number
borers, rice borers, etc.

77
HESPER1IDAE PIERIDAE LYCAENI A E

NYMPHAL[DAE PAPILIONIDAE SPHINGIDAE

ARCTIIDAE NOCrUIDAE ToTRICIDAE

pyLIDAE SOMBYCIDAE GELECH1WDA

F? .8 FAMILIEG OF LEPIDOPTERA

78
Nymphalidae: Brightly coloured butterflies that have greatly
reduced fore legs which are non-functional and
generally folded on thorax; short tibia covered with long hairs.
Forewings relatively broad and triangular; hindwings with two
anal veins. The caterpillars of these beautiful butterflies. are
defoliators of castor, mango, and various flowering shrubs.

Lycaenidae: small delicate brightly coloured butterflies; upper

surface or wings being metallic blue or dark brown;
forelegs of males usually reduced and tarsal claws not forked;
tail-like delicate orolonqations on hindwings. This includes some
major pests of pulses and fruit trees.

Pieridae: Medium sized butterflies, white or yellow coloured

sometimes even oraage with balck spots. Forewings with
Cu 3-branched; hindwings with 2 anal veins; tarsal claws forked.
Caboage-butterfly larvae are major pest of cruciferous crops.

Papilionidae: Large and conspicuously coloured butterflies.

Forewings with vein Cu 4-branched; hingwings with
one anal vein and a tail-like prolongation. Lemon butterfly is
the most common and serious pest of Citrus spp.

Hesperiidae: Stout bodied, strong fliers. Ilead as wide as or

wider than thorax; antennae are widely separated at
the base and are apically prolonged beyond the club into a hook;
hind tibia with two pairs of spurs; wing-span less than 30 mm.
Rice skipper is a serious pest various economic crops.

Sphingidae: Proboscis and frenulum well developed and without

tympanal orgins; antennae thickened towards and
beyond middle but apically pointed and hooked. Forewings are
elonagate, outer margin being oblique. Death's head moth is a
remarkable species; it enters beehives and sucks the honey.

Noctuidae: Heavy-bodied moths; antennae not knobbed apically;

ocelli present; forewings somewhat narrowed, smoothly
scaled and with single complete anal vein; hindwings broadened
with large basal areole and without humeral veins; frenulum well
developed; wing spread 25 to 50 mm. These moths are nocturnal in
habit and attracted to light. Fruit sucking moths suck the juice
of various fruits including Citrus spp.

Saturniidae: Antennae variable and not dilated apically. Wings

scaled throughout; forewings with a single complete
anal vein and hindwings with one or two anal veins; much broader
than their fringe and wider than fore wings; frenulum vestigial
or absent. Wings-spread 25 to 150 mm. Tasar silkmoth and its
allied species yield silk, but there are some that feed on
foliage of various temperate fruit trees.

79
TENTHREDIDAE FORM~ICIDAE TRIC140GRAMMATDtAE

CRALCIDJflAE CYNIPIDAE ICHNEUMOWIDAE

BRACHONIDAE VESPJDAE API DAE

Fi§.29 F'AMILIES OF HYMr.ENOPTERA

80
HYMENOPTERA(Fig. 29):

Tenthredinidae: Antennae thread-like and 9-segmented. Forewings

with 1 or 2 marginal cells and without any inter­
costal veins. Eight pairs of abdominal legs in larvae of saw­
flies. Mustard sawfly is the most destructive pest of mustard,
radish, turnip, etc.

Formicidae: Antennae strongly elbowed. First abdominal segment

with a dorsal hump. Social insects - Queen and winged
males, and wingless workers. Ants are a real nuisance.

Trichogramflatidea: Tiny wasps (0.3 to 2.0 mm long); antennae less

than one mm long and 3- to 8-segmented. Tarsi
3-seimented. Forewings without closed cells. LarvaL are egg
parasites - Trichogramma minutum Riley is the most common.

Chalcididae: Small insects, 2 to 6 mm long, uniformily dark

coloured. Hind femora greatly enlarged; hind coxae
considerably larger than front coxae. Ovipositor usually short.
Larvae are egg-parasites of various insects.

Cynipidae: Small, black wasps, 3 to 8 mm long; antennae 11- to

16-segmented. Hindwings possess 2 or 3 nervures. Abdo­
men oval, shiny and somewhat compressed. Larvae cause small
galls on plants which serve as shelter and they feed in these
galls.

Ichneumonidae: Large, slender, black yellow or reddish-yellow

insects; antennae atleast half the body length,
having 16 or more segments. Two recurrent veins in forewing and
absence of anal lobe on hindwing. Larvae are internal parasites
mainly on immature stages of Lepidoptera but often parastize the
larvae of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera.

Braconidae: Small, stout-bodied insects, brownish or black in

colour. Forewings have one or none recurrent veins;
costal cell absent; ovipositor often very long. Larvae are common
internal or external parasites, primarily on larvae of
Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

Vespidae: Pronotum more or less triangular; antennae usually

thread-like, 12-segmented in females and 13-segmented
in males. First Jiscal cell in forewings half as long as wing.
Wings folded longitudinally at rest. Ovipositor apical and
functioning as a sting. Wasps - a few are predaceous upon other
insects.

Apidae: Body hairy, hairs branched or plumose. Three submarginal

cells in forewings; jugal lobe in hindwings shorter than
submedian cell, rarely lacking. Honey bees, besides producing
honey and wax, are valuable pollinators.

81
 Hierarchical system of classificaion
The largest biological unit is called Kingdom which
comprises of two divisions - Plant Kingdom and Animal Kingdom.
These are further divided into subdivisions called Phylla.
Insects and their immediate relatives belong to the phylum
Arthropoda (jointed-foot) and on further division the insects
come under class Hexapoda (six-legged). Classes are divided and
sub-divided into orders, suFer-families, families, sub-families,
genera and ultimately the species. This classification of insects
follows certain rules and regulations which are outlined in 'The
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature'.
Scientific names are written in Latin all over the world. A
species name consists of twc words - generic and specific. This
is known as 'binomial nomenclature' and was first suggested by
Caroles Linnaeus. These nafres are always printed in italics or
underlined. The scientific name is followed by name of the
scientist who first described and christened the species. This
name is not italicized or underscored.
Standard word-endings are used for certain taxa e.g., Order
names of winged insects usually end in -ptera (Hymenoptera),
super-family in -oidea (Apoidea), family in -idae (Apidae), sub­
family in -inae (Apinae) and tribe names end in -ini
(Xylocopini).

Hierarchy of generally accepted taxonomic catagories:

Kingdom: Animalia
Sub-kingdom: Metazoa
Division: Enterozoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Sub-phylum: Invertebrata
Class: Insecta (Hexapoda)
Sub-class: Pterygota
Division: Endopterygota
Order: Hymenoptera
Sub-order: Apocrita
Super-family: Apoidea
Family: Apidae
Sub-family: Apirae
Tribe: Xylocopini
Genus: Apis
Species: indica
Author: Fabricius
S.name: Apis indica Fabricius
Common name: Honey bee.

82
 16. PESTICIDES

the pests. These may

Pesticides are the chemicals that kill
herbicides, fungicides, ovicides,
be acaricides, insecticides,
ot checking the
rodenticides etc. The chemicals used for killing
Insecticides have been
insect population are called insecticides.
(200 BC) but their regular use dates
in use since time immemorial
against Colorado beetle on
back to 1865 when Paris green was used of
potato in USA. Till the discovery of insecticidal properties
the inorganic chemicals
DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane),
the field of pest-control.
and a few plant products dominated
BHC (benzene hexa-chloride)
With the discovery of -DT followed by
in 1941 the entire concept of insect control was revolutionized.
made
Durin: the last four decades phenomenal progress has been
with the addition of
in the development of synthetic insecticides synthetic
carbamates and more recently
organo-phosphates,
pyrtthroids.

Classification of insecticides
different ways.
Ins .cticides have been classified in sever.al in which the
action or manner
Earlier classification was based on three groups were
chemicals acted and killed the insect. Thus,
and fumigants. With
recognized - stomach poisons, contact poisons many of these
the advent of a larqe number of insecticides, difficult to
havini more than one mode of action, it became based on the
is
clissify them. So the present classification
chemical nature of the toxicants. - Inorganic and
Broadly, the insecticides fall in two groups calcium
Organic. Inorganic compounds include, lead arsenate,
arsenate, paris green, sodium fluosilicate etc. These are the
gradually removed
most persistant chemicals. Their residues are use for the last
no more in
by washing and weathering. These are
three decades. Botanicals
Organaic insecticides are further grouped into
Carbamates, Organo-chlorines, Organo-phosphates
(plant origin),
and Synthetic Pyrethroids. such as
Botanicals are thE toxicants derived from plants, These are
nicotine, pyrethrins, rotenone, ryaina etc.
these are non­
either stomach or contact poisons or both. Though of their low
persistant and very safe to use, but because in much use now­
not
efficacy in controlling the nests, these are
a-days. very much in
Carbamates are more potent insecticides and carbaryl
(Temik),
demand. Those commonly used are aldicarb is a non­
carbofuran (Furadan) and Zectron. Carbaryl
(Sevin), of pests
spectrum
specific insecticide effective against a wide organo-chlorines.
to
including those that have become resistant
poison and has longer residual
It acts as contact and stomach
effect than most of the or(;ano-phosphates. are
Org.no-chlorines or chlorinated hydrocarbons as these
decades. These
commonly known, have been in use for last four
aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, endosulfan,
include BHC, DDT,
endrin, heptachlor, toxaphene etc.

83
 Organo-phosphates are the most popular pesticides and
wide range of insecticides in the market. Some of these have a
diazinon(Basudin), are,
dichlorvos or DDVP(Nuvan), dimethoate(Rogor),
disulfoton (Disyston), fenitrothion (Folithion), malathion,
mevinphos (Phosdrin), monocrotophos(Nuvacron), parathion-ethyl
(Folidol), parathion-methyl(Metacid), phorate(Thimet),
-methyl(Metasystox), phosphamidon(Dimecron), quinalphosoxydemeton
(Ekalux)
and thiometon (Ekatin). These act mainly as conctact
poisons, though some are systemic and a few alse have and stomach
fumigant
action. All these are very effective against a large spectrum
insect species but except malathion and fenitrothion, of
others are
highly toxic and should be used with extra care.
Synthetic pyrethroids have come into market recently.
are all contact poisons having good knock-down effect, These
residual effect, long
low mammalian toxicity and minimum atmospheric
pollution. But these are not effective against sucking
hasten the maturity of crop which may not be desirable. pest and
commonly The
available products are, cyfloxylate (Baythroid),
cypermathrin (Ripcord), decamethrin (Decis), fenpropathrin
(Meothrin), fenvalerate (Sumicidon), flucythrinate (Pay-off),
fulvalinate (Mevrik) and permethrin (Ambush).
Due to the tremendous increase in use of pesticides
countries have expressed grave concern over the possible many
of effects
pesticide contamination on 'balance of nature'.
organo-chlorines and organo-phosphates have been reported The
posing
a potential threat to all types of ecosystem.

Note: Names in parenthesis are trade names.

Dilution of pesticides
Pesticides are available in the market "n various
formulations, such as dusts, wettable powde.s (or water
dispersible powders), emulsifiable concentrates, granules and so
on. Usually the emulsifiable concentrates and wettable
contain high concentrations of the active ingredients. powders
therefore necessary to .dilute these formulations at it is
time of
application.
Pesticides are generally recomr .- ed as:
1. The active ingredient (a.i.) pL area
2. Percentage of active ingree, ' final spray
solution or mixture.
The following formulae and examples will illustrate these
points:
1. Pesticide recommendation based on active ingrediont
(a.i.)
per unit area.

Formula:
Area to be treated (ha) X Amount
a.i.(kg/ha)
Amount of pesticide ------------------ -------.------.---------
X100
(litre or kg) Concentration of the formulation
(a.i. in the formulation)

84
Example 1: for the
Malathion is recommended at the rate of 2 kg a i./ha
Calculate the amount of Cythion
control of armyworm in maize. is the trade name of
(50% EC) required for 5 ha (cythion
malathion).
5X2
EC) =--------- x 100 = 20 litres
of cythion (50%
Amount
be 1).
of Cytiion is assumed to
or 20 kg (The specific gravitY

1 k9 a i./ha of Furadan
Example 2: on rice,of 1a for 15
To control the stem borers Furadan (3% Gr)
the amount
is recommended. Calculate
ha. - 15 X 1 x 10
------- 5 0 kg
Amount of Furadan 3% G (kg) 3

ingredient
based on % of the actiJe
2. pesticide recommendation
in the final spray mixture
Concentration, of volume of spray
Formula:
spray mixture x needed
id e n ............................ formulation
Amount of pestic Concentration of the pesticide
(litres or kg) (a.i. of the product)
00%mty-aaho
Example 1: 0.05% methylparathion
For the control of rice L: rhead bug,
Calculate the amount of Metacid (50% EC) for 600
is recommended. is the trade name of methyl-parathion).
litres of water (Metacid 0.6 litre
.05 50­ -
(50% EC4 50
Amount of Metacid

Example 2: 0.2%
withlitres carbarY)-. Calculate
(Sevin is
jassids are ccatrolled
for 600 of water
cotton (50% WP)
the amount of Sevin 0.2 X 600
the trade name of carbaryl). . .... .
--..
(50% WP)
Amount of Sevin 50

85
Dilution of concentrated dust formulations:
Quite often dusts are formulated in high concentrations for
the ease of transportation. They need to be diluted before
application using innert materials such as talcum powder or fine
clay dust. The following square method can be very, easiLyused
for diluting concentrated dust formulations.

Original concentration Parts of original

of dust% ------------------------- concentrated dust

Desired
concentration

Diluent (innett Parts of diluent

material) % (innert material)

Example:
For the control of rice earhead bug, 5% BHC dust is
recomme~ided. But only 50% BHC dust is available in the market.
Now you have to dilute it to 5% dust with some diluent. Calculate
the proportion of 50% BHC dust and the innert diluent in the
final product (i.e.5% BHC dust).
Here, Original concentration of BHC dust = 50%
Concentration of innert diluent = 0%
Desired concentration of the final prodact = 5%
Now, put these figures on the square as below:

(BHC) 50 ------------------------- 5 (BHC 50 %

(Diluent) 0 ------------------------- 45 (Diluent)

Subtract the central figure (in this case, 5 ) diagonally.
Now, the numbers on the right hand side corners of the square (5
and 45) show the proportions of the respective materials, i.e. 5
parts of 50 % BHC and 45 parts of diluent to make a total of 50
parts the desired product, that is 5 % BHC.
A

86
 17. PESTICIDES APPLIANCES
sprayer.
ATOMISER (Fig. 30): This is the smallest and simplest
container with a
There is tin, plastic or glass
of less than half litre. It is fitted with a small
capacity "nward stroke
by hand. With each
nozzle and a pump to be operated through the nizzle in fine
of the pump, the fluid is discharged it is used only in
droplets. The spraying is not continuous and
laboratories, glasshouses and houses.
action sprayer.
HAND SPRAYER (Fig. 30): This is a small single
litre. After filling
Capacity of the tank is about one of the pump-piston to
strokes
the three-fourth of tank, give 8-10 lever and the nozzle gives you
L iild up the pressure. Press the
Good for kitchen-gardens and
a continuous fine mist spray.
laboratories or glas3-house work.
SPRAYER (Fig. 30): This consists of non-pressurized
KNAPSACK fitted by its side.
tank with a hand pump ,'piston-type)or even 20 liters.
6 to 16
The capacity of tank varies betweentank which is then discharged
The pump sucks the solution fvora
to the delivery pipe. It
through the lance and nozzles attached in position by means of two
is carried on the back and held(right) and pump with the other
straps. Hold lance in one hand in one day.
hand (left). One man can spray about half a hectare
the single nozzle can be
In case of young crop or seedlings 4
or even by a cluster of 3 to
replaced by a double nozzle one hectare in a day. This
nozzles and then a person can spray dispersible or wettable powder
sprayer is good for spraying water
formulations of various pesticides.
30): This in an improved knapsack
HAND COMPRESSION SPRAYER (Fig. fitted in the
sprayer. There is a vertical hand-pump
of brass with a variable
tank. The cylindrical tank is usually
filled three-fourth with spraying
capacity upto 20 liters. It is air is compressed. Then it
solution and in top one-third portion the lance in one hand, it is
is taken on the back and holding one
spray about half a hectare in
quite easy and comfortable to is not suitable for
this sprayer
day. The only draw-back is that powders, as there is no
using wettable or water dispersiblesprayer.
this
agitating mechanism provided in
The
FOOT SPRAYER (Fig. 30): There is no tank in this sprayer.
and a pedal is attached to
pump is fitted on an iron stand pipe (with strainer) fitted
the plunger rod. There is a suction the
at the lower end which is dropped into the bucket containing
a long delivery
spray material. At the other end of the pump is on the pedal
Keep a foot
pipe fitted with a lance and a nozzle. up again. With each
it, to come
and press it down then release is sucked up
the spray solution
upward movement of the pedal, of the pedal,
the downward motion
into the pump chamber and with
At least 2 persons are required, one
the solution is discharged. and spray. Two more persons may
to pedal and other to hold lanceprepare spray solution. They can
be kept to fetch the water and
in one day.
easily spray about 2 hectares

87
 HAND SPRA~YER

HAND CONTINUOUS SPRAYER

HAND COI'WRESSTON
SPRAYEtR nKIJAPSACK SPRAYER

FOOT ROCKING SPRAYER

SPRAYER

, , MOTORISED MIST
BACK PACK BLOWER CUM DUSTER

Fig,3o. PESTICIDE APPLIANCES

88
ROCKER SPRAYER (Fig. 30): The principle is same as in pedal
sprayer. In this, inscead of pedal there is a long
handle to be moved to and fro with hand. The pump along with
brass chamber is fitted on a wooden board. The rocking movement,
sucks the solution through suction hose and releases it through
the delivery pipe as in case of pedal sprayer. Usefulnegs and
man-power requirement is also same. It is only matter of choice,
whether one wishes to pump with hand or foot. This is cheaper
than pedal sprayer, but pedal sprayer is more popular.

MIST BLOWER (Fig. 30): This is a power-operated gaseous-energy

knapsack sprayer which can be used for dusting as well
as spraying. The hopper or tank is made of high-density poly­
ethylene and has a capacity of 8 to 12 litres. Another small tank
of one to two litres capacity is provided for fuel. The engine is
generally 1.25 to 2.5 H.P. and is mounted on a frame with rubber
packings to prevent the communication of vibrations of the engine
to the person carrying it. There is a wide bore hose connected
with the blower outlet; this is fitted with a cut-off cork. A
drain-out pipe for the dust or a nozzle (with delivery tube) for
spraying can be fitted to this hose connecting it with the hopper
and the blower used for dusting or spraying. This is a low
volume sprayer. Spray liquid is blown out by an air current
generated in the machine. Due to high pressure droplets size is
very small ranging from 50 to 150 microns which easily stick to
the plant surface and there is no run-off losses of chemical.
Moreover, the water requirement is also less than half than
required for conventional sprayings. A person can treat about 3
hectares in one day.

DUSTING GUN (Fig. 31): A very simple type cf plunger pump. The
body is cylindrical, 45 to 60 cm long and 7 to 9 cm in
diameter, made of some light metal or tin. The out-stroke of the
pump sucks-in the air which passes into the duster chamber and
the in-stroke causes the dust to blow out through the discharge
outlet. Good for kitchen-gardens, nurseries and house-hold pests.

ORIENT HAND DUSTER (Fig. 31): This is a complicated appliance.

The metallic dust container or hopper is connected to a
blower (fan) through a suction pipe. It is provided with an
agitator and a feeder. It is carried on shoulder by means of a
strong strap. Hold the discharge tube in one hand (left) and
rotate the crank-handle with the other hand (right). There will
be continuous discharge of the dust. The quantity of dust
discharge can also be adjusted. Though works very satisfactory,
it is clumsy to carry and is therefore not so popular. A person
can dust about a hectare in one day.

SOIL-INJECTOR (Fig.31): A hand pump also known as soil injecting

gun. It has a long, pointed, metallic, hollow tube on
one side. This rod has several openings. It ks pushed into the
soil to a depth of 12 to 15 cm and then the soil fumigant
contained in the body of the pump is pumped into the soil. It is
generally used for soil fumigation with volatile liquids like
carbon disulphide, DD, EDB, etc. against nematode.

89
 SEED DRE.sJ DRUM

PLLJKJGER ROTATARY
DUSTER DSE

.SOIL FUMIGAN~T CYNOGAS

INJECTOR PUMP FLAME GUN

Fi. .,.. PESTICIDE APPLIANCES

90
CYNOGAS FOOT-PUMP:(Fig 31): Another plunger type pump for
dusting the rat burrows. It has cylindrical brass body
40 to 50 cm long and 8 to 12 cm in diameter fitted with air pump
on one side, glass or plastic container (dust chamber) on other
side and a discharge tube (rubber hose) fitted with a valve.
Working principle is same as that of dusting gun. When punjped
into rat-burrows, calcium cyanide comes in contact with soil­
moisture and liberates HCN gas which kills rats inside.

FLAME THROWER (Fig. 31): A knapsack type sprayer where the lance
is fitted with a burner. The tank is filled with
kerosene oil and compressed air. The burner is heated and oil
allowed to flow through it, resulting in flames which are shot
out. Used for killing locusts.

SEED-DRESSING DRUM (Fig. 31): A metallic drum of varying

capacity (maximum 50 kg) is horizontally
mounted (tilted slightly) on a stand. There are 3-4 iron-blades
(baffles) fixed at the right angles to the inner surface of the
drum which help in thorough mixing of the pesticide with seeds.
The drum is rotated manually by means of a handle fitted at one
end. Seed materials to be treated are put inside the drum along
with appropriate quantity of chemicals with which the seed is to
be treated. The drum is then rotatedt 30 - 40 rotation (about 2
minutes) are enough to get the seed material uniformly coated
with the chemical.

Calibration of a sprayer

Sprayer calibration is done to avoid excess or less amount

of pesticide or to have an exact amount of spray liquid per unit
area.
Every time before using a sprayer in field, calibration
should be checked against manufacturer's data. If the data are not
available, the sprayer should be calibrated to determine the
spray amount at desired rate.
There are four factors governing the rate of delivery:
1. Swath width
2. Operator's speed
3. Size of nozzle aperature (orifice)
4. Air pressure.
Take a sprayer and clean it thoroughly. Fill the tank with
water and check it if any leakage is there. Provide required
pressure and measure the followings:
1. Swath width (m)
2. Operator's speed (m/min)
3. Liquid discharged (ml/min).

Formula:
Amount spray required lit/ha = x/y X 10000

Where- x = spray amount over y area (ml)

y = swath width (m) x length of run (m/min)
1 ha = 10000 sq. meters

91
Example 1: A hand compression sprayer has a nozzle discharge of
1000 ml/min. Find out the amount of spray required/ha at a
walking speed of 25 m/min with a swath width of 1 m.

Solution:
swath width = 1 m
length of run = 25 m /min
nozzle discharge = 1000 ml/min = 1 lit/min
Area of spray 1 m = m x 30 m = 25 m2 (y)
Amount of spray over y area = 1 lit (x)
Therefore, amount of spray req/ha = x/y X 10000
- 1/25 X 1000 = 400 litres

Example 2:
In the above example, calculate the number of run and
time required to spray a hectare of land.
25 m2 requires 1 run
1 run X 10000 m2
Therefore, 10000 m2 will require ---------------- = 400 runs.
25 m2
and because, 1 run requires 1 minute,
1 min X 400
400 runs will require ----------- = 6 hrs. 40 min.
60

Parts of a hand compression sprayer

Hand compression sprayer is very popular in Nepal for the

simple reason that it requires only one man to handle and do the
spraying . It is quits robust and can withstand rough handling.
The sprayer has following parts:

1. Tank: This is cylindrical in shape, usually made of brass and

is used for holding the spray solution and compressed
air. The size and capacity varies from 6 to 20 litres.

2. Vertical air pump: This comprises of a barrel which is a

hollow tube fitted with a plunger shaft on upper
side and an air-checkc valve assembly at its bottom. This
assemblage comprises of a gasket washer, spring retainer, spring,
valve case and air- check valve. The plunger shaft is an iron rod
about one coi in diameter having a handle on the top end and a
plunger bucket assemblage at the other end inside the barrel. The
handle is provided with a locking device to prevent its vertical
movement when the pump is not in use.

3. Discharge tube: This is a metallic tube about one mm thick,

fitted in the tank to facilitate the spray solution
to come out of the tank. At the free end inside the tank, it is
fitted with a strziner. This tube with strainer should extend
upto within 1.5 cm from the bottom of the tank.

92
4. Filler-cap:The sprayer has on the top of tank a hole called
filler-hole for filling the spray solution in
the tank. This hole is covered tightly by a lid called filler-cap
or filler-hole-cap. It is fitted with a suitable oil and chemical
resistant washer, so that when closed the tank becomes air-tight.

5. Delivery hose:A rubber, plastic or nylon pipe whose one end

is fitted on discharge tube outlet and the
hose
other on cut-off cock using hose couplings and clumps. The the
being flexible can be turned in any direction to facilitate
spraying.

6. Cut-offcock: A small device usually made of brass, to

regulate the flow of the spray fluid. This is
a
usually spring-activated (trigger control) and is fitted with
the
valve inside. The spraying solution comes out only when
trigger is pressed.
with
7. Spray lance: It is a small brass pipe, 50 to 90 cm long, a
screw-thread mechanism on both sides. Usually
on the other
cut-off device is fitted on one side and a nozzle 6 mm
side. A good lance should have a diameter of not less than
and thickness of 0.6 mm.

8. Nozzle:This is a small accessory, usually cone-shaped and

made of brass. It comprises of nozzle body,
washer, swirl plate and the
strainer, disc or orifice plate,
of spray fluid received
cap. When in use, it breaks up the stream through
from the lance and releases a fine mist of spray droplets
the hole at its tip.

9. Pressure gauge:Some sprayers are fitted with pressure gauge

on top of the tank. It is a sort of meter
indicating the air pressure inside the tank. Normally a pressure
drops
of 3 to 4 kg per sq cm is good enough for spraying; if it
down, repumping may be done.

10. Stand:There is usually a 5 cm wide metallic (brass) or

plastic skirt or band around the bottom of the tank
to protect it from excdssive wear and tear. It also serves as a
stand when the sprayer is kept on the ground.
4
11. Straps: These are usually of mould-proof canvas belt about
to 6 cm wide with provision for quick adjustment of
their length.
Care and maintenance of equipment

It is always necessary to keep the plant protection

appliances neat, clean, dry and properly lubricated. This
well as
increases the life expectancy of the machines as
facilitates their smooth working. Pay attention to the following
points:

93
A. Before using:
1. Read the manufacturer's instructions carefully and follow the
same faithfully.
2. The operator shculc endeavour to familiarize himself with the
mechanism and working of the duster or sprayer, he is using.
3. Always keep an extra stock of washers and some spare parts
that are usually easily worn out.
4. Have a tool kit handy.
5. Before taking the equipment to the field, check it thoroughly
for any leakage, worn out washers or loose nuts. Better try
spraying with w ter for a minute or two.
6. In order to apply the correct dose of insecticide per unit
area the sprayer or duster should be properly calibrated.
7. The spray fluids should be thoroughly mixed and strained
before putting in the tank. The dust must be dry and
preferably sieved.
9. Only those formulations should be applied with a
duster/sprayer, for which it is designed.

B. During usage:

1. See that air passage of the duster is not clogged with mud or
soil.
2. Watch Nozzles for any inconsistency in the spray pattern, as
also the blockage and leakage.
3. Keep an eye on pressure-guage to ensure that the minimum
required pressure is maintained.
4. When changing from one insecticide to other, the machine
should be thoroughly cleaned. In case of spLayer flush it
with water.
5. Delivery hose should not be bent or twisted while in use.

C. After use:

1. Empty the tank or hopper and clean it thoroughly.

2. Clean the machine. In case of duster, give a few turns with
empty hopper to drive away all the dust etc. from the delivery
pipe. For sprayers, spray with water for a minute or two, to
remove the insecticides, if any, lying in the delivery pipe,
lance or nozzle.
3. Store the equipment in a dry place.
4. Clean the equipment from time to timne to keep it free of dust
and dirt.
5. Do not leave lance and nozzles on bare ground.
6. If and when necessary, grease the plunger rods, washers, valves
etc.
7. Overhaul the appliances regularly and replace immediately the
worn-out parts. Specially at the end of season, inspect and
examine all the wearing-parts like nozzles, pumps, valves
washers, as also hose pipes. It is desirable to arrange the
necessary replacement during the off-season to avoid
inconvenience and delay when an equipment is required for use.

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 SELECTED READINGS

1. BLAND, R.G. & H.E. JAQUES, 1978. How to Know the Insects.
W.C. Brown Co., Publishers, Iowa, USA.

2. BORROR, D.J., D.M. DELONG & C.A. TRIPLEHORN, 1975. An

Introduction to Study of Insects. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York.

3. ELZINGA, R.J., 1978. Fundamentals of Entomology. Prentice

Hall of India, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

4. ICAR., 1980. Handbook of Agriculture. Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

5. METCALF, C.L., W.P. FLIVT & R.L. METCALF, 1962. Destructive

and Useful Insects. Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.,
New York.

6. NAYYAR, K.K., T.N. ANATHAKRISHNAN & B.V. DAVID, 1979.

General and Applied Entomology. Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.

7. NEUPANE, V.P., 1981. Bali Biruwa ka Satruhardu ra Tinka

Roktham. Sajha Publishers, Kathmandu.

8. RICHARDS, O.W. & R.G. DAVIES, 1977. Imms' General Textbook

of Entomology. Chapman and Hall, London.

9. ROMOSER, W.S., 1981. Science of Entomology. Macmillan Pub.

Co. Inc., New York.
10. WIGGLESWORTH, V.B., 1971. Insect Physiology. Mathuen & Co.
Ltd., London.
11. WORTHING, C.R. & S.B. WALKER, 1983. Pesticidal Manual.
Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Slugh (U.K.).

95