Forensic

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POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
Criminalistics - is the forensic science of analyzing and interpreting evidence using the natural
sciences. Forensic science pertains to all sciences applied to legal problems. It is the application
of scientific techniques in collecting and analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases.
Hans Gross - (1847-1915) An Austrian criminalist who in 1891 first used the term criminalistics.
Father of forensic publications/ Father of Criminalistics. Wrote the book on applying all the
different science disciplines to the field of criminal investigation.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - sci-fi author in late 1800. Popularized scientific crime detection
methods through his fictional character "Sherlocke Holmes".
Mathiew Orfila - (1787-1853) father of toxicology. Wrote about the detection of poisons and
their effects on animals.
Alphonse Bertillon - (1853-1914) father of anthropometry. Developed a system to distinguish

one individual person from another based on certain body requirements.
Francis Galton - (1822-1911) father of fingerprinting. Developed fingerprinting as a way to

uniquely identify individuals.
Leone Lattes - (1887-1954) father of blood stain identification. He developed a procedure for
determining the blood type (A,B,AB or O) of a dried stain.
Calvin Goddard - 1891-1955) father of ballistics.Developed the technique to examine bullets

using a comparison microscope to determine whether or not a particular gun fired the bullets.
Albert Osborn - (1858-1946) father of document examination. His work led to the acceptance of
documents as scientific evidence by the courts.
Walter McCrone - (1916-1915) father of microscopic forensics. he developed and applied his
microscopic techniques to examine evidence in countless court cases.
Edmond Locard - (1877-1966) father of the crime lab. In 1910, he started the first crime lab in
an attic of a police station. Founded the institute of criminalistics in France. His most important
contribution was the "Locards Exchange Principle".
Personalities in Photography
1. Joseph Nicéphore Niépce: Heliography – writing of the sun.

2. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre: Daguerreotype – photograph on a silver or a silver-covered
copper plate; positive image. Fixation is permanent by hypo.
3. William Henry Fox Talbot: Calotype – paper negative with light sensitive compounds on the
surface. Fixation is partial.
4. John Frederick William Herschel: Coined photography. Applied terms negative and positive to
photography.
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5. Frederick Scott Archer: Collodion process – preceded the modern gelatin emulsion.
6. Richard Leach Maddox: Lightweight gelatin negative plates
7. George Eastman: Eastman Kodak Company & roll of film
8. Alhazen: Described camera obscura.
9. JM Petzval: Designed the first lens specifically for photographic use.
10. Geronimo Cardano: Fitted a biconvex to the camera obscura.
11. Thomas Sutton: Patented the first single-lens reflex.
12. Vioglander: Produced a lens for the use in the first all-metal unitized camera.
13. Daniel Batbaro: Suggested the use of diaphragm to sharpen the image.
14. Edwin H. Land: Introduced “Polaroid” – one-step photography
15. James Clark Maxwell: Color photography
16. Odelbrecht: 1st advocate in use of photography for (1) ID of criminals, & (2) documentation of
(a) evidence & (b) crime scenes
17. Alphonse Bertillon: Utilized photography as part of his system of identification
18. Victor Balthazard: Used photographic enlargements of bullets & cartridge cases to determine
weapon type & was among first to attempt to individualize bullet to weapon
19. Archibald Rudolph Reiss: Suggested use of photography in forensic science and establish
world’s earliest laboratory in Switzerland.
Definition of Terms
1. Etymological/Literal: To write with light. Gr. Phos – light & Graphia – write
2. Modern Definition: Reproduction of images: light, sensitized materials, camera and its
accessories, and the chemical processes.
3. Technical/Legal: Chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images of scenes, or
objects thru XUVI.
4. Police Photography: Photography applied to police work.
5. Forensic Photography: Documenting crime scene & evidence for laboratory examination and
court trial.
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means
“light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John
F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox
Talbot.
Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the
chemical process required in order to produced a photograph
2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place”
where people gathered for public discussion.
When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the

administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal.
3. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to

the police work and in the administration of justice.
4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and

photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds of
formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product of photography.
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B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Personal Identification
Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is
police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in
police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.
2. For Communication
Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication
considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph.
3. For Record Purposes
= Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.
Different Views in photographing

a. General View
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction
and location of the crime scene.
b. Medium View
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into
section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.
c. Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the
crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.
d. Extreme Close-up View
= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some
magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.
4. For Preservation
Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation
purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through
photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.
5. For Discovering and Proving

Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification
 Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object
through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to
show a minute details of the physical evidence.
 Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small
object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
 Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a
scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.
 Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
 Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with
the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.
b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to

show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.
6. For Court Exhibits

Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they
satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency.
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A question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and
its relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the
evidence giving reference as to where it came from.
Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3
etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.
7. Crime Prevention
with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic
equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing
them from initially occurring.
8. Police Training
Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police
training as well as in other agencies.
9. Reproducing and Copying

With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be
made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other
experts or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.
C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed
of 186, 000 miles per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light
coming from the object to form the image.
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is
capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with
some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form
so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called
Photograph.
D. THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)

It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we observe a
piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will
make the log move up and down.
2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)
this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of
very small particles such as electrons.
3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)
Based on electromagnetics.
All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement
need not to be very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that
light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in form.
E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION
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Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per second.
Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and
frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second.
Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of
wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is the units
of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the Angstrom
is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a
millimeter.
Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected,
Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.
Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through
its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either
bouncing or passing through.
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a
mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass
prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red,
orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also
said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.
Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we begin with the electromagnetic
spectrum which is basically a grouping of all electromagnetic radiation arranged according to the
amount of energy contained in the radiation.
Visible light is a part of this electromagnetic spectrum that creates the sensation of light
when it falls on the human eye.
The properties of all electromagnetic radiation can be described by three inter-related

terms. These are wavelength, frequency and energy. Since light is a part of this spectrum, it too
can be described by these terms. Hence, it is important to understand these terms as a first step
towards understanding light.
Wavelength
Simplistically, we can think of light traveling as a wave. A typical wave form (e.g.,
ripples on the surface of water) has crests (or peaks) and troughs (or valleys). The distance
between two consecutive peaks (or troughs) is called the wavelength, and is denoted by the Greek
letter λ (lambda).
The wavelengths of visible light are measured in nanometers (nm) where 1 nm = 1

billionth of a meter (10-9 meters). The wavelength of visible light is between 400-700nm. The
combined effect of the complete range of radiation between 400-700nm appears as white light to
the human eye.
Rainbow Colors:
 Violet - 400 to 440nm
 Blue - 440 to 490nm
 Green - 490 to 540nm
 Yellow - 540 to 590nm
 Orange - 600 to 650nm
 Red - 650 to 700nm
4 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY

 X-rays – 1 to 30 nm
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 UV rays – 30 to 400 nm
 Visible light – 400 to 700 nm
 Infrared rays – 700 to 1,00+ nm.
PRIMARY COLORS SECONDARY

OF LIGHT COLORS OF LIGHT
 Red  Yellow
 Green  Cyan
 Blue  Magenta
NOTE:
 White is the presence of all colors

 Black is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.
PRIMARY COLORS OF COLORING MATTERS
 Red
 Yellow
 Blue
BENDING OF LIGHT
When traveling in open space, light travels in a straight line (186,000 miles/second).
However, when light comes in contact with an object, it may be bended in the following manner:
Reflection of Light
1. Specular or Regular Reflection - If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light
that occurs is called specular or regular reflection.
2. Diffuse or Irregular Reflection – When light strikes a rough or granular surface, it bounces off
in all directions due to the microscopic irregularities of the interface.
Refraction
It is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. This is most
commonly observed when a wave passes from one medium to another.
Diffraction
It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading
out of waves past small openings.
It is also described as the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.
Examples of Diffraction
1. The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar
rainbow pattern we see when looking at a disk;
2. The hologram (a picture that changes when looked at from different angles) on a credit card;
Kinds of Objects
1. Transparent objects – allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the
other side may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent objects – allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the
other side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be
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recognizable but sharp detail and outlines are obscured. Ex. Opal glass, ground glass, & oiled
paper
3. Opaque objects – Divert/absorb light, but allow no light to pass through. Ex. Thick metal, stone,
& wood.
Sources of Light
1. Natural Light Source
2. Artificial Light Source
Natural Light Source (Sunlight)

1. Bright sunlight – a lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or
distinct shadow.
2. Hazy Sunlight – objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
3. Dull Sunlight – objects in open space cast no shadow.
1. Cloudy bright – objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far
distance are clearly visible.
2. Cloudy dull – objects in open space cast not shadow and visibility of
distant objects are already limited.
Artificial Light Source

Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the continuous radiation
and the short duration.
Forensic Light Sources

1. UV Lamp
2. LASER – Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation.
3. Alternative Light Sources
4. Forensic Light Sources
1. Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

b. Visible Light
= Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye.
It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
b. Invisible Light
= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the
retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.
2. Photographic Rays
a. X-ray
Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing
an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally
discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of
shadow photography.
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)
Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph
fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of
erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black
Light”.
c. Visible Light
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It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons

designed for ordinary photographing purposes.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to
1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents,
obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is
sometimes referred to as heat rays).
3. Light Source
A. Natural Light - are those light which come to existence without the intervention of
man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
- object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
- object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to
thin clouds that cover the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
- object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.
Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade
bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being
photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the
reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be
considered.
B. Artificial Light - otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp - is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a
light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the common
wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
Flourescent Lamp - b are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in
photographing.
Incandescent bulb - are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly
uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
Infra-red Lamp
Ultra-violet Lamp
2. Short Duration type
Flash bulb - are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of
metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired
electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts.
When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites
the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of
tense light.
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Electronic Flash - produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges

between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the
discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second
and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or
stopped in the photographs.
4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or
reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver
grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can
be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents
halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion
I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film - usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or

“Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples are
Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
2. Colored Film - can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal type of
colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color while the word
chrome represents the latter.
e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film, Orthochromatic film and
Panchromatic film.
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity - is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different
wavelength of the light course.
1.Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.
2.Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in
the marker as KODALITH FILM)
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors
of the visible light)
3.1. Process Panchromatic film - permit short exposures under average lighting
condition and has the advantage of the grain structure.
3.2. Grain Panchromatic film
3.3. High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for photographing
object under adverse lighting condition.
4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.
FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
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1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value

system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used
in the same principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA

and DIN rating.
II. Photographic Paper
It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final
development and become the photograph.
Types of Photographic Papers
A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)

1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive
print is the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low
and give blue-black tones when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process.
This is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will
give a black tone when properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact
printing. Slow emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses
a special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses
upon exposure to different colors of light.
B. According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not
of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be
mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in
ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under
rough treatment.
b.2. Surface Texture
a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brillant image
formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than
detail is necessary.
b.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when
warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
C. According to Contrast (grade)
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1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely

exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very
thin or weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is
desired.
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.
5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight
box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
Essential Parts of a Camera
1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other
parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image
on the film.
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to
hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred
image
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the given lens.
OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the
photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material.
A. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the exposed
film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
B. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of
the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is
usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering
than that of the right number
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person
provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal
exposure.
C. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to
the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise
known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.
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f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening
the greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized
material.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens
in which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
D. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of
sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the
distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or clear
image.
Types of focusing device:
1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type) - Coincidence otherwise

known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will
appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the focusing adjustment
this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single object. Split Image
focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the object in
not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is already
focused.
2. Ground Glass - This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the
object is not in focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and
clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed - Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based
on his estimation do this.
TYPES OF THE CAMERA
1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to
its interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the
other for forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for
movie making
5. LENS
= It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the
quality of the image to be formed.
= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to
form an image.
= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and
change the direction of light.
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Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced

a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light
together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the
same side of the lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration
INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens
producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.
2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that
travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique
is the one the is transmitted sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with
respect to one another.
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion
(curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The
lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and
therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not
equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to
focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal
half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider
area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not
longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half
of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area
coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.
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2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object
in apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused
with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of
field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one
that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.
6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.
a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)

= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the
image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents
b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid
that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the
acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed
silver halides.
Other chemicals used:
Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative
Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener
Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator
Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging.
Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing.
Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on
the dodging board.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.
Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes
of making a balance exposure.
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FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Fingerprints and Its Allied Sciences
“Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will

serve as silent evidence against him. Not only his fingerprints or footprints, but his hair, the fibers
from his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or
semen that he deposits or collect – all these and more bear mute witness against him. This is
evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent
because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong; it cannot
perjure itself; it cannot be wholly absent. Only its interpretation can err. Only human failure to
find it, study and understand it can diminish its value.”
Dr. Paul L. Kirk

Forensic Scientist
Nature of Fingerprints
Fingerprint is a composite of the ridge outlines which appears on the skin surface of the
bulbs on the inside of the end of joints of the fingers, thumbs, on the palms and on the soles of the
feet. The ridges appearing in a fingerprint are commonly referred to as papillary or frictional
ridges. The ridges have a definite contour and appear in definite individual details by which
positive identification can be made.
Fingerprint as a science is the identification of a person by means of the ridges
appearing on the fingers, on the palms and on the soles of the feet.
The Allied Sciences of Fingerprints
 Dactyloscopy – It is the practical application of the science of fingerprints identification

of persons through examination and comparison of fingerprint. Taken from Greek words:
Dactyl – a finger and skopien – to examine or study
 Chiroscopy – (Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” –to examine) study of the
prints of the palms of the hand.
 Podoscopy – (Greek word “Podo” – the foot, and Skopien – to the study of the
footprints.
 Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – a pare, and “Skopien” – to examine) study of the
arrangement of the sweat pores.
 Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint as a means of identification.
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 Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of personality

interpretation.
Important Terms in Fingerprint
 Polydactyl – born with more than the regular number of fingers.

 Macrodactyl – enlarged finger.
 Microdactyl – reduced/small finger.
 Ectodactyl – missing finger at birth.
 Syndactyl – side fussion of the finger.
Take Note:
 Ridge – literally, the top of long hill

 Ridge Surface
a. Friction Ridges or ridges – elevated portion/hill like/black-lines.
b. Furrows – depressed portion/canal-like/ white space.
 Ridgeoscopy – study of Ridges or friction ridges.
 Edgeoscopy – study of the sides of the finger.
 Ducts – these are little pockets underneath the skin where oils or sweats are carried by
small holes to the surface of the skin.
 Sweat Pores – tiny/small openings/ tiny white dots.
 Sweat Duct – passage way of sweat.
 Sweat Glands – the producer of sweat.
What are the two main layers of the Skin?
 Outer scarf or Epidermis

 Inner Scarf or Dermis
 Stratum Corneum – outer of epidermis

 Stratum Mucosum – inner of epidermis
Take Note:
1. Stratum Malpighi or the layer of the Malpighi – the ridges are formed into patterns by
virtue of the fact that the epidermis is penetrated and molded by the dermal papillae
2. Damage to the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge destruction, whereas
damage to the dermis will result to permanent ridge destruction
3. We can identify many fingerprints which we cannot classify.
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Cross section of a friction ridge
Importance of knowing the two layers of the skin
Damage of the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge destruction, while
damage to the dermis will result to permanent ridge destruction.
What are the basic principles of Fingerprint Science? (3 dogmatic Principles)
 Principle of Individuality – There are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike
unless taken from the same finger. (1:64,000,000,000 – Francis Galton).
 Principle of Permanency (Constancy/Perennial/Immutable) – The configuration
and details of individual ridges remain constant and unchanging till after the final
decomposition of the body.
 Principle of Infallibility – That fingerprint is a reliable means of personal
identification and all courts accept and adopt fingerprint as a means of personal
identification.
Can Fingerprint be destroyed?
John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, attempted to erase his
fingerprints by burning them with acid but as time went by the ridges were again restored to their
“natural” feature. The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the bulbs of his
fingers but re occur later.
Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful experiments on

themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal had shown that
after the healing of the epidermis (outer skin), the original patterns of fingerprints reappeared.
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Robert James Pitts used surgery to destroy his friction ridges, known as the Man
without fingerprint, also known by the name Roscoe Pitts.
Can Fingerprints be forged?
The authorities conducted various experiments and although they could almost make an
accurate reproduction’s till there is no case on record known or have been written that forgery of
fingerprints has been a complete success.
Some of the reasons why Fingerprints is one of the most Infallible Means of
Personal Identification
 Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and will remain
unchanged throughout life until the final decomposition of the body.
 The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar characteristics
upon which a person can always be identified by fingerprint examiners.
 Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept, adopt
and utilize the fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a person.
 The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its importance and reliability as
a means of identification.
 That fingerprint will speak for itself as it shows the owner thereof in accordance with the
principle of re ipso liquitor (a thing will speak for itself).
Weight of Fingerprint
The weight to be given to evidence of correspondence of fingerprint when offered to

prove identity of the accused as the person committing a crime is for the determination of the
court in the light of all the surrounding facts and circumstances.
To warrant a conviction the fingerprints corresponding to those of the accused must have
been found in the place where the crime was committed under such circumstances that they could
only have been impressed at the time when the crime was committed.
Purpose of the study of Fingerprint
The ultimate purpose of fingerprints is to provide the most positive means of personal
and criminal identification.
Historical Accounts Involving Fingerprints
Are there any early publication concerning Fingerprints?
1. 1684-Nehemiah Grew published a report which was read before the royal society of
London, England. He described the ridges and pores of the hands and feet.
2. 1685-G. Bidloo published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges.
3. 1685-Midle wrote a book, “Human Anatomy,” in which he included a drawing of the
thumb print showing the ridge configuration of the whorl pattern.
4. 1686-Professor Marcelo Malpighi, an Italian anatomist (GRANDFATHER OF
DACTYLOSCOPY according to Dr. Edmond Locard – “Father of Poroscopy”),
commented in his writings on elevated ridges on the fingertips and alluded to diverse
figures on palmar surfaces.
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5. 1751-Hintzo wrote on the ridge formation, but dealt with the subject from the viewpoint
of anatomy rather than identification.1764-Albinus followed along the same lines as
Hintzo had written.
6. 1788-J.C.A. Mayer stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein Nebst Dazu
Geharigen) that although the arrangement of the skin ridges is never duplicated in two
persons, nevertheless, the similarities are closer among some individuals.
7. 1823-Johannes Evangelist Purkinje, (FATHER OF DACTYLOCOSPY) a
Czechoslovakian professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published a thesis in
Latin (Commentio de Examine Physiogico Organi Visus Et systematis Cutansi – A
Commentary of the Physiological Examination System: Dec. 22, 1823, Breslau,
Germany) describing the ridges, giving them names and established certain rules for
classification (nine groups). He involves vague differentiation of fingerprints or use them
for identification.
8. 1856-Herman Welcker took the prints of his own palm. In 1897, (forty one years later)
he printed the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (Principle of
Permanency).
9. 1883-Kollman, an anthropologist who wrote his book on ridges and pores. He did not
associate fingerprints with identification.
What are the historical events concerning Fingerprints as Method of Identification?
1. 1858-Sir William J. Herschel (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY), in Hoogly, district of

Bengal, India, he used fingerprints in India to prevent fraudulent collection of army pay
account and for identification of other documents. He printed the palms of natives in
order to avoid impersonation among laborers. Prints of the entire palms were used
instead of signatures. The first person Herschel printed appears to have been one
RAJYADHAR KONAI.
2. 1880-Dr. Henry Faulds, an English (Scottish) doctor stationed in Tokyo, Japan, wrote a
letter to the English publication, “NATURE” – “On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”,
(dtd Oct. 28, 1880) on the practical use of fingerprints for the identification of criminals.
He recommended the use of a thin film of printers ink as a transfer medium and is
generally used today.
3. 1880-Sir Francis Galton, a noted British anthropologist and a cousin of scientist Charles
Darwin began observation which led to the publication in 1882 of his book
“Fingerprints.” Galton’s studies established the individuality of classifying fingerprint
patterns.
4. 1882-Gilbert Thompson, a U.S. geological surveyor in charge of a field project in New
Mexico used his own fingerprints in commissary orders to prevent forgery.
5. Isaiah West Taber – A photographer in San Francisco advocated the use of the system
for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.
6. 1883-An episode in Mark Twain’s life on the Mississippi relates to the identification of
a murderer by his thumbprint.
7. Twain (Samuel L. Clemens) further developed his theme. Eleven (11) years later, he
causes the publication of “Puddin Head Wilson”, a novel based on dramatic fingerprint
identification demonstrated during a court trial. His story pointed out the infallibility of
fingerprint identification.
8. 1888-Sir Edward Richard Henry, succeeded Sir William J. Herschel at his post in
India. He became interested in fingerprints and devised a classification of his own and
published his work in book form and titled it “Classification and Uses of Fingerprints.”
9. 1889-Sir Richard Henry at Dove, England read a paper detailing his system before the
British association for Advancement of Science.
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10. 1891-Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police official, installed fingerprints files as an

official means of criminal identification; based his system of the pattern typed by Sir
Francis Galton; and he also claimed the first official criminal identification by means of
fingerprints left at the scene of crime.
11. In 1892, at La Piata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas who had murdered her two sons
and had cut her own throat, though not fatal, blamed the attack on a neighbor. Bloody
fingerprints on a door post were identified by Vucetich as those of the woman herself
which led to her confession.
12. 1892-Sir Francis Galton, an English Biologist, wrote his first textbook. He devised a
practical system of classification and filing. 1894-Sir Francis Galton’s report on
fingerprint as a method of identification, along with his system, was read at Asquith
Committee of London, England. His system was officially adopted on February 12,
1894.
13. 1900-Alphonse Bertillon’s system of body measurement had by this time spread
throughout the world.
14. 1901-Sir Edward Richard Henry was appointed assistant commissioner at Scotland
Yard. His system was so applicable that Henry emerged as the “Father of
Fingerprints,” at least as the first man to successfully apply fingerprints for
identification. 1901-marked the official introduction of fingerprinting for criminal
identification in England and Wales.
15. The system employed was developed from Galton’s observation and devised by Edward
Richard Henry, the Inspector-General of Police in Bengal, India. He later became
commissioner of London’s Metropolitan Police.
16. 1914-Fingerprints were officially adopted in France, replacing Bertillon age.
Type Lines and Pattern Area
Type Lines – Also known as the skeleton of pattern are two innermost ridges which start
parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to surround the pattern area. They serve as basis
boundaries of a fingerprint pattern.
Pattern Area – It is the part of a fingerprint pattern in which the core, delta and ridges
appear encoded by the type lines.
What are the Types of Ridge Formation?
1. Recurving ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started.
2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is
angular and serves as a point of convergence.
3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge
going one way and the other ridge, another way.
4. Bifurcating ridges – A single ridge which splits into two ridges forming a “Y” shape
formation or structure.
5. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – it is a single ridge which bifurcates where the bifurcating
ridges converge at a certain point to form again into a single ridge.
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6. Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
7. Short or Series of Short Ridges – they are fragmentary ridges formed by short or series
of short ridges.
8. Ridge Ending - It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
9. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges embodied
intensely. These ridges are considered in the classification of fingerprints if they appear
as dark and as thick as the surrounded ridges within the pattern area.
10. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length
than the main ridge.
11. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
12. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short
or broken which appears in the depressions between two well formed ridges.
13. Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and
a butting at right angle.
14. Appendage – A short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
15. Core – It is a point on a ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of a pattern.
16. Delta or Triradial Point – It a point on the first ridge formation at or directly in front or
near the center of the divergence of the type lines.
17. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
18. Friction ridges – Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and
thumbs by which fingerprints are made. They are also called papillary ridges or
epidermal ridges.
19. Furrows – Are depressions or canals between the ridges which maybe compared with the
low area in a tire tread.
20. Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
21. Up thrust - Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a
horizontal place.
22. Dissociated ridges – are unusual ridge structures having no well defined patterns; the
ridges are extremely short, appear like a series of “patches” caused by a disturbance of
developmental process at early fetal life of the individuals.
23. Shoulder of a loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or
curves.
24. Puckering – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curl slightly.
25. Creases – Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or formed
side to side, across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
26. Staple – Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
27. Spike – an ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the up thrust.
The Core and Delta
The Core and Delta are the focal point of fingerprint patterns except in arch pattern.
 Core- is a point on the ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of the
pattern. The Core is also known as Inner Terminus.
 Delta – is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center or the
divergence of the type lines. The Delta is also known as Outer Terminus.
What are the Rules on Core and Delta Location?
The rules in CORE location are:
1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.
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2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains ending ridges or rod rising as high as the
shoulder of the loop further from the delta. The exemption to this rule is when both
shoulders are equidistant to the center of the sufficient recurve.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the
looping ridge or not.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as
the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the further one of the two center rods,
the two rods being treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.
Take Note - Always base on the entrance of the pattern in the fingerprint.
The rule in DELTA location is:
1. A dot can be a delta when there is no other alternative.
Rules in Delta location when there is a choice between two or more Delta
1. The delta may be located at a bifurcation which does open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, equally close to
the point of divergence, the bifurcation is selected.
3. When there is a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at the point of divergence
of two type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type lines
toward the cores but at the nearer end only. The location of the delta depends entirely
upon the point of origin of the ridge between the type lines toward the core.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from the point below the divergent type lines. The
delta must be located at the end nearer (inner terminus) to the core.
Eight Standard Fingerprint Patterns
Pattern Interpretations
 Arches – 5%
 Loops – 60%
 Whorls – 35%
Take Note: According to studies, the appearance of arches is less followed by whorls and the
loops.
Rules on Fingerprint Patterns
1. Radial Loop - “R” - derived its name from the radius bone of the forearm; it is one
type of fingerprint patterns in which the ridges run its direction to the radius bone or to the thumb.
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2. Ulnar Loop is one type of fingerprint pattern in which the ridges flow toward the
ulnar bone or little finger. Ulnar loop therefore derived its name from the ulna bone of the
forearm, or little finger. Its symbol is letter “U” in classification purposes.
Take Note - A pattern to be a loop must have the following four (4) essential requisites:
 It must have a core.

 It must have a delta.
 An imaginary line must pass between the core and the delta.
 It must have a ridge count of a minimum of at least one (1).
3. Plain Arch - Symbolized by letter “A” in the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern

in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern and flow towards the other side with a rise at
the center with not more than one of the four (4) essential requisites for loop pattern and with no
recurving ridge, no angular formation and no upward thrust.
Take Note - It enters to the left and flows towards the right.
4. Tented Arches - Symbolized by letter “T” in the classification. It is a variety of arch

family, but their ridge formations are not simple as those of the plain arch, also considered
TRANSITIONAL PATTERN between a plain arch and a loop. Generally speaking, TENTED
ARCHES are formed in any of these three (3) way formations, to wit:
1. One or several ridges in the center of the form an up thrust.

2. The ridge or ridges in the center formed a well defined angle.
3. The pattern may have two or three or four essential requisites of a loop pattern.
Take Note - An up thrust must have an ending ridge.
5. Plain Whorl - Symbolized by letter “W” in the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern

which there are two (2) deltas and in which at least one (1) ridge makes a turn through one
complete circuit, an imaginary line drawn between the two (2) deltas must touch or cross at least
one (1) of the circuiting whorl ridges within the pattern area.
6. Central Pocket Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “C “ in the classification. It is a

fingerprint pattern which for the most part of a loop, but which has a small whorl inside the loop
ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern, which means that it is made up of two (2) patterns
in one, a whorl inside a loop.
It has two (2) deltas, one of which appears as the edge of the pattern area, as in plain
loop. And one shows inside the pattern area just below the counterpart ridges. at least one
recurving ridge.
7. Double Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “D” in the classification. A double loop
whorl is a pattern consisting of two (2) separate and distinct loop formations. One of the loops
surrounds or overlaps the other, also called COMPOSITE PATTERN, like the central pocket loop
whorl. It arises from the fact that these patterns are a composite or combination of two 2 patterns
in one, with two cores and two deltas.
Elements of Double Loop Whorl
1. Two separate loop formations
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2. Two separate and distinct set of shoulders

3. Two deltas
4. No ridge count necessary for loop in a double loop whorl.
Double Loop Whorls
A double loop whorl consists of two separate and distinct loop formations with two
separate and distinct shoulders and two deltas.
8. Accidental Whorl - Symbolized by letter “X” in the classification. It is a pattern

which is a combination of two or more different types of pattern except in the PLAIN ARCH. It
can be a combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop whorl, or any
combination of two or more different loops and whorl type patterns.
What are the symbols in Blocking?
FINGERPRINT PATTERN INDEX FINGER OTHER FINGERS
Arches (Plain) A a
Arches (tented) T t
Radial loops R or / r or /
Ulnar loops U or \ u or \
Plain Whorls W w
Central Pocket Loop Whorl C c
Double Loop Whorl D d
Accidental Whorl X x
Take Note:
1. If a finger appears to be amputated (cut off) just place the symbol or simple abbreviation
as AMP and the date of amputation on the box of the finger actually amputated.
2. In case of partial amputation, place the abbreviation symbol “TIP AMP”.
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Directions: Name/determine the following fingerprint pattern below. Write your

answer on the blank provided for each item.
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Ridge counting and Ridge tracing
Ridge Counting – It refers to the process of counting the intervening ridges that touch
or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and the delta.
Take Note - It applies only to loops.
Rules in Ridge Counting
1. Locate the exact points of the Core and Delta.

2. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line between the Core and Delta.
Ridges to be included are:
a. Ridge island
b. Short ridge
c. Long ridge
d. d. Abrupt ending ridge
e. e. Bifurcating ridge
f. f. Ridge enclosure
Note: These ridges must be as thick as the other surrounding ridges.
3. Core and Delta are excluded in counting

4. A white space must intervene between the delta and the first ridge count.
5. Incipient ridges are never counted or included.
The following ridges are given these ridge counts if they come in contact with the imaginary
line.
1. Ridge island and dot is given a count of one.

2. Short ridge is counted as on ridge
3. Long ridge is counted as one ridge
4. A ridge ending touching abruptly an imaginary line is counted as one ridge.
5. A ridge that bifurcates having the two arms touching the imaginary line is counted as two
ridges.
Ridge tracing is a process of tracing the ridge that originates from the left delta flowing
towards the right delta or near that point and determining the number of intervening ridge
between the traced ridge and the right delta to constitute the three subdivisions: inner, meeting
and outer, which are represented by capital letter I, M and O in the classification line.
Rules in Ridge Tracing
1. Ridge Tracing always start from the left delta proceeding towards the right delta or
nearest to the point.
2. When the ridge being traced ends abruptly as in ending ridges drop down to the next
ridge below to continue the tracing until the traced ridge runs into or comes opposite the
right delta.
Symbols for Whorl as a Result of Ridge Tracing
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1. When the ridge being traced from the left delta to the right delta passes inside or in
front of the right delta and there are THREE or more intervening ridges between the traced
ridge and the right delta, the result of the tracing is INNER and represented by the capital I. The
symbol is exhibited on the upper right hand corner of the block where found and on the
classification line.
2. When the ridge being traced passes on either inside or outside of the right delta and
there are TWO or LESS ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta or it
actually meets the right delta, the result of the tracing is MEETING and is represented by capital
letter M. The symbol is exhibited on the right upper corner of the block where found and also on
the classification line.
3. When the ridge being traced passes outside or below the right delta and there are
THREE or MORE ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta, the result of
the tracing is OUTER and represented by capital letter O. The symbol is exhibited on the right
upper corner of the block where found and on the classification.
REAL AND CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS
Real Impressions - Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of the printing ink on
the surface of the paper. Any other coloring materials may be used but less visible and indelible.
Chance Impressions - These are fingerprints which are imprinted by mere chance or
without any intention to produce the print. Chance print may be:
 Visible prints – impressions made by chance and visible without chemical treatment.
Are those made by fingers smeared with colored substances such as blood, ink, grease,
dirt, or paint. These prints are seen by the naked eye without their being developed.
 Semi-visible or Plastic impression – These are molded or plastic impressions made by
chance on cellophane tapes or any plastic materials. They are prints made in plastic
materials, such as soap, melted candles, wax, paraffin, putty, and others.
 Invisible or Latent prints – impressions which are visible grossly but made visible by
the addition of some substances. These are fingerprints found at the scene of a crime.
Methods of Producing Real Impressions
1. Rolled Method– One made by rolling the thumbs and fingers. The subject must be
relaxed.
2. Plain Method– This requires that the fingers be taken or printed simultaneously, then the
thumbs without rolling. Plain impressions are used as a check upon the sequence and
accuracy of the rolled impression. The subject not necessary to relaxed.
Steps in Taking Fingerprints
 The first and most important step is clear the plate thoroughly.
 A daub of printer’s ink is deposited near the edge of the plate away from the operator.
 The subject’s hand and fingers must be relaxed.
Equipment Used in Preparation for Taking Fingerprint using Slab and Roller Method
1. INKING PLATE – A 12 inches plate is long enough for most set of 0 fingers. The
width of the plate should not be less than 8 inches, ten (10) is a better width. A 10 inch plate is
also wide enough to ink a complete palm in one operation whenever it becomes necessary.
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2. CARD HOLDER – The simplest is a U-shaped spring clamp. Made of spring steel,
stainless steel or brass of gauge sufficient to hold its shape in heavy usage.
3. ROLLER – 6 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter. The handle should have
supporting posts or legs to suspend the rubber roller from developing flat sides and to keep
unused portions of the plate and table top from being smeared with ink.
4. INK - black printers ink is the most commonly used for taking fingerprint impression.
It is a consistency suitable for rolling into a thin film and it is quick drying when transferred to a
card as an inked impression. Yet it does not dry too fast. Usable for several hours after a film
has been rolled.
5. FINGERPRINT STAND – 32 inches high, the inking surface of a fingerprint stand

should be approximately 12 inches above the top of an ordinary desk making the printing surface
approximately 44 inches from the floor for the average person.
6. STANDARD EIGHT BY EIGHT INCHES FINGERPRINT CARD – It is found to

be adequate for receiving five rolled impressions across the card the size convenient for handling
and filing.
Methods of Developing Latent Prints
Powder Method – the suitable materials for this technique are glass, ceramic, pottery,
metallic item and plastic. The principle involved in this technique is that developing reagent
adhere to the sweat present in the latent print with the used of the following:
a. Black Powder – this is applied on white and smooth surface.

b. White or Aluminum powder – this is applied on black and smooth surface.
 These powders are applied on the surface through brushing.
Note:
1. Do not touch on the suspected object or evidence with bare hand. If you touch with bare
hands, your fingerprint will be possibly left or marked on the surface of the object
touched. Carelessness on handling evidence will destroy the suspect’s fingerprint.
2. Photographing should be done after the prints are developed with powder.
The Classification Formula
Division of the Classification Formula
Classification refers to the formula derived for the complete set of ten fingerprint
patterns or the arrangement of fingerprint records intro groups or subgroups for filing purposes.
The classification formula is composed of the following divisions:
1. Primary classification = PC
2. Secondary classification = SC
3. Sub-secondary classification = SSC
4. Final classification = FC
5. Major classification = MC
6. Key classification - KC
29
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
For the purpose of obtaining the primary classification, numerical values are assigned to
each of the ten finger spaces whenever a whorl appears; it assumes the value of the space in
which it is found. Spaces in which types of patterns other than whorls are present are disregarded
in computing the primary.
When no whorl appears in a set of fingerprint, there can be no numerical value; therefore
the primary classification becomes one-over-one. When all fingers and thumbs contain all whorls,
the numerical value of the patterns is the maximum total value which is thirty two-over- thirty
two.
Procedure to be followed in obtaining primary classification
Numbering in natural sequence. The first step in classifying fingerprints is the

numbering of the finger and thumbs. The natural sequence, starting with the right thumb as one
and ending at the left little finger as ten is followed:
Right hand 1 2 3 4 5
Left hand 6 7 8 9 10
ODD FINGERS: The odd fingers are 1 (right thumb) 3 (right middle finger) 5 (right
little finger) 7 (left index finger) 9 (left ring finger).
EVEN FINGERS: The even fingers are 2 (right index finger) 4 (right ring finger) 6 (left
thumb) 8 (left middle finger) 10 (left little finger).
Numerical Value of Whorls - Designated Value of Each Finger with Whorls
The Henry system designated the value of whorl according to the finger or thumb on
which they appear, and in the following sequences.
Right hand 16 16 8 8 4
Left hand 4 2 2 1 1
Total Whorl for Primary - In a set of prints, the numerical value is represented by two
(2) distinct totals. First: all whorls appearing on the odd fingers; and second, all whorls appearing
on the even fingers. The two totals obtained constitute the primary classification. ODD and
EVEN finger must never total together. The ODD numbered fingers shall constitute as the
denominator and the EVEN numbered fingers as the numerator.
Arbitrary count of one (1) ADDED - To each total, an arbitrary count of one is added.
The purpose of the arbitrary count of one is to avoid a classification of zero over zero in a set of
print in which no whorls appear; this might be mistaken for the letter “O” which has another
specific meaning in the classification.
Number of Possible Combinations in the Primary - There are one thousand and twenty
four (1,024) possible combinations of primaries, beginning with “one over one” and ending with
“thirty-two over thirty-two”
30
Take Note: After getting the Primary Classification, you must file the fingerprint in the
following manner:
1/1 - Lowest Classification

32/32 - Highest Classification
Illustration:
1. 1/1, ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/6……………………….. 1/32

2. 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/4, 2/5, 2/6 ……………………. 2/32
3. 3/1, 3/2, 3/3, ¾, 3/5, 3/6 ……………………… 3/32 TILL
4. 32/1, 32/2, 32/2, 32/4, 32/5, 32/6 ……..…….. 32/32
Rules on Amputation and Fingerprint Missing at Birth
1. If one finger is amputated (AMP) or missing at birth (FMB) the classification is based on
the opposite finger with the numerical value.
Take Note: The numerical value of the (AMP) FMB) must not be changed.
2. If both fingers are amputated or missing at birth they are treated as whorl with the
respective numerical value and with meeting (M) tracing.
Secondary Classification
This appears just to the right of the fractional numerals which represent the primary. It is
shown in the formula by capital letters representing the basic types of patterns appearing in the
index fingers of each hand, that of the right hand being the numerator and that of the hand being
the denominator. There are five basic types of patterns which can appear.
Basic Types of Pattern that can Appear
1. Arch (A)
2. Tented Arch (T)
3. Radial loop (R)
4. Ulnar loop (U)
5. Whorl (W)
6. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)
7. Double Loop Whorl (D)
8. Accidental Whorl (X)
Rank – The secondary classification follows the primary classification.
Position of Secondary – The secondary classification appears just to the right of the
fraction which represents the primary.
Meaning of Secondary – The numerator (WRITTEN ABOVE) indicates the type of

pattern appearing on the index finger of the right hand.
Denominator Meaning – The denominator (WSRITTEN BELOW) Indicate the type

pattern appearing on the index finger of the left hand.
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Sequence - Just as in the sequence of the primary classification, in filing, the

denominator does not change until the numerator has exhausted all the changes of pattern in their
orderly sequence.
Small Letter Groups - The small letter group of the primary classification includes
prints having plain arches, tented arches and radial loops on fingers other than the indexes.
What constitute a small letter? For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the
patterns of the index fingers are designated by a capital letter and the patterns on other fingers and
thumbs are designated by small letter.
Blocking - For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the patterns of the index fingers
are designated by a capital letter and the patterns on other fingers and thumbs are designated by
small letter. These are placed in their respective blocks.
Writing the Formula - For the purpose of writing the classification formula, the same
rule held true the capital letters designated on index fingers and the small letters designated other
fingers. The classification formula is written at the top of the fingerprint card.
Sequence in writing letter into Formula - The small letters are written into the
classification formula in their natural sequences as they appear on the hands.
A small letter in the thumb will produce the writing of the classification of the index
fingers. Small letters in the middle, ring, and little fingers will follow the writing of the
classification of the index fingers.
This aRa would mean a thumb arch, and index radial, and a middle finger arch on the
TUr right hand, and thumb tented arch, and index ulnar, and a middle finger radial on the left
hand.
Importance of small letters - The absence of small letter groups are of vital importance
to the classification system as the small letter occurs relatively infrequently.
Frequency - The small letter groups, after the index fingers have been grouped (small) in
the following sequence:
1st: The denominator by count (the lesser number of small letters proceeding the
greater).
2nd: By position (small letter to the left of the index finger proceeding these at the
right).
3rd: By type (a,t, r).
Sub-Secondary and Final Classification
Sub-Secondary – The sub-secondary classification is the grouping of prints according to

the ridge count of loops and ridge tracing on whorls.
Reason fort Subdivision – The sub-secondary classification is the group of print within
the secondary classification, thus facilitating searches since it limits the search to smaller groups
of the fingerprint cards.
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Position of Formula – The sub-secondary classification is placed on the classification

line immediately to the right of the secondary classification
Recording Ridge Count – The ridge count of the loops are recorded as “I” (inner) and
“O” (outer).
Recording Whorl Tracing – The whorl tracing are recorded as follows:
INNER (I)
MEETING (M)
OUTER (O)
Fingers Considered - In the sub-secondary classification, six fingers are considered they
are:
1. Right index finger

2. Right middle finger
3. Right ring finger
4. Left index finger
5. Left middle finger
6. Left ring finger
Established Number of Ridge Counts
INDEX FINGERS:
One (1) to Nine (9) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)
Ten (10) or more ridges ………………………… 0 (Outer)
MIDDLE FINGERS:
One (1) to Ten (10) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)
Eleven (11) or more ridges ……………………... O (Outer)
RING FINGERS:
One (1) to thirteen (13) ridges ………………….. I (Inner)
Fourteen (14) or more ridges……………………. O (Outer)
Loops and Whorls in Sub-Secondary - In a set of prints having loops and whorl only
the sub-secondary classification may include two (2), but not more than three (3) fingers of each
hand.
“M SYMBOL” - The symbol (M) meeting appearing in a sub-secondary classification,

indicates a whorl in the figures being considered, since only a whorl can have a meeting tracing.
“I” and “O” SYMBOL - The symbols “I” and “O” in a sub-secondary classification
may relate to a set of prints having loops and whorls or all loops or whorls. Whether the prints
are loops, whorls or loops and whorls may be ascertained from the primary classification since
“one” over “one” indicates no whorls, thirty-two indicates all whorls and other primaries
indicates both loops and whorls.
Filing: The filing of prints within the sub-secondary classification is done according to
the following sequences:
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First – I (inner) in loops

Second – O (outer) in loops
First: I (Inner) in whorls
Second: M (meeting) in whorls
Third: O (outer) in whorls
As in all other components set of the classification formula, the denominator does not
change until the numerator has exhausted the entire sequence.
Summary of the Rules:
1. For AMP and FMB-Apply the rule on primary classification.

2. Whorl-Apply Ridge Tracing.
For loops (Ridge Counting)
Index Finger
1-9 ridge count………………………………………………… I (Inner)
10 or more…………………………………………………….. 0 (outer)
Middle Finger
1-10 ridge count……………………………………………… I (Inner)
11 or more……………………………………………………. 0 (outer)
Ring Finger
1-13 ridge count………………………………………………. 1(Inner)
14 or more ridge count………………………………………… 0 (outer)
For Arches
Use small letter (t) for tented arch.

Use small letter (a) for plain arch
If the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger are all plain arches just put three dashes
in the sub secondary classification and A2a in the Secondary Classification. (Same is
true when both index and middle fingers are the same).
If the index finger, middle finger and ring finger are all tented arches just put three dashes
in the sub secondary classification and T2t in the Secondary Classification. (same is true
when index and middle finger are the same).
For Whorl Tracing

Meeting (M) = 0, 1, 2, ridges either from the left delta or the right delta.
Outer (O) = 3 or more ridges below the right delta.
Inner (I) = 3 or more ridges above the right delta.
Take Note:
1. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is ulnar it is OUTER.

2. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is radial it is INNER.
a. Take only the loop excluding the whorl inside it.
34
b. Left Delta will always be the one to drop. And in counting its ridges include
ending ridges and bifurcation.
Final Classification
The final classification is the ridge count on the loop (ulnar and radial) appearing in the
right little finger.
Position - The final classification is indicated at the extreme right of the numerator.
No Loop in the Right Little Finger - If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a
loop in the left little finger may be used. The little finger position in the formula remains
unchanged, except that the ridge count is noted as a denominator rather than as a numerator.
Arch or Tented Arch - If an arch or tented arch appears in the little finger, it is indicated
in the classification formula by a small dash (-). If such a formation appears in both little fingers,
final classification is not obtainable. The Arch or Tented Arch appearing in either or both little
fingers is not ignored in the classification formula since it is incorporated and designated as a
small letter in the secondary classification.
Both Little Fingers are used - Both little fingers are considered by some bureaus and
the ridge counts of both are recorded. However, the count of the right little finger governs the
sequence for filing within the final classification.
Whorl - If no loops appear in the little fingers but a whorl appears instead. A final
classification may be obtained by a ridge count of the whorl. Making a ridge count of whorls (in
either or both little fingers) is required in connection with a large collection or group of prints,
such as prints having a primary classification of thirty two over thirty two.
Search - When a search is made within a group of cards, and when the final is
designated, only prints having the same final count or count are examined. Some bureaus allow a
count of three on either side of the final classification.
Little Fingers used only for Final Classification - The ridge of the little finger is used
exclusively for the final classification.
Little Fingers not used for Key Classification - At no time can the ridge count of either
of the little fingers be used for the key classification.
Importance of Final Classification - The final and the key classifications may be
considered the CONTROL FINGERS for filing and searching. They limit the number of the
prints to be examined each group.
Final not Possible - If the type pattern of either little finger is an arch, as a tented arch,
no final classification is obtained. This is indicated by a small dash (-).
Major Classification
The major classification represents only the thumb of each hand. It is the ridge count of
the loop and/or the tracing of the whorl appearing in the thumb of each hand (if such whorls
appear).
35
Position - The major classification is placed immediately to the left of the primary in the
classification formula.
Right and Left Thumbs: Numerator and Denominator - The thumb of the right hand
appears in the classification formula as the numerator, and the thumb of the left hand as the
denominator.
Symbol for Major Classification - The major classification is written with specific
symbols, which indicates the respective patterns of the thumb as being either whorls or loops.
Ridge Tracing or Ridge Counting - These symbols are governed by the ridge tracing
for whorls or the ridge counts for the loops.
Symbols for Loops: S (small) in loops (ridge count); M (medium) in loops (ridge
count); L (large) in loops (ridge count).
Loops Pattern in Both Thumbs - In a set of prints having loop patterns in both hands,
the ridge count of the left thumb governs the symbol for the right thumb.
Left thumb ridge count Right thumb ridge count
1 to 11 SMALL (S) 1 to 11 SMALL (S)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)
12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M) 1 to 11 SMALL (S)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L) 1 to 17 SMALL (S)

18 TO 22 MEDIUM (M)
Either Thumb Missing - When the thumb is missing, the missing one acquires the same
pattern, ridge count, or ridge tracing as the thumb of the opposite hand. On this assumption, the
classification proceeds as usual. Since the left thumb, real or assumed, is the denominator, it
governs the classification, filing and searching.
Grouping the Prints - Because specific symbols have been given for loops and others
for whorls appearing on the thumb, the prints are grouped according to their respective patterns.
Sequence - The filing for prints follows definite within each group.
Denominator governs the sequence - As in all other groups, the denominator governs
the sequence and remains unchanged until the numerator has exhausted the entire sequence.
Sequence for Loops - Since the loops in the thumbs are indicated as small (S), medium
(M), and large (L), the sequence is as follows:
NUMERATOR SML SML SML

DENOMINATOR SSS SSS SSS
36
Sequence for Whorls - For the whorls in the thumbs indicated as Inner (I), meeting (M),
and outer (O), the sequence is as follows:
NUMERATOR IMO IMO IMO

DENOMINATOR III III III
Loop and Whorl in Major - When the whorl appears in one thumb and a loop in the
other, a specific sequence is used.
Reference: One Thumb Missing - Although a classification was obtained for one
missing thumb, (as described above), it is necessary to continue the search in all possible
references. The original pattern of the missing thumb might be different from the thumb of the
opposite hand.
Both Thumbs Missing - If both thumbs are missing, they arbitrarily acquire the
classification of meeting whorls, and no other reference searches are necessary. No major
classification is obtainable if one thumb pattern is plain arch or tented arch. Such print will
pertain to the small letter group (referring to the secondary classification).
Radial Loop on Either or Both Thumbs - The major classification is obtained if a

radial loop is present on either or both thumbs because a ridge count is possible. However, the
print will be filed with the small letter group.
Key Classification
The key classification represents the ridge count of the right first loop appearing in a set
of prints, beginning with the thumb of the right hand but excluding the little finger.
Little Fingers Disregarded - The little fingers are totally disregarded in obtaining a key
classification, for they are exclusively used in the final classification.
Position - The key, no matter where it is found is always written at the extreme left of the
numerator.
Importance of the Key and Final Classification - The key and final maybe considered
the control figures for filing and searching. To limit the number of prints, it is necessary to
examine within a group.
Take Note: All answers obtained must be put/placed on the numerator of the key
classification. Write the Key at the Left of the entire formula, proceeding all other components of
the Classification Formula.
Little Fingers not used - If not used, the little fingers (regardless of their type patterns or
ridge count) as shown by the key for which they represent, are reserved for the final.
Key no loops - Make ridge count of whorl appearing in the thumb of the right at the
extreme left delta. This may be used as a key.
Key not possible - If the entire set of prints is composed of plain arches and tented
arches, the key cannot be obtained.
37
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Introduction
Definition of Forensic Chemistry

 It is defined as a branch of Chemistry that deals with the application of chemical
principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of
justice.
 It is chemistry applied in the elucidation of legal problem (Alexander de Asis Urbano,
2008).
Development of the Scientific Crime Laboratory in the Philippines

Typically based from the famous fiction, known as the Conan Doyle’s mastery creation,
“Sherlock Holmes”.
The scientific crime detection was started during the “St. Valentine’s Day massacre” that
happened in Chicago on February 14, 1929.
In the Philippines, the historical development of scientific application in the proper
administration of justice started on:
1. March 31, 1876 – a position of “Medicos Titulares” was created in the Philippines by the
virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain.
 Every province has Forensic physician assigned to perform public sanitary duties
and as medico-legal aids in the administration of justice.
2. December 15, 1884 – Governor General Joaquin Javellar created committee to study
the mineral waters of Luzon, and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist.
3. September 13, 1887 – the government established the “Laboratorio Municipal de
Manila” under the inspection of the “Direccion General de Administration Civil”, and
under the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”.
 For analyses of food and water, for public health and legal medicine, and take
charge of the specimens for clinical purposes.
4. June 17, 1888 – Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director after competitive
examination
Evidence
 It is a proof of allegation.
 It is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining in judicial proceedings the truth respecting
a matter of fact (Section 1 Rule 128, Rule of Court).
38
Physical evidence
 any article or material found in connection to crime investigation, that assists in the
prosecution to identity the perpetrator
 any object that can establish for the commission of crime, or can provide a link between a
crime and its victim, or a crime and its perpetrator.
Evidence can be classified as:

a. direct
b. indirect or circumstantial
c. hearsay
a. Direct evidence
 Is simply what the senses perceived.
 Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he or she saw, heard, smelled,
touched or tasted.
b. Indirect or Circumstantial Evidence

 Is an evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences from proved facts
 An evidence which establishes a fact or circumstance from which the court may
infer another fact at issue.
Example:
To illustrate this kind of evidence, assume that while a policeman was
walking his beat, he heard a scream from a house. He ran to the house, and
immediately he saw a man coming out of the house holding a bloody knife. Right
away, the policeman placed the man under arrest and entered the house. He found
a woman slumped to the floor in a pool of blood with stab wound on the breast. In
this case, the only direct evidence to which the policeman can testify would be
that he saw the man came out of the house holding a bloody knife. He cannot
testify positively that the man killed the woman, yet the fiscal may seek to
establish a conclusion that the man with the knife is the killer by inference from
the proved facts testified to by the policeman.
Circumstantial evidence
 Is sufficient to produce conviction if there is more than one circumstance, the facts
from which the inferences derived are proven, and the combination of all the
circumstances can produce conviction beyond reasonable doubt.
c. Hearsay evidence
 Is a statement made by witness on the authority of another, and not from his or her
own personal knowledge and observation.
 It is inadmissible to court except with certain well-defined exceptions, such as
declaration:
a. against interest
b. dying declaration
c. of res gestae
d. of reputation
e. of public records
39
f. of statement made at a prior time.
Res gestae – Latin word means “things done”

 in hearsay law, is considered to be the exception to the rule
 the acts, circumstances, and statements that are incidental to the facts of a
litigated matter, and which are admissible as evidence
 is a declaration that is made so clearly and so close in connection with the timing
of the event that it can be used to prove that the event actually happened
Example:
The witness testifies that his neighbor shouted “Thief! “, and the witness
immediately saw the accused running away with television in one arm, this
declaration may be admissible as evidence, because his declaration adds
clarity to the situation, and essentially proves that the accused stole the TV.
 this is what makes res gestae an exception to the hearsay law
Investigator
 is a fact-finder
 is responsible and knowledgeable in procuring acceptable evidences that remain
impregnable to any attack by the opposing council.
Scientific evidence
 is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding, the truth respecting
a matter of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary.
 is an evidence that conformed to the principles and techniques of science.
Forms of Scientific Evidence
A. Real or Autoptic evidence – the evidence addressed to the court by the witness
based on what has been perceived by the senses of vision, hearing, taste, smell or
touch.
B. Testimonial evidence – a solemn oral declaration made by a witness, mostly expert,

under oath in response to interrogations done by both parties in the case.
C. Experimental evidence – an evidence taken from the experiments of the expert

witness to prove a certain matter of fact.
D. Documentary evidence – any relevant written evidence presented by an expert

witness in court.
Example:
a. formal written report
b. expert opinion
c. certificates
d. dispositions
Witness
 Anyone who testifies in court and has personal knowledge to give information
concerning on what is going to be testified.
 can be an ordinary or expert witness
40
Difference between Ordinary and Expert Witness

Ordinary Witness Expert Witness
1. Can only state what his/her Can state what his/her senses perceived and
senses have perceived also give the opinions, deductions or
conclusions to his perceptions
2. May not be skilled on the Must be skilled in the line (art, science, trade,
line he/she is going to testify etc.) he/she is going to testify
3. Cannot testify on things or Can testify on things he/she has not seen by
facts that have not perceived giving opinions, deductions or conclusions on
by his/her senses the statement of facts
Practices of Forensic Chemistry
Four stages of the work of Forensic Chemist:

1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined
2. The actual examination of the specimen
3. Communication of the results of the examination
4. Court appearance
1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined

 Upon receipt, the chemist should rely on the knowledge and integrity of the investigator
handling the specimen, since questions regarding the collection and transmittal of the
specimen are raised during trial.
 In the collection of specimens, the following guiding principles must be observed in the
practice of forensic chemistry:
a. Sufficiency of the samples – adequate amount of the samples is necessary for
series of tests to obtain successful results
b. Standard for comparison – if the evidence in question is found in the presence of
foreign substance, a sample of the foreign substance must be submitted for
analysis
c. Maintenance of individuality – each evidence must be collected and preserved as
a separate sample.
d. Labeling and sealing – a valuable evidence will lose its value if not properly
labeled and sealed upon receipt by chemist
2. The actual examination of the specimen

 The first step is to scrutinize the specimen carefully; record the complete descriptions of
its appearance including the manner in which it is secured and the particulars of the
sealing.
3. Communication of the results of examination
41
 The expert should communicate properly with the results of the examination to the
requesting party through formal report on:
a. The brief but sufficient findings and conclusion of examination.

b. The detailed description of the articles received from packing, sealing and labeling,
date of receipt and from whom received, the purpose of examination, and to the
findings and conclusion.
4. Court appearance
 The written report of the chemist is usually supplemented at a later date by oral evidence
if the case is brought to the court or fiscal’s office.
 The witness must be strong and composed, and avoid being irritated by the upbraiding of
the opposite counsel.
As Brouarded said “If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of Science. You
have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear
witness within the limits of Science.”
Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

1. Go slowly
 Take all the time necessary to make the case complete, no matter how urgent it
may appear or how pressing others may be of the result
2. Be thorough
 Make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied
with a qualitative analysis if a quantitative one be possible
3. Take notes
 Keep a full, neat and a clear record of everything observed and done
4. Consult others
 Do not just rely in the findings; If the case is not familiar, then consult others
who are most likely to know
5. Use imagination
 This is somewhat hazardous advice, since an expert with a vivid and uncontrolled
imagination is a dangerous person
 Use disciplined imagination to obtain good inferences and deductions from
slender and incomplete premises
6. Avoid complicated theories
 The simplest explanation is usually the right one.
Physical Evidence and Its Importance
 It is one of the most important factors in the investigation of crimes, whether crime
against person or property or against the state.
 It is the most damaging evidence which can break down the hardened criminal.
 Unlike testimonial evidence, the physical evidence does not tell a lie
It is heart-breaking to note that after spending laborious hours gathering the valuable
physical evidences, they just become valueless because of carelessness, ignorance,
negligence and mishandling of the specimen before they reach to crime laboratory.
Application of Microscopic Examination on Marijuana Leaf
1. Marijuana leaves, small twigs, seed hulls and flowering tops

42
 Exhibit characteristics of warty appearance due to the presence of non-grandular

hairs called cystolith hair which contain at their base the spheroidal cystolith of
calcium carbonate crystals.
 The presence of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) maybe shown by adding a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the slide to observe effervescence.
 Many of the cystolith hairs appear in the shape of bear claws. Other leaves may
exhibit fine hairs, but not the characteristic bear claw present in marijuana leaves. So
comparison with an authentic sample is important.
Blood and Bloodstains
Blood and Bloodstains
Blood
 The opaque red fluid of the blood vessel known as the circulating tissue of the body
which is composed of highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic
substances
 Has a normal pH ranging 7.35 – 7.45 which is faintly alkaline
Composition of Blood
1. Composed of 45% formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of these
three cells
a. Red Blood Cells or ERYTHROCYTES – circular biconcave discs of rounded edges
that contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen to various parts in the body.
b. White Blood Cells or LEUKOCYTES – are masses of nucleated protoplasm that
defend the body from invading microorganisms; help fight infection
c. Blood Platelets or THROMBOCYTES – cells that are produced by the bone
marrow and are necessary for proper clotting of blood; normally responsible for the
retraction of blood clot.
2. And 55% Plasma – the fluid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of:
a. 90% water
b. 10% solid – largely protein in nature and consists of albumin, several globulins and
fibrinogen
Albumin – the most abundant protein in the blood that binds in many drugs
Globulin – plays important role in the immune mechanism of the body; carries drug as
well as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.
Fibrinogen – the soluble precursor of fibrin, which forms blood clot.
Plasma – the yellowish fluid of the blood where numerous blood corpuscles are
suspended; it forms straw-yellow when blood is added with oxalate to prevent clotting.
Serum – a straw-yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for some
time wherein the blood contracts.
Problems in the Study of Blood
1. Where blood has to be reached?

 Possible from clothing, weapons, under fingernails, linings, pockets, seams and
the folds of the garments of the suspect, under the edges of the table, etc.
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2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain

blood
Blood can easily be decomposed. Clotting and drying start right away on exposure to
air.
 Sodium chloride can be added to preserve it for a week at room temperature, or
preserve it in a refrigerator.
 Around 4 to 5 OC is the ideal preserving temperature for blood and other
perishable specimens.
 Proper collection should be done as soon as possible
 Mere washing of clothing removes the blood
3. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
 Series of examinations should be done to determine if the stain is blood, if it is of
animal or of human, what blood grouping is present.
Chronological Test for Blood
I. Preliminary Test – determines whether the stain contains blood or another substance.
II. Confirmatory Test – test that confirms that the stain is really of blood.
III. Precipitin Test – determines whether the stain is of human or animal; if non-human, then
need to identify what animal family it is originated.
IV. Blood Grouping Test – determines the blood group or type of human blood
I. Preliminary Tests for Blood

1. Benzidine Test – an extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain, and even
to a very old stain with contaminations
 Most commonly used preliminary test for blood before, but its use was
discontinued since it was found to be carcinogenic.
Positive result: intense blue color
Limitation of the test:
 Benzidine test is not specific test for blood.
 It gives positive result to sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay
and gum.
 With these substances, the reaction is weaker and produce faint coloration.
2. Phenolphthalein Test – the alternative for Benzidine test

Positive result: rose pink or deep pink or permanganate color
 The test can give positive result to copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.
3. Guaiacum Test – a fairly delicate test that reacts to fresh blood only and not in the old
stain.
Positive result: beautiful blue color
 The test reacts positively to saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, gluten,
potatoes, perspirations and other oxidizing agent, but in faint coloration.
4. Leucomalachite Green Test – the test which is not as sensitive as the Benzidine test
Positive result: malachite green or bluish green
5. Luminal Test – an important presumptive identification for blood
 Luminal reacts with blood producing light rather than color.
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 By spraying luminal reagent to a suspected item, large area can be quickly

screened for the presence of bloodstains.
 The sprayed object must be in a dark area while being viewed for the emission of
light.
 Luminal is known to destroy important blood factors necessary for the forensic
characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to search blood
invisible to naked eyes
Positive result: luminescence or emission of light
Peroxidase – is an enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic

compounds by peroxide.
II. Confirmatory Tests for Blood

The actual proof that a stain is blood consists of establishing the presence of the
blood pigment hemoglobin or one of its derivatives.
Hemoglobin – the red coloring matter of the red blood cells.
Three Confirmatory Tests for Blood

1. Microscopic Test for Blood
 useful in the demonstration of blood corpuscles for making distinction between
mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood for the investigation of menstrual,
lochial and nasal charges.
Visible results:
a. Mammalian red blood cells – circular, biconcave discs with nucleus.
 Appear as characteristics non-nucleated discs
 Camel and llama are exempted – their red blood cells are oval but without
nucleus
b. Birds, fish and reptile red blood cells – large, oval and nucleated
c. Amphibian red blood cells – are larger than mammals, oval and nucleated
d. Lamprey eel red blood cells – circular and nucleated
2. Micro-chemical Test and Microcrystalline Test for Blood
 The identification of blood can be more specific in micro-chemical or
microcrystalline test.
 Takayama test and Teicmann test are the most popular
Three Micro-chemical and Microcrytalline Tests for Blood

a. Teicmann Haemin Reaction or Teicmann Test or Haemin Crystal Test
 This test for the presence of hemoglobin
Positive result: dark brown rhombic crystal of haemin or haemin chloride
arranged singly or in cluster
b. Acetone–Haemin Test
 Test for the presence of acetone-haemin
 Positive result – small dark, diachronic acicular crystals of acetone haemin
c. Haemochromogen Crystal Test or Takayama Test

 A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin.
Positive result: large rhombic crystals of salmon pink color arranged in
cluster, sheaves and other forms that appear within 1–6 minutes when viewed
under low power objective.
45
 Heat may be applied to hasten the result

3. Spectroscopic Test
 The most delicate and reliable test to determine the presence of blood whether
recent or old.
 It is done using optical instrument Spectroscope for forming and examining
spectra
Positive result: produced dark colored bands, which vary with the type of blood
pigment:
a. Oxyhemoglobin – will produce two bands (hemoglobin – broad band)
b. Carboxyhemoglobin – will produce spectrum similar to oxyhemoglobin.
III. Precipitin Test for Blood

Precipitin Test – is the standard test used to determine whether the blood or bloodstain is
of human or animal origin.
 It is very sensitive, and can even detect more than 15 years old bloodstain.
 Even extract of tissues from 4 to 5 years old mummies could give positive reaction to the
test.
 Test to determine the presence of proteins
Positive result:
1. Formation of a white cloudy line at the contact point of the fluids
2. Human blood or any protein of human origin – will react specifically with anti-bodies
present in the serum by the formation of cloudy ring or band at the interface of the two
fluids.
IV. Blood Grouping Test for Fresh Blood
If the specimen is human blood, the test is applied to identify the blood grouping or blood
type of the blood in question.
Land Steiner – discovered the four blood groups as: Group O, Group A, Group B and
Group AB.
 used the A-B-O System in blood grouping of fresh blood
 he named the four groups on the basis of the agglutinogen or antigen content of the red
blood cells
Antigens or Agglutinogens – are characteristic chemical structures or “principles” that
are found on the surface of each red blood cell, which stimulate the production of
agglutinins.
Classification of agglutinogens:
a. Agglutinogen A
b. Agglutinogen B
Serum – contains proteins or “principles” known as antibodies or agglutinins

Agglutinin – can cause agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells
 an antitoxin substance within the body which reacts to a specific antigen to protect the
system
Blood Grouping Test Experiment
Beinsten’s Theory of Blood Group Inheritance
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Beinten’s Theory – implies that the blood group of any individual is composed of a pair of
the three allelic genes A, B and O; a combination from the genes of the father and the
mother.
 The genes A and B are dominant over gene O.
 Genes A and B determine the presence of the corresponding agglutinogens, while gene O
determines the absence.
 The possible pairings of the three genes could form six different genotypes with four
phenotypes or blood groups.
Definition of Terms
1. Gene – a complex chemical unit or a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA found in

chromosomes which is responsible in the transmission of hereditary traits or
characteristics (Merriam–Webster, 2018)
2. Chromosomes – a pair of microscopic rod–shaped bodies bearing genes; there are 23
pairs of chromosomes in human body
3. Phenotype – refers to an observable or detectable expression of traits or characteristics;
what can be detected or observed
4. Genotype – refer to the traits or characteristics formed through a pair of genes or alleles
found inside the cell; cannot be seen or observed
5. Homozygous or pure genotype – the allele has the same pair of gene; example AA, BB,
OO
6. Heterozygous or hybrid genotype – the allele is composed of different pair of genes;
example AB, AO, BO
7. Gametes – sexual cells; reproductive cells that unite with one another to form cell that
develops into a new individual
8. Sperm cell or microgamete – male sexual cell
9. Egg cell or macrogamete – female sexual cell
10. Zygote – pair of genes occurring in a gamete produced during fertilization; the cell
formed by the union of ovum and sperm
11. Allele – is a pair of similar or different genes which determines the expression of
inherited characteristics of individual
Rh Blood Group System

 the second most important human blood group system after the ABO blood group system
 consists of 49 defined blood group antigens; antigens D, C, c, E & e are the 5 most
important antigens
Rh factor – originally abbreviated from “Rhesus factor”, since it was first detected in
rhesus monkey by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener in 1937.
 It is one of the genetically determined antigens present in the red blood cells of most
people or higher animals and capable of inducing intense immunogenic reactions
Rh(D) – is denoted by positive or negative after the ABO blood type to indicate its
presence or absence, respectively.
 Example: A+ ; B – ; AB – ; O+ ; A–
 Most Filipinos are Rh(D) positive; some of the foreigners are Rh negative
Antibodies of Rh(D) antigens and antibodies of Rh antigens can be involve in hemolytic
transfusion reactions, hence confer significant risk to hemolytic disease of the fetus and
newborn.
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Grouping of Dried Bloodstains
Absorption technique or absorption–elution technique – is an indirect grouping

technique of bloodstain, which depends on the detection of agglutinogen in the dried
blood.
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
The examination of semen or seminal stains plays an important part in the

criminal investigation of sexual crimes such as rape, adultery, sodomy, bestiality, sexual
homicide, etc.
Semen – a whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting spermatozoa suspended
in the secretion of accessory glands.
Parts of Semen
a. Seminal Fluid – has alkaline odor, viscid and gelatinous.
 Contains a volume of 1.5 mL to 3.5 mL in a single ejaculation of a healthy young
man with 400 to 500 million sperm cells
b. Formed cellular elements containing
1. Spermatozoa or sperm cell – a microscopic object having pear–shaped head with
short neck and longer tail about ten times longer than its head
2. Epithelial cells
3. Crystal of choline and lecithin
Semen
Conditions of a person with respect to the presence of sperm cells

1. Potent person – has normal range of sperm count in his single ejaculation, and is capable
of producing an offspring.
2. Oligospermia – has low or few sperm count in single ejaculation
 Oligo – means few
3. Aspermia – has no sperm cell at all in single ejaculation
Possible causes of the two abnormalities of sperm count

1. Due to excessive sexual intercourse
2. Suffering from chronic epididymitis or other testicular diseases
3. Suffering from chronic venereal diseases
Four Examinations for Semen and Seminal Stain

A. Physical Examination
B. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid Phosphatase Test
C. Microscopic Examination
D. Biological Examination
A. Physical Examination of Seminal Stain
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a. Dried semen gives stiff and starchy condition to the cloth and produces slight
deepening of the color with disappearance of the odor
 Stiffness disappears if specimen is not properly dried in an open air.
 Presence of moisture can cause contamination and destruction to the stiffness of
the specimen; the bacteria destroy the albuminous matter and disintegrate the
spermatozoa.
b. Seminal stain exhibits bluish fluorescence under the UV light.
 The UV light is used to locate the invisible seminal stain on the cloth.
 The seminal stain exhibits bluish fluorescence if the cloth is clean and not dark
colored.
 Bluish fluorescence is not specific for only seminal stain; it could be seen in other
albuminous materials.
c. Grayish white or yellowish stain – is typical for seminal fluid
d. Has appearance forming outline of contour map
e. May have a reddish tint in case of old man
B. Chemical Examination of Seminal Stain
a. Florence Test – named after Dr. Florence of Lysons, who first introduced it
 Positive Result – crystals of choline periodide which are dark brown rhombic or
needle shaped that occur singly or in cross or even grouped in clusters; they
resemble haemin crystal in shape, size and color
 Negative result – due to the absence of seminal or the spermatic fluid had very
low choline content due to over dilution
 The test is only preliminary; presence or spermatozoa confirms the presence of
seminal stain.
b. Barberio’s Test – a test which is almost specific to human semen

 It gives positive result to seminal stain as old as 6 years
 The test is carried out with fresh, dried or dissolved semen
Positive result – crystals that are slender yellow tinted, rhomboid needles with
obtuse angle or appear as ovoid crystals which are made of specimen picrate.
c. Acid Phosphatase Test – is the best way to locate and to characterize a seminal stain,
which is specific for human and higher apes.
 Is more reliable than Florence Test
 It is based fundamentally on the extraordinary high acid phosphatase content of
the human male ejaculate.
 Positive result – purple color, which indicates presence of acid phosphatase
Phosphatase – is the enzyme present in semen that accelerates the hydrolysis and
synthesis of organic esters of phosphoric acid and the transfer of phosphate groups to
other compounds
C. Microscopic Examination
 the chief purpose is to determine the presence of spermatozoa
 Determination of sperm cells in fresh semen is easier than in stain.
D. Biological Examination of Semen and Seminal Stain
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Spermato-precipitins – are important in the identification of seminal fluid in

certain cases like bestiality, wherein it is desirable to differentiate the human
seminal fluid from that of the animal.
This test was originally proposed by Farnum in 1901.

 He injected human semen to a rabbit for 5 to 8 times within 6 to 8 days.
 The serum obtained from the blood of a rabbit gave a precipitate with both recent
and old emulsions of human semen
In 1928, Hektoem and Rustinant showed that an antiserum produced by immunizing

rabbits with human semen gave positive reaction with the human blood.
Gunpowder and Other Explosives
Gunpowder
Three most important problems in the investigation using firearms

1. Determination whether or not a person has fired the gun with bare hands within a
pertinent period of time.
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range with respect to the target at the time of
discharged.
3. Determination of the time of firing.
Two kinds of Gunpowder
1. Black powder – the oldest known explosive, consist of intimate mixture of charcoal –
15%, sulfur – 10%, potassium nitrate (or sodium nitrate) – 75%
 Its use has been abandoned in the modern ammunition plants due to its inherent
defects
 Its chemical reaction when exploded in open space
2KN03 + 3C + S  3CO2 + K2S + N2
 This reaction holds true if the composition of the powder is uniform, pure and no
side reactions take place.
 But slight difference in composition cannot be avoided and side reactions cannot be
controlled
2. Smokeless powder – the most widely used propellant, consist of cellulose nitrate (or
with glyceryl nitrate) and some stabilizers.
 The chemical reaction when exploded in open space:
C12H14O4(NO3)6  9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2

(Cellulose nitrate)
4C3H3(NO3)3  12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2
(Glyceryl nitrate)
Stabilizers – are added to reduce side reactions

 These combine with the products of decomposition and may have a positive or
negative catalytic effect.
1. Inorganic stabilizers
a. Nitrate b. bichromate c. oxalate
2. Organic stabilizers
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a. Nitrobenzene b. graphite c. Vaseline
Possible Locations of Nitrates When Black or Smokeless Powder Explodes
Nitrate residues are expected to be found at

1. the barrel of the gun
2. in or around the wound
3. on the clothing of the person who fired at closer range
4. on the exposed surface of the hand who fired the gun
I. Determination Whether or Not a Person Fired the Gun with Bare Hands
The burned and partially burned residues may escape around the breech of the gun and
implanted on the exposed surface of the hand firing the gun and the presence of these particles
serve as a basis for the Diphenylamine – Paraffin Test (DPA Test).
Chemical Tests for Determining Gunpowder Residues

1. Diphenylamine – Paraffin Test or Dermal Nitrate Test or Lunge
2. Walker’s Test
A. Diphenylamine – Paraffin Test
Procedure:
a. Paraffin Test
 From 1 foot above the hand and with the use of cotton, drop gradually the molten
paraffin wax to penetrate into the skin.
 Then put a clean gauze or thin layer of cotton with sufficient paraffin wax to
mold a cast about 1/8 inch.
 Press the layer while still warm against the area to be examined to extract the
nitrates embedded or implanted into the skin
b. Diphenylamine Test
 With extra care since sulfuric acid is corrosive, use clean dropper to put DPA
solution all over inside the cast to determine the presence and distributions of
nitrates. Observe the formation of blue specks.
Visible result: deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with the DPA
solution
B. Walker’s Test – this test is used if the gunpowder particles are deeply embedded into the skin.
It is based on the conversion of nitrates into dye
Visible result: orange – red spots imprinted on the photo paper
II. Determination of the probable gunshot range with respect to the target at the time of
discharged
The clothing of the victim with bullet perforation should be submitted to laboratory to
determine the possible gunshot range.
Characteristic Patterns of Gunpowder Residues

1. Gaping hole – fabric is badly torn due to direct contact
2. Singeing – slight burning at the entrance hole
3. Smudging – soot collar formation; blackening around bullet hole
4. Tattooing – black peppered pattern specks of nitrates
Three Zones of Firing Distances and Evidences:
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1. Direct contact – the gun touches the target upon firing

 Gaping hole
 Singeing
 Smudging
 Tattooing
2. Short distance – the gun is held within 2 – 36 inches distance
a. Between 2 – 8 inches
 Hole – no more gaping
 Smudging – diminishing upon moving 8 inches
 Tattooing – visible & becoming few as moving 8 inches
b. Between 8 – 36 inches
 Hole
 Tattooing – visible and few
3. Long distance – the gun is held beyond 36 inches
 Hole
 Tattooing – faint and seldom present
Explosives
The Crime Laboratory does not only examine explosives confiscated from lawless elements
of the society that are utilized for criminal purposes, but also explosives used in illegal
fishing.
Explosive – is any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition or
combustion.
 Any material either pure or mixture which is capable of producing an explosion by
its own energy
 When exploded, always accompanied with the liberation of heat and the formation
of smoke
Classification of Explosives based from:

A. Viewpoint of chemical composition
B. Functioning characteristics
Classification of explosives from the viewpoint of chemical composition

1. Inorganic compound
Examples:
a. Lead azide – Pb(N3)2 or PbN6
b. Sodium azide – NaN3 or N3Na
c. Ammonium nitrate – NH4NO3
2. Organic compound
Examples:
a. Trinitrotoluene (TNT)– 2,4,6Trinitrotoluene – C7H5N3O6 or C7H5(NO2)3
b. Picric acid – 2,4,6 Trinitrophenol – C6H2OH(NO2)3
c. Nitrocellulose – [C6H7(NO2)3O5]n
d. Mercury fulminate – Hg(CNO)2
3. Mixture of oxidizable material and oxidizing agents that are not explosives
separately
Example:
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Black powder – used today as mainly igniter for nitrocellulose gun propellants and also in
pyrotechniques
 Has approximate empirical formula of C7H4O
Classification of explosives based from the functioning characteristics
1. Propellants or Low Explosives – are combustible materials containing oxygen needed for
combustion, which can be burnt but do not explode, and function by producing gas which
produces explosion.
Examples: black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers, pyrotechniques.
2. Primary Explosives or indicators – explode or detonate when they are heated or subjected
to shock.
 They do not burn; they do not contain the elements necessary for combustion
 The materials themselves explode, and the explosion results whether they are
confined or not
Examples: mercury fulminate, lead azide
3. High explosives – explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of the
primary explosive
 They do not function by burning; not all can be ignited by a flame, and can be
extinguished easily
 If heated to a high temperature by external heat or by their own combustion, they
sometimes explode
Examples:
1. Ammonium nitrate (AN) – most readily available and the cheapest salt of nitric acid;
white compound used as a solid oxidizer in explosive mixture
2. Dynamite – made by mixing nitroglycerine with powdered clay or sawdust
3. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) – the most widely used explosive
 Used mostly for military explosive
 A safe explosive
 It will burn but does not explode if set on fire
4. Nitroglycerine (NG) – widely used in industrial explosive
 Main component in many dynamites
 A mixture of nitric acid, sulfuric acid and glycerine
 A very dangerous oily liquid since the slightest shake will cause it to explode
5. Plastic explosive – a military explosive that looks like ordinary putty or molding clay
 They are military explosives chiefly solid or mixture formulated to be solid at
normal temperature of use
6. Picric acid – also called Trinitrophenol (TNP)
Other explosives
1. C–4 - often referred to as a plastic explosive

 White and dough–like in consistency
 Commonly encountered in the RDX based explosive
2. RDX – (1,3,5–trinitro–1,3,5–triazacyclophexane)
 Also called hexogen or cyclonite or cyclotrimethylenetrinitramite
 A plastic explosive
 Most important military explosives used today
3. Chloroacetophenone – commonly used tear gas
 the principal constituent in the filter used in tear gas solutions
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4. Fire bombs
a. Molotov cocktail – is an incendiary device, not a bomb

b. Modern Molotov – consists of 2/3 and 1/3 gas and sulfuric acid,
c. Acids mixed with gasoline and wicks attached to the outer bottle
d. Mixture of alcohol and gasoline using a chrome oxide strip to the bottle which when
thrown will burst vi
Hair and Textile Fiber

HAIR
 Is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human
body except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet
 It is an appendage of the skin, which is not completely round but may be oval or
flattened; its width is not always the same along its length
 It is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence which is even older than fingerprints;
very resistant to decomposition and putrefaction, hence cannot easily be destroyed as
evidence
 The successful investigation of crimes and violence such as rape, murder, assault,
kidnapping, hit and run, etc. are usually assisted by the result of the examination of the
hairs and fibers.
Two Kinds of Hair (among mammals including human being)
1. Real Hair – generally long and stiff
2. Fuzz hair – generally short, fine at times curly and wooly
Parts of the Hair
1. Root – portion embedded in the skin

2. Shaft – portion above the surface of the skin. It is the most distinctive
part of the hair.
3. Tip – sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair shaft.
THE HUMAN HAIR

Parts of the Shaft:
1. Cuticle – outermost covering of the hair.
 It is consists of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal cells which overlaps like
the scales on fish.
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2. Cortex – the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is composed of
elongated, spindle shaped fibrils which cohere.
 Contains pigment granules in varying proportion depending on the type of the
hair.
3. Medulla or Core – is the central canal of the hair that may be empty or may contain
various sorts of cells more or less pigmented and begins more or less near the root.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR
Before examination, take note and identify any foreign materials on the hair if present in
sufficient quantity. Hair should be cleared with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether.
1. Color – through naked eye or under the microscope

Melanin – the brownish-black pigment in the hair, skin, etc.
 It is the chemical responsible for the color of the hair.
 Black and brown hair differs only on the amount of melanin.
 Red hair is thought to be due to iron
2. Length By Actual Measurement
3. Character of The Hair – whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width Breadth
5. Character of the hair tip if present
 Tip of the hair may show whether a hair has been cut.
 Tips of body hairs become rounded from rubbing against the cloths.
 Hair of human usually shows a fine tip. Men’s hair tip is apt to be cutoff square.
TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

1. Living roots – often found on hair in full growth
2. Dry roots – dead roots
MEDULLA
 The medulla and cortex are the most characteristics portion of hair.
 Have more distinguishing qualities, thus cortex and medulla yield the most reliable criteria
in the diagnosis of hair.
Medulla or core or the central of the hair can be continuous, solid, fragmented or interrupted.
 It is continuous in large number of animals
 Very often interrupted in humans, monkeys and horses.
Medulla’s diameter can be absolutely constant which can be alternately narrow and broader.
Its diameter is of very little importance but the relationship between the diameter of the
medulla and the diameter of the whole hair is the great importance.
Medullary Index (M.I.) – is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair.
 Usually expressed in fraction.
 Its determination is performed under a microscope provided with micrometer eyepiece.
A comparison of the medullary index of the hair from the different parts of the body
between man and woman is given in the table below:
Body Parts Hair Man Woman

Neck 0.115 0.163
Forehead 0.132 0.148
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Eyebrows 0.236 0.233

Eyelashes 0.095 0.146
Beard 0.260 -
Genitals 0.153 0.114
Armpits 0.102 0.179
COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR
HUMAN ANIMAL
1. Medullary index is less than 0.5 Medullary index is more than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present Medulla always present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each Scale is coarse and overlaps less the other
one overlaps less than ½ more than 4/5
4. Pigment granules are fine Pigment granules are coarse
A. Characteristics by Sex
 Sex cannot be definitely determined from a hair examination.
 Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in texture than that
of a female.
 Male hair averages approximately 1/350 of an inch in diameter.
 Female hair averages approximately 1/450 of an inch in diameter.
B. The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed
 The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed can be determined
with considerable accuracy that is through length, size, color, stiffness, curliness and
general gross appearance.
a. Scalp hairs – they are more mature than any other kind of human hair.
b. Beard hairs – coarse, curved, very stiff and often triangular in cross section.
c. Moustache – usually triangular in shape and very stiff.
d. Hairs for eyebrows, eyelid, nose and ear – short stubby and have wide medulla.
 Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and have sharp tips.
e. Trunk hairs – vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are
somewhat similar to head hairs.
 They have fine, long tip ends.
f. Limb hairs – similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and
usually contain less pigment.
g. Axillary hairs – are fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment.

 They vary considerably in diameter along the shaft and have frequently a
bleached appearance.
 They have irregular shape and structure.
 They look like pubic hair but the ends are sharper and the hair is not so
curly.
56
h. Pubic hairs – similar to axillary hairs but are coarser and do not appear bleached.
 More wiry and have more constrictions and twists and usually have
continuous broad medulla.
 Have many broken ends because the clothing rubs off against it.
TEXTILE FIBERS
In general, and broad sense, the word “textile” is derived from the Latin word “textilis”
and the French “textere”, to weave, hence textile fiber means that can be converted into yarn. A
yarn consists of fibers or filaments that have been twisted together.
Schematic Diagram for the Classification of Fiber

TESTS FOR TEXTILE FIBERS
1. Burning or Ignition Test
 It is a preliminary macroscopic examination.
 A test that determines whether a fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable.
Animal fibers
 Fibers smolder (burn slowly with smoke but no flame) and give odor like that of burning
feather.
 When removed from the flame they do not continue to burn readily and a charred bead
remains at the end of the fiber.
 Fumes turn red litmus blue.
i. Wool – odor is strong, disagreeable; fumes turns lead acetate paper into black or brown
j. Silk – odor is not so pungent, fumes have no effect on lead acetate paper.
Vegetable fibers
 Fibers burn rapidly with a flame and give off but little smoke or fumes.
 Charred bead not present when fiber is removed from the flame.
 Fumes turn blue litmus red.
2. Fluorescent Test
 Used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs.
 It is not reliable for positive identification of fibers.
 In general, the vegetable fibers exhibit a yellow fluorescence.
Table for fibers fluorescence obtained by Noptisch and Mr. O’neil:

Material Color under Ultraviolet Daylight color
1. Unbleached wool Brilliant light blue Light yellow
2. Bleached wool Bluish-white to bluish yellow white
3. Bleached cotton Light-yellow white
4. Mercerized cotton Light-yellow white
5. Bleached linen Brilliant yellowish-white white
6. Cuprate silk Reddish-white, with blue-violet shadow Brownish-white
7. Viscose silk Sulfur yellow with blue shadow Brownish-white

8. Nitro silk Brilliant fresh yellow Yellowish
9. Acetate silk Bluish violet white
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Very bright light blue much brighter and

10. Natural Silk white
whiter than acetate silk
3. Microscopic Examination
 In general, it is the most reliable and best means of identifying fiber.
 The fiber is placed on a glass slide, teased and covered.
Characteristics of Common Textile Fibers:
A. Cotton
 Unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis, central
canal or lumen broad uniform in diameter;
 Cell wall is thick, covered by a thin, structureless, waxy cuticle.
 Fiber tapers become blunt or rounded point at one end.
B. Mercerized Cotton
 Straight, cylindrical, with occasional twists;
 Evenly lustrous, smooth except for occasional transverse fold or wrinkles.
 Cuticle is mostly lacking, lumen irregular in width.
C. Linen
 Multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a
sharp point.
 Cell wall is thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber.
 Filament marked by transverse lines at intervals causing the fiber to appear jointed,
resembling bamboo.
 Cross lines frequently interest appearing like the letter X.
D. Cultivated silk
 Smooth, cylindrical, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin-filaments
held together by an envelope of gum.
 More or less transparent, without definite structure.
E. Wild Silk
 Similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline.
 Marked by fine longitudinal striations with diagonal cross-markings.
F. Artificial Silk
 Cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
 Micro-chemical reactions, dissolved rapidly by half saturated chromic acid;
 Not colored by Millon’s reagent as in case of true silk
G. Wool
 Easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal scales not found on
silk or any of the vegetable fibers.
 Fiber is many-celled, cylindrical; shaft is composed of three layers;
 Central core or medulla is seldom seen; cortex and scaly cuticle
CHEMICAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
In the examination of questioned documents, people could hardly believe that it is within the
province of a forensic chemist.
But if they consider the fact that the essential materials in a document examination of any
kind are the paper and ink or pencil, and the chemical examination of inks, erasures,
alterations and sequence of writing are often associated with such examination, then it will
be very evident that there is a large amount of purely chemical work in document
examination.
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Document
 An original or official written or printed-paper furnishing information or used as a proof
of something else.
 Is any object that contains handwritten or typewritten markings whose source or
authenticity is in doubt
THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. Examination and Comparison of Paper
The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or
pencil or writings.
a. The examination of paper is necessary if we want to know the age of the document, the
presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.
Substances Used for Writing:
Egyptian papyrus – one of the earliest substance used for writing.

 It is from the name papyrus that the word paper was derived.
After papyrus, came parchment and velum, then linen rag followed by mixture of linen and
cotton or cotton only.
Paper was made from a variety of fibrous materials that started about the middle of the 19 th
century.
a. 1800: straw was first used
b. Between 1845 and 1880: from soda wood pulp
c. 1869: from chemical wood pulp
d. Between 1880 and 1890: from sulfite wood pulp
e. At present a thin sheet of matted or felted vegetable fiber (usually wood pulp) with
filler as clay and sizing material as rosin or starch.
THE FOUR TESTS FOR PAPER
1. Preliminary Examination – deals with the appearance of the document to observe the
following:
a. Folds and creases
b. Odor
c. Impression caused by transmitted light – gives indication of color
 Translucency – where tampering is made,
 Change in tint – which indicates substitution of sheets of paper, watermarks or
wire marks.
d. Presence of discoloration in daylight and under the ultraviolet light.
Watermark – a faint design made in some paper during manufacture that is visible when held
against the light and typically identifies the maker.
2. Physical Test Causing No Perceptible Change – a test applied on paper without perceptible
changing or altering the original appearance of the document.
3. Physical Examination Causing a Perceptible Change – this is done only if sufficient samples
are available and if prior authorization from the court is required this can be done.
4. Chemical Test – this test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing
material used in the paper.
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THE ANALYSIS OF INK
Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of ink are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different from ink on other parts of the same
document or on other documents.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with identical ink, or
inks of different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as it purports to be.
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries
show natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one continuous
writing at one time under the same condition.
TYPES OF INK
1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink (blue)
 Today the most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for
business purposes.
 Gallotannic ink is made of a solution of iron salt (ferrous sulfate) and nutgall
(iron gallotannate).
 This ink can penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the
surface, thus making its removal more difficult to accomplish.
 The color changes undergone by this ink in the process of oxidation provides a
valuable means of estimating the approximate age of the writing.
Blue – with the naked eye; very recent
Violet – less recent
Black – still less recent
Changes Undergone by Gallotannic ink:
a. First reaching a maximum degree of blackening within the first year or two.
b. Then fades gradually over a period of many years until only a rust colored deposit
remains.
2. Logwood ink (black)
 The color is dependent on the inorganic salt added, but on drying and standing
they turn black.
 It is made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is added.
 Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of precipitate.
 Phenol is added as preservative.
 The ink is inexpensive, does not corrode steel pen.
 Will not be washed off the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine ink or aniline ink (blue black or purple black)
 Made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in water.
 It easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with
little difficulty.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India ink
 The oldest ink material known.
 Today, finely divided carbon is held in colloidal suspension and used to produce
deep black drawing and writing ink.
 Made of carbon in the form of lampblack.
 Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be
washed off.
 Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
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5. Colored writing ink

 Today most all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs
dissolved in water.
 In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing more
permanent.
6. Ballpoint pen ink
 Made of light fast dues solution in glycol type solvents like carbitol, glycol, or
oleic acid. Paper Chromatography can best analyze this ink.
OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
The detection and deciphering of illegible writing is one of the major problems in
document examination.
Illegible writing – is unnecessary writing which is not capable of being read usually made on
checks, birth certificate, passports and transcript of records.
Example of Illegible writing:
1. Erasures – the removal of writing from the paper. It can be made mechanically or
chemically
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking
materials.
3. Sympathetic ink – substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet
of paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears
5. Writing on carbon paper – remember that used sheets of carbon paper can made
readable.
6. Contact writing – blank paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact
with some writings
a. Erasure b. obliteration c. indented d. all of these
GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES
GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES

Glass is important as physical evidence because it breaks and the pieces are scattered at
the crime scene and on the suspect.
It is a common type of thing carried away as evidence in burglary and vehicle hit and run
cases & in collision.
The evidence maybe fragments of a headlight leads found at the scene of a hit and run
accident, window glass from the scene of robbery, or glass through which a bullet was
fired.
Glass
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 A super cooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity.

 It is a non-crystalline inorganic substance.
COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is usually composed of oxides like
a. SiO2 (silica or Silicon dioxide)
b. B2O3 (boric oxide or Diboron trioxide)
c. P2O5 (Diphosphorus pentoxide)
Silica – is the most important oxide for commercial use, which is the base of commercial glasses.
Commercial glass – is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides.
Oxide – is for fluxing, durability, and reduction of viscosity.
Method of Measuring Density of Glass:

Flotation method – is a rapid and convenient method of determining the density of small glass
fragments. Procedure and principle is the same as in soil.
Method of Measuring the Refractive Index of Glass:

Immersion method – method used to measure the refractive index of a glass.
HOW GLASS BREAKS?

How glass forms cracks when a blow or pressure is applied on one of its surface?
1. When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surfaces, the front for example, the glass
first bends a little owing to its elasticity.
2. When the limit of elasticity is reached, the glass breaks in radial lines starting from the
point where the portion or surface is more subjected to stretching by bending.
3. The front surface is only pushed.
4. While the radial fractures are taking place, the newly created glass triangle between the
radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force.
5. By this bending, the glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of
elasticity reached, the glass breaks in concentric cracks.
6. These originate at the front of the glass because of stretching.
ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES
1. Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes.
If an automobile or any vehicle in which fragments of the lens can be found, a
comparison maybe made with the fragments found at the scene of accident employing the
methods of analysis for glass.
ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS

Examination of window fragments in robbery case is important when there is a question
of “As to whether the glass was broken from the outside or inside?”
Since our penal law specifically provides the mode of entrance before a crime may be
classified as robbery, this particular kind of examination becomes very important.
The general procedure to determine whether the glass was broken from the outside or
inside or to determine the side from which a pane of glass was broken is to collect the
pieces of glass together as much as possible in order to study the patterns of cracks and to
be able to orient the pieces in their original position.
BROKEN WINDOW CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES
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Generally, the hole produced by a bullet of a strong charge has the sharpest edges; but if a
bullet has been fired from very long distance and has come to have a low speed it will
break the pane in the same manner as a stone.
A shot from a very short distance will produce the same result the pressure of the powder
gas itself will smash the glass.
How to determine the direction from which the shot was fired?
1. On one side of the hole, numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown
away giving the hole an appearance of a volcano crater.
 Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the opposite direction of the
hole from which the flakes are missing.
2. If the shot was fired perpendicular to the windowpane, the flake marks are evenly
distributed around the hole.
3. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than
from the right.
4. Excessive flaking on the right side of a windowpane would indicate a shot fired at angle
from the left.
(The direction is taken from the person shooting)
BROKEN WINDOW CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE
The direction of the blow in case a fist or a stone smashed the window is quite difficult
but the principle of radial crack and concentric crack or fracture will apply.
Glass fractures produced by a low-speed impact such as a rock (left) and by a high- speed
projectile such as a bullet (right)
The Principles of 3R’s Rule for Radial Crack

 States “stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The Principle of RFC Rule for Concentric Crack

 States “stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side”; that is the
side from which the blow came rather than the rear side.
THE BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW

Where there are two bullet holes in a window, one from each side, the problem of which
one was first, becomes important to determine who the aggressor is.
It will be found that the fractures caused by the first will be complete especially the radial
cracks. While in the second bullet, the radial cracks do not extend to the side of impact and
the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.
FOOT IMPRESSION AND TOOL IMPRESSION
The evidential value of an impression made by shoe, hand, tool or other articles is based in
the theory that no two physical objects are alike and hence that impressions made by such
object often is marked by uniquely identifying characteristics.
A given impression can only be produced by one project.
IMPRESSION
 A strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the surface.
 A stamp, form or figure resulting from physical contact.
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 It causes damage to object.

IMPRINT
 A weak mark made by pressure that stays on the surface.
In scientific criminal investigation, the problem of reproducing the faithful representation of
an object is of great evidential value.
In many cases, reliance has been placed on photographic representation may not serve the
purpose.
Using a mold called moulage can only make a faithful reproduction of these objects.
MOULAGE
 A faithful reproduction of an impression with the use of casting materials.
It is admitted that moulage cannot reproduce all characteristics of the object under all
circumstances, but whatever is mission in a moulage it can be supplied by the photograph.
CASTING MATERIAL
 Any material which can be changed from a plastic, powder or liquid state into solid
condition.
Plaster of Paris - is the best casting material for foot, shoe, hand and tire impressions.
Ways of Setting Plaster of Paris:

a. Hastening
 Add one half teaspoonful of table salt to the plaster.
b. Retarding
 Add one part of saturated solution of borax to ten parts of water to be used in
making the plaster.
 One teaspoonful of sugar may also be used.
c. Hardening
 To give a dried cast with greater durability, it can be placed in a saturated
solution of sodium bicarbonate and allow to remain in the solution for a couple of
time.
Drawback of Plaster of Paris:

1. Poor mechanical strength.
2. The fluid plastic flows into all the interstices of the mark, but when the cast is removed
from the mark the finer details have a tendency to break off.
TOOL IMPRESSIONS
Two General Classes of Tool Impressions:

1. Those produced by such instruments like axe, hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the
area only once in producing the impression.
a. Compression marks – produce by a single application of the tool in one area of
contact.
Example is the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction marks – these are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a
toll across the surface such as those produced by cutters, axe and jimmy.
2. Those produced by such instruments like saw or file that is applied in repeated strokes
over the same area. It is hard to identify since one-mark overlaps the other.
EXAMINATION OF TOOL IMPRESSION

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Examination of tool impression is done by comparative examination the purpose of

which is to determine or to show that the particular tool made the impression in question.
METTALURGY
In criminal investigation, the branch of science known as metallurgy will in most

instances be of great help in the solution of baffling problems involving pieces of metal or metal
articles. Robbery, arson, murder, kidnapping, hit and run, and counterfeiting are examples of this
investigative work.
METALLURGY – is the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical
and physical knowledge.
METALLOGRAPHY – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of
metals and alloy.
All metals are composed of minute grains or crystals, under the naked eye and when viewed
from a distance a metal appears to be homogeneous but when viewed under a metallography
microscope the crystal structure is visible. These crystals of the metal are tightly packed.
Counterfeit Coins
Counterfeit coins – are coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.
Two kinds of Counterfeit Coins

1. Cast coins – coins made in molds
2. Struck coins – coins made by striking or stamping method.
TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

 These can be restored by the application of etching fluid.
Etching fluid – is a fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers.

 Choice of etching depends on the structure of the metal bearing the original numbers.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL

NUMBERS
When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in the
neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed.
This disturbance penetrates the metal to an appreciable distance into the substance of the
metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations caused by the pouched
have been removed.
When etching fluid is applied to this surface the disturbed or strained particles of the metal
differ in the rate solubility makes it possible in many cases restore the number to such an
extent that they can be read and photograph.
SOIL (Petrography as Applied to Crime Detection)
Soil as evidence in murder, homicide, rape, robbery, kidnapping, hit and run accident
has been overlooked by most investigators, probably because it is such a common place
substance and is more or less taken for granted. Very few persons have realized that the soil
upon which they stand may have a different composition from the soil a few yards away.
Researchers have shown that soils are greatly diversified and vary considerably over the surface
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of the earth not only from widely separated points but also from points quite close together. This
is expected because soil represents not only original earthly delivered from the foreign rock of
the natural forces and the activities of living organism over millenia.
Petrography – is a branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and soils. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe
insulation, ceramics and other such materials both natural and artificial.
Soil means different things to different people.

 A farmer plants crops in it.
 An engineer builds with it.
 A miner takes mineral from it.
 Criminalist regards soil as the top layer of the earth.
 It may include any substance on the earth that may stick a person’s clothing or shoes.
TYPES OF SOIL
1. Alluvial soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to
the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. are deposited by moving water and wind.
 Its particles maybe derived from an almost infinite number of sources, and since the
action of water and wind would in few cases be identical over long periods of time in
different spots, great variations in composition would be expected.
2. Colluvial soil – formed from the decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks, the decomposed particles moved by gravity. Soil in which some movement and
intermingling of parts has occurred would be expected to be less variable.
3. Sedentary soil – inactive, not migratory soil.
CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
 The basic component of soil originates primarily from mechanical and chemical
decomposition of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
Rocks – are almost infinite variable in composition containing usually many different minerals.
Kinds of Rock
1. Igneous rock – is produced by volcanic or intense heat.

2. Metamorphic rock – had undergone changes in structure, texture through pressure, heat and
chemical reaction. Like limestone into marble.
3. Sedimentary rocks – are sandstones; rocks formed by sediments.
Constituents of Soil
1. Primary minerals
 Include undecomposed rock fragments ranging from stone down through pebbles, sand
and silt.
2. Clay mineral
 Is a product of decomposition of primary minerals
 Found nearly in all soils and is the major constituent of most heavy soil.
 It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and adherent on
heating.
 Pure clay soil varies from white through red, yellow, green, or blue depending on the
nature of the admixed impurities.
3. Organic constituents
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 Are ones of the most variable of all soil constituents which are of peculiar
importance in the identification of soil
 Agricultural land is likely to be rich in organic constituents both from growth
occurring on the land and from added materials such as manure, peat and cover
crops.
ANALYSIS OF SOIL
In the identification of soil, it is not necessary that all constituents be identified nor they be
separated.
Any method which quantitatively distinguished particles with characteristics appearance or
properties that would lead in proving identity or non-identity depending on whether the
distribution found in two soils are the same or different.
There are several methods of petrographic analysis that are being used in the laboratories to
establish the identity of two or more samples of soils.
But there is no procedure which is specially recommended.
DUST AND DIRT
Dust and dirt have been described as “matters in the wrong place”. The study of such
piece of evidence may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation of previous
where about of a person under investigation.
Dust – is a matter which is dry and in finely divided form.

Mud – is a dust mixed with water
Grime (heavy dirt) – is formed when dust is mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body.
COMPOSITION OF DUST
Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always contain derived
substances from plants and animals origin and from substances of mineral origin.
CLASSIFICATION OF DUST
For purposes of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their sources.
1. Dust deposited from the air – is extremely fine dust particles present in the air
everywhere.
 More abundant in thickly populated and industrial regions.
 Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on any exposed surface.
 Its value in crime detection is insignificant.
2. Road and footpath dust
 Is produced by the wear and tear of the road surface by vehicular and pedestrian
traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining
regions.
3. Industrial dust
 the industries like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of Paris
factories, flour milling, paint pigments, involve industrial processes that impart a
pronounce local character to the dust on the neighboring roads and buildings.
4. Occupational dust
 Some of the finely powdered material may be found on the clothing and footwear
of employees engaged in industries.
 Bricklayer may yield brick dust, sand and lime on the employee’s clothes.
 Coal miner may have coal dust on his clothes.
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DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
During the
forensic science by the British molecular
biologist Alex Jeffreys. From work in his
laboratory, as well from others, it was realized
that DNA has been utilized as a new powerful
tool for human identification. It offers the
following advantages:
1. DNA is stable – it can be isolated
from material that is months or even years old.
2. DNA can be destroyed from wide variety of biological resources like blood, semen, hair,
saliva and bone.
3. DNA can be replicated in the laboratory – from a very small amount of initial material
through the process of PCR (POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION).
4. DNA shows greater variability from one individual to the next.
WHAT IS DNA?
DNA is functionally the hereditary material that contains the genetic information
necessary for the duplication of cells and for the production of proteins. Chemically, it is an acid,
is phosphorous rich, it contains a deoxyribose sugar, it contains the four bases show the unique
property of pairwise equivalency. It is a double helix composed of two complimentary strands.
DNA – is a double helix spiral structure containing two strands that are connected anti-
parallel with each other.
 The strands served as the backbones that contained deoxyribose sugar and the
phosphate groups, which are linked with the nitrogen bases between them.
Components of DNA molecule:
1. Deoxyribose sugar
2. Phosphate groups
3. Nitrogen bases
Two kinds of DNA nitrogen bases

1. Purine (two rings)
a. Adenine (A)
b. Guanine (G)
2. Pyrimidine (1 ring)
a. Thymine (T)
b. Cytosine (C)
DNA Central Dogmatic Processes

1. DNA Replication – is the process in which DNA replicates itself to produce to
daughter DNA cells.
2. DNA Transcription – in the process of making RNA from a DNA template
3. DNA Translation – is the process wherein the RNA produced during transcription
will undergo translation process to produce amino acids which are the building
blocks for protein synthesis.
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Bonds connecting the parts of DNA

1. Phosphodiester bonds – connecting the sugar to the phosphate groups
2. Glycosidic bonds – connecting the sugar to the nitrogen bases
3. Hydrogen bonds – connecting the nitrogen bases
a. Double Hydrogen bonds – connecting Adenine and Thymine or Adenine and
Uracil
b. Triple hydrogen bonds – connecting Cytosine and Guanine
RNA – ribonucleic acid
Two kinds of RNA nitrogen bases

1. Purine – composed of two rings; are larger than pyrimidine
a. Adenine (A)
b. Guanine (G)
2. Pyrimidine – composed of one ring; smaller than purines
a. Uracil (U)
b. Cytosine (C)
 Take note that the Thymine in DNA is replaced by Uracil in the RNA
FACTS ABOUT DNA
1. DNA – de-oxy-ribo-nucleic-acid
Is a chemical substance found in all cells whose compositions have
been passed on from parents to their children. All cells in the body
have the same DNA composition, except individual egg and sperm
cells.
2. BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCES that can be submitted for DNA

analysis:
a. Blood and bloodstain
b. Semen and seminal stain
c. Hairs and follicles or root
d. Saliva or buccal swab
e. Bones and organs
f. Tissues and cells
DNA ANALYSIS
There are many types of DNA testing that are presently available. One detects the presence
of RFLP’s (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) in the DNA.
This commonly known as “DNA Profiling” of “DNA Fingerprinting” and in most cases
results in either a positive of exclusion of an individual as a donor.
This analysis requires approximately 100 nanograms of high quality DNA for a successful
determination.
DNA analysis in forensic casework was first performed using this technique.
In this approach, purified DNA is first cut with certain restriction endonuclease and then run
on an aragose gel.
The separated DNA fragments are subsequently blotted on to a membrane and exposed to
radioactivity – labelled probes specific for regions located between the restriction sites,
which vary in length within the population.
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Autobiography then reveals labeled restriction fragments, the banding pattern of which is
used for comparison between victim and suspect for comparison with a database.
The advent of PCR technology and its application to forensic science, brought a new way of
examining biological evidence and has paved the way for the other technique – the PCR
amplification and typing of the HLA DQAO1 and 5 polymarkers (PM) loci which require
only 2 nanograms of DNA. PCR analysis of biological evidence was first used in a criminal
case in the United Stated in 1986 and has been used in a large number of court cases and has
proved a reliable and widely accepted method for the examination of human identity.
HOW DNA ANALYSIS IS DONE?
DNA TYPING is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the evidentiary samples.
The DNA is then analyzed to give a particular pattern.
The patterns are compared with that of a known individual to determine a match.
In individual identification, the pattern obtained from the evidentiary sample is compared
with that of a suspect.
If the patterns are different the evidentiary sample definitely has not originated from the
suspect.
The DNA pattern of the evidentiary sample is similar to that sample arose from the suspect,
and not from a random individual in population is calculated from a formula based on well-
accepted concepts of statistical probabilities and population genetics using an established
population genetic database.
Probability calculations must show that no other person in the country or in the world could
possess such DNA pattern except the suspect.
Example:
 The probability of a matched DNA pattern being present in the Philippines indicates
how many people are expected to possess such pattern.
 If probability of pattern is 1 per 20,000, this means that there could be as many
3,600 (72 million/20,000) people having that pattern.
 Therefore, the DNA test is inconclusive.
 However, if DNA pattern has a probability of 1 to 1—million, since there are only
almost 80 million people in the Philippines, then the forensic sample must have
come from the suspect.
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology
 Its etymology is came from “toxico” that means poison, and “ology” which means study
of science.
 A branch of science that deals on poison, their origin, physical and chemical properties,
physiological action, the treatments of their noxious effects, and the methods of
detection.
 A science that deals with poisons and their effect and with the problems involved such
as clinical, industrial, or legal problems
Poison
 A substance that when introduced into the body and is absorbed through the blood stream
and acting chemically is capable of producing noxious effect.
 a substance that through its chemical action usually kills, injures, or impairs an organism
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Classification of Poison
A. According to Kingdom
1. Animal
Example:
Cantharides – From Latin, plural of cantharis, from Greek “kantharis
Spanish fly” (blister beetles)
Cantharidin – a powerful irritant vesicant substance obtained from many blister

beetles, and sometimes given the nickname "Spanish fly".
 It is claimed to have aphrodisiac properties, as a result of its irritant effects
upon the body's genitourinary tract, and can result in poisoning if ingested.
 Ingestion of blister beetles from infested hay causes similar serious toxic
symptoms in animals.
2. Vegetable
Example:
1. Strychnine – is a poisonous white, odorless and bitter crystalline powder
that can be ingested by mouth, inhaled, or mixed into a solution and
injected directly into a vein.
 If given orally or injected into muscle tissue, strychnine rapidly enters
the blood stream and severe symptoms of poisoning appear within
about 20 minutes.
 If injected directly into a vein, symptoms begin almost immediately.
B. According to Chemical Properties

1. Inorganic Poison – poison without carbon
a. Volatile – ex: bromine, chlorine, iodine
b. Non-volatile – ex: sulfuric acid
c. Mineral acid – ex: hydrochloric acid
d. Mineral alkalis – ex: sodium hydroxide
2. Organic Poison – poison that contains carbon

a. Volatile – ex: alcohol, chloroform
b. Alkaloid – ex: strychnine
c. Animal Poison – ex: snake venom
d. Bacterial – ex: ptomaine
e. Organic acid – ex: salicylic acid
f. Glucosides – ex: digitalis
Alkaloids – are nitrogenous organic basic compounds with bitter taste containing usually
oxygen that occurs especially in seed plants
C. According to Physiological Action
1. Corrosives – highly irritant poisons that can cause local destruction of tissues, and
characterized by nausea, vomiting, great local distress
Examples: strong acids and alkalis
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2. Irritants – are ones that produce irritation and inflammation to the mucus
membrane, and characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging.
Example: arsenic
3. Narcotics – are ones that produce stupor, complete insensibility, or loss of feelings
Examples: opium, Demerol and cocaine
4. Neurotics – ones that act chiefly on the nervous system producing delirium,
convulsion and respiration
Examples: CO, alcohol, opium and strychnine
5. Tetanic – substances that act chiefly upon spinal column producing such
spasmodic and continuous contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness or
immovability of the parts to which they are attached.
6. Depressants or sedatives – agents that retard or depress the physiological action
of an organ
Examples: nicotine and cocaine
7. Asthenic or exhaustive – agents that produce exhaustion, mark loss of vital or
muscular power
Example: hydrocyanic acid
D. According to Methods of Isolation

1. Volatile poisons which are those isolated by distillation with or without current or
steam.
Examples: alcohol, phenol, chloroform
2. Non-volatile poisons which are those isolated by organic solvents
Examples: alkaloids, organic acids
3. Metallic poisons which are isolated by refluxion.
Examples: arsenic, mercury
4. Substances where special method of isolation is required
Examples: acids and alkali metals which are extracted with water
Types of Poisoning:
1. From Medical Point of View
a. Acute poisoning – causing prompt and marked disturbance of functions or death
within a short period of time
 Due to either taking strong poison in excessive single dose or several
doses at short interval
b. Sub-acute poisoning – cases of short duration and extreme violence that may
include symptoms of chronic poisoning
c. Chronic poisoning – there is gradual deterioration of functions of tissues that may
or may not result in death.
 Either taking several doses at long interval or taking only toxic doses of
the drugs.
2. From Legal Point of View
a. Accidental poisoning – the poison has been taken without intention to cause
death. It may be taken by mistake or without knowledge of being poisonous.
b. Suicidal poisoning – the victim voluntarily took the poison for the purpose of
taking his own life
c. Homicidal poisoning – the poison was given to the victim willfully, wantonly ad
with intent to cause death to the victim
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d. Undetermined poisoning – the history is hazy as to how the poison was obtained
and why it was administered
Actions of Poison
1. Local – the changes or disturbance produced on the part with which the poison
come in contact.
Example: the corrosion produced by corrosive poison
2. Remote – the changes or disturbance produced in distant parts away from the site
of application.
Example: Dilation of the pupils when belladonna was taken orally
3. Combined – the effect of the poison is not only localized at the site, but also
affects remote organs.
Example: phenol causes corrosion to the gastro-intestinal tract (local) and causes
convulsion (remote).
Posology – a branch of science that treats on the form and quantity of medicine to be
administered within a certain period.
Kinds of Dose
1. Safe dose – does not cause harmful effect
2. Toxic or poisonous dose – harmful to both healthy and sick
3. Lethal dose – can kill a person
4. Minimum dose – the smallest amount that will produce the therapeutic effect
without causing harm
5. Maximum dose – the largest dose that will cause no harm, but at the same time
produce desired therapeutic effect.
Elimination of Poison
1. Emesis 5. milk
2. Respiration 6. saliva
3. Feces 7. sweat
4. Urine 8. Tears
Diagnosis of Poisoning From Diseases
Diagnosis of poisoning before death is very difficult because of:

1. The large number of poisons and the factors modifying them
2. Some of the symptoms observed in cases of poisoning are also seen in certain
diseases.
Distinguishing Poisoning from Diseases

1. Symptoms of poisoning come suddenly upon a person who previously has been in
good health, while disease is usually preceded by a number of hours, days or
weeks of local or general disposition.
2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make their appearances after
taking food or medicine.
3. If several poisons take the same food and drinks, they should all show similar
symptoms.
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4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress and are preceded by
circumstances as exposure, recognized symptoms, and general or local
indisposition of longer duration.
Effects of Blood to Alcohol (Ethanol) Concentrations

Stage of Percentage (%) of
Clinical Manifestation
Intoxication Alcohol in Blood
Stimulation 1.0 – 10.0 Normal by ordinary observation
Decreased inhibition, emotional
Apparent instability, incoordination, slowing
5.0 – 20.0
stimulation reaction to stimuli
Disturbance of sensation, decrease pain
Confusion 10.0 – 30.0 sense, staggering gait, slurred speech
Marked decrease to stimuli,
Stupor 25.0 – 40.0 approaching paralysis
Complete unconsciousness, subnormal
Coma or death 35.0 – 50.0 temperature, anesthesia, impairment of
circulation, stertorous breathing
Evidence of Poisoning in the Dead Body
In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal, fatal or not, the presence of
poison must be proven, and proofs of poisoning in the dead may be obtained from:
1. Presence of dye in hair – an examination of a dead body, especially to
determine the cause of death.
2. Evidence form the chemical analysis of the organs taken from the body – the
most important proof of poisoning is the detection of the poison within the
body.
In some cases, however, on the account of the decomposition of the tissue, the lapse of time
between death and examination, and the instability of some poisons, negative results may be
obtained even if at the time of death certain poisons are present,
Post-Mortem Appearance Poison Indicated

1. Lesion of the mouth
a. Blackening and severe corrosion Sulfuric acid
Strong mineral acids, oxalic acid,
b. Brownish yellow stain
Lysol, and carbolic acid
c. Corrosion and softening of tissue of
Alkalis
mouth and throat
d. Severe corrosion without blackening Hydrochloric acid
e. Severe corrosion and yellow stain Nitric acid
f. Lips swollen, tongue raw, esophagus
with red cracks, bronchopneumonia if Ammonia
death is delayed
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2. Lesion of the gastric-intestinal tract

a. Corrosion Strong acids
b. Soapiness Caustic alkalis
c. Dark brown gelatinous mass in stomach Oxalic acid
d. Stomach grayish white Acetic acid
e. Stomach yellow or reddish yellow Picric acid
f. Stomach green or bluish green Copper salts
3. Other lesions
a. Bright red spots on skin Hydrocyanic acid, cyanides, CO
b. Tissue abnormally red Potassium or sodium nitrate, CO
Opium and some of its derivatives,
c. Odors marked in opening the body
in some cases
d. Pupil contracted Belladonna
e. Dry gangrene of extremities Ergot
Laboratory Methods Used in the Toxicological Analysis

1. Physical test
2. Crystalline test
3. Chemical test
4. Spectrographic test
5. Chromatographic test
Laws Regarding Sale and Storage of Poison
 The laws controlling the sale and storage of poison are found under Sec 755 to
757 of the Administrative Code.
1. Sec 755 – provisions relative to dispensing of violent poisons like arsenic,
atropine, morphine and strychnine
2. Sec 756 – provisions relative to dispensing of less violent poisons like aconite,
belladonna, cantharides, digitalis, ergot, carbolic acid and chloroform
3. Sec 757 – receptacle for poisonous drugs
Three Stages in Chloroform Poisoning by Inhalation

1. Stage of excitement
2. Stage of surgical anesthesia
3. Stage of paralysis
Common Volatile, Non-volatile and Metallic Poisons

1. Benzene also called Benzol – a solvent for rubber, gums, resins & fats
2. Carbon disulfide – a solvent for sulfur; burns with bluish flame, giving off
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide
3. Nitrobenzene – a pale yellow and only liquid with sweet odor; resembles oil of
bitter almond
4. Acetone – used as solvent for cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose; colorless liquid
of characteristic fruity color
5. Ether – highly volatile and inflammable liquid; transparent, colorless, mobile
liquid of characteristic fruity odor
6. Caffeine – found in coffee
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7. Formalin – an embalming liquid

8. Salicylic acid – found in “ap-ap” solution
9. Cocaine – found in coca leaf
10. Picrotoxin – derived from fish berries (the fruit of picrotoxin); locally known as
“lagtang”
11. Ethyl alcohol or ethanol – alcohol found in wine; also called grain alcohol
12. Ergot – develops on rye plants; a fungus that that grows on kernels of rye and
other cereal grains
13. Barbiturates – sleeping pills; a derivative of malonyl urea or barbituric acid
14. Strychnine – an alkaloid found in dried ripe seeds of nux vomica
15. Nicotine – found in leaves of tobacco plant
16. Morphine – found in poppy plants (Papaver somniferum); an alkaloid present in
opium by about 9%; white crystal
17. Physostigmine – also called serine; found in calabar beans
18. Chloral hydrate – used as “knock-out drops”
19. Carbolic acid or phenol – obtained from coal tar
20. Arsenic – a rat poison; brittle, steel gray
21. Lysol – a disinfectant; brown liquid from cresol and soap emulsion
22. Methyl alcohol or methanol – also known as “wood alcohol”; alcohol from
wood known as denatured alcohol; causes blindness; solvent for varnish; an anti-
freeze in automobiles
23. Chloroform – colorless liquid with a sweet taste and suffocating odor; an
anesthesia
24. Carbon tetrachloride – a dry-cleaning agent; found in “pyrine” as fire
extinguisher
25. Formic acid – acid found in ants and spiders
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION
DOCUMENTS
Document – in its fullest meaning, is any material which contains marks, symbols, or signs,
either visible, partially visible, or invisible, that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or
message to someone
Questioned Document – any document about which some issue has been raised or which is
under scrutiny
Disputed Document – suggests that there is an argument over the document
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Not all questioned documents are fraudulent. Not all are instruments of crime. There may be a
variety of reasons for questioning a document other than to invalidate it or to establish the basis
for a criminal action.
A document may be questioned in whole or in part with respect to its
a. Authenticity
b. Identity
c. Origin
d. relation among its parts
e. relation to other things
Classes of Questioned Documents

1. documents with questioned signatures
2. documents with alleged fraudulent alterations
3. holograph documents
4. documents questioned as to their age
5. documents questioned as to the materials used
6. documents involving type prints
7. identifying documents
8. genuine documents erroneously attacked or disputed
Classes of Questioned Documents Examination (QDE)

1. CRIMINALISTICS EXAMINATION – used for the detection of forgeries, erasures,
alterations, and obliterations; Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of Questioned
Documents, says that an intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% of all magnifiers
and measuring tools.
2. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION – to find out who is the author of a writing; Handwriting
Identification is a more difficult procedure and requires long study and experience. The problem
is that no person ever writes his letters exactly the same way every time. This is apart from the
basic principle that no two persons has exactly the same handwriting.
Purposes of QDE
1. detection of alterations
2. decipherment of erased writings
3. restoration of obliterated writings
4. determination of age of documents
5. identification of authenticating devices
6. verification of signatures
Tools and Equipment for the Questioned Document Examiner

The most important tool a document examiner has is his own vision. The six categories of
document examination tools are:
1. Basic Measuring Tools - metric rulers, calipers for fine measurements and various glass
alignment plates which allow comparison and measurement of angles, height, width, and spacing
of handwriting.
2. Magnification
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Reticle – A magnifier eyepiece containing an engraved measurement scale which allows to

precisely measure what is viewed under the microscope.
Handheld magnifiers – enlarge the material from 2-10 times and may have lighting capabilities
as well to brighten the field of view.
Comparison Microscope – a type of microscope where two documents can be viewed side-by-
side and the images positioned so that they appear to overlay each other.
Positions relevant to the use of Comparison Microscope in questioned document examination:
a. Superimposition – the placing or laying of one document/specimen over another, typically so that
even as both are evident, they appear as a single image
b. Juxtaposition – placing two documents/specimens close together. a position in the comparison
microscope where two evidences are shown side by side, but in one plane, having the same
magnification, and still appearing as one image.
c. Side by side Image Display – a common method of comparing questionable documents with
genuine articles in the usual side by side position
3. Light Sources
Transmitted Light – light source from behind a document
Ultraviolet Light – an electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength just shorter than that of
violet light but longer than that of X-rays
Infrared Light – electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength just greater than that of red light
but less than that of microwaves, emitted particularly by heated objects
X-ray – an electromagnetic wave of very short wavelength (between ultraviolet and gamma rays),
able to pass through many materials opaque to light; x-rays are used to see through internal
writings
Oblique/Angled Light – light sources projected from an angle; useful in establishing shadow that
could indicate depth of pen pressure on paper
4. Special Instruments
UV/IR Spectral Comparator – makes uses of electromagnetic wavelengths and various filters to
differentiate inks and reveal hidden materials on documents;
Foster & Freeman VSC 4 – has a full complement of visible, UV, and IR sources, source and
camera filters, coaxial light, transmitted light, oblique light, and other features that allow the
document examiner to see beyond what the human eye can see;
FX8B Forensic Optical Comparator – a Sirchie Laboratories, Inc. product, using two projectors
that allow for side by side display of images without overlap.
5. Photographic Equipment
a. film camera – e.g. 35mm SLR
b. digital camera
c. films, zoom lenses and filters
d. photo-enlarger
e. contact-printer
6. Computer Equipment
a. scanners
b. printers
c. central processing units
d. specific related computer software
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Other instruments used in the Examination of Documents

1. shadowgraph
2. stereoscopic binocular microscope
3. measures and test plates
4. table lamps
Photography and Questioned Documents

Photographs are very necessary and useful in nearly every QDE, esp. for those who are
required to present the facts to a court or any investigative body or agency.
Purposes of Photography in QDE

1. it serves as a record of the initial condition of a document;
2. it makes clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. a writing in question can be accurately enlarged so that every quality and characteristic of it can
be clearly and properly interpreted;
4. any number of accurate reproduction of the document could be made, thus affording unlimited
opportunity for study, comparison, and evaluation;
5. it can be cut apart and the various parts classified for comparison;
6. it is useful in showing delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent
changes which may otherwise be overlooked, or misinterpreted.
7. stereographic photo-micrographs show conditions of writing in three-dimensional enlargement,
and is useful in showing sequences of crossed lines, or whether a writing across a fold preceded
or followed the folding of the paper.
Some Photographic Terms Useful in Questioned Documents Examinations

Cut-out Exhibits – a photographic exhibit made up of words and letters cut from photographs of
different documents and arranged side by side.
Display Exhibits – a greatly enlarged photographic court exhibit that is made to such size that it
must be placed upon an easel before the judge; sometimes also referred as “bromide
enlargements”
Hand exhibit - a photographic court exhibit designed to be held and examined by the individual
juror or a pair of jurors
Infrared Luminescence Photography – photography using infrared sensitive films and filters to
record luminescence in the infrared light range; it is a useful tool in questioned document work
Microphotographs – copies of documents at a greatly reduced scale on small film sizes; used in
certain commercial record systems
Photocopy – a reproduction of a document made on paper by any office or commercial system
Photomicrographs – a photograph made through a compound microscope and may be a greatly
enlarged image of a small area
Photo macrograph – an enlarged photograph prepared with only a lens of a very short focal
length
It is extremely difficult to distinguish between photographs made by the two processes, and
both are often incorrectly referred to as a photomicrograph.
Photostat – a commercial reproduction in which a negative copy, white writing on a black
background, is made directly on photosensitive paper. The process employs a special camera
equipped with a lens and inverting prism. The inverting prism causes the writing in the negative
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copy to run from left to right. The method is obsolete and has been replaced by various dry
photocopying methods.
Ultraviolet Photography – any photograph that records the document under ultraviolet
illumination
Xerox – a positive photocopy made directly on plain paper; although Xerox is a trade name, its
success, like Photostat’s before it, has resulted in many people referring incorrectly to all present-
day photo printing.
Care and Handling of Documents
Don’ts
1. documents should not be cut, torn or in any manner mutilated in the slightest degree;
2. documents should not be touched with an eraser, nor with a pen or pencil, nor any sharp
instrument;
3. documents should not be folded and unfolded unnecessarily;
4. documents should not be wet;
5. no chemical analysis should be made on documents, except only by those qualified to perform
them;
6. important portions of the document should not be encircled so much that strokes or written
portions are affected.
Do’s
1. keep documents unfolded in a protective envelope;
2. take disputed documents to be examined to the laboratory at the first opportunity;
3. if storage is necessary, keep in a dry place away from excessive heat and strong sunlight.
Tools and Materials used in the Execution of Documents

PAPER – are made of millions of fibers mixed with water, matted into sheets, and dried; chemicals
have been added to make the paper smooth and firm
- the origin of paper is the Papyrus, a writing material made by pasting together thin stabs of a reed
sheet that grew in the Nile Valley of Egypt; it was glued together in long strips and carefully
rolled up on a wooden or ivory rods
Types of Paper
a. Newsprint – used for newspapers; it does not have to be durable; made of ground wood pulp
b. Groundwood Paper – also made of ground wood pulp; used for catalogs, dictionaries, and similar
publications
c. Coarse Paper – heavy duty papers; used for grocery bags, wrapping papers, paper sacks, etc.
d. Absorbent Paper – made in such a way that they can absorb a certain amount of liquid without
falling apart; used chiefly for filter papers, paper towels, bathroom papers
e. Paperboards – the heaviest and most durable type of paper
Security Marks on Paper

a. Wiremarks – refer to the fine markings which are often seen to cover the surface of the paper
when examined by transmitted light
Types of Paper accdg to Wiremarks
Laid Paper – if the wiremarks are parallel;
Wove Paper – if the wiremarks take on the form of a mesh, or are indiscernible
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b. Watermarks – the designs or lettering impressed into the paper while it is being made, either by
means of projecting wire on the mould, or designed into the dandy roll
PEN – a writing tool that uses ink; pencil is a writing stick made of slender rod of graphite and
clay surrounded by a wooden case, it is derived from the Latin word “penna”, meaning “feather”.
Types of Pen
Reed pen – the first writing instrument used about 2,000 years B.C.; this was first used with
ink on a sheet of papyrus and later used on parchment
Quill pen – made of goose quill and used early in the 7 th century; a quill is the hollow shaft of
a feather of the main wing or tail of a goose.
Steel pen nibs – came into general use in the 19 th century; this is the metal form of the reed
pen.
Fountain pens – it was first used in 1874; has four basic parts, namely: a) barrel, b) point, c)
feed bar, d) cap
Ballpoint pen – has as its point a small rotating metal ball that continuously inks itself as it
turns
Porous Tip Pen – also known as fiber or felt tip pen; the writing point of this pen is porous
and allows a supply of fluid ink to be spread on the paper. e.g. markers
Typewriting machine – a mechanical device used for printing letters, numerals, or words on a
sheet of paper by manipulation of the keyboard
INK – It is a fluid or viscous material used to record the words of history
Types of Inks
1. Writing Inks/Non-aqueous Inks – used with steel pens
- the pigment or dye is carried on any vehicle other than water
2. Printing inks – contain pigments or dyes and a carrying liquid that spreads the color out
Other Kinds of Ink

a. Invisible ink – also called sympathetic ink; cannot be seen unless heated or added a chemical to
them to bring out color
b. Rubber stamp ink – stays moist on the inking pad, but dries almost instantly when it touches
paper
c. Copying Inks – inks found on carbon papers and typewriter ribbons
d. Marking inks – those that are specially made for woods, metals, cloth, and the like
e. Indian ink – deep black ink containing dispersed carbon particles, used especially in drawing and
technical graphics
Synthetic Dye Inks – any ink which consists simply of a dye dissolved in water together with the
necessary preservatives. Various synthetic dyes are used in commercial ink manufacture today;
the aniline dyes were the first of these. And some writers still refer to inks of these class as
“aniline inks”.
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HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
Writing – is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a combination of
certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits acquired by long,
continued, and painstaking effort
Physiological Basis of Handwriting
The impulses to form a letter begins in the brain cortex. This center is a kin to other brain
areas that control vision, hearing, talking, and walking. It guides the muscle of the hands as they
weave through the complex movements that make the words. Since writing begins in the mind,
emotions and attitudes influence how we write just as they influence how we walk or talk.
Generally speaking, four (4) groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those that
operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the
various muscles used in writing work together is known as “motor coordination”.
Early Forms of Writing
1. pictographs – a kind of picture writing that stood for a word or an idea
2. hieroglyphics - a system that consists of pictures of objects representing a word, syllable, or
sound
3. cuneiform - a system of writing that used wedge-shaped symbols
4. alphabet - In the alphabet, a written sign stands for a sound in the spoken language. For
example, letter “b” represents a certain sound.
5. Roman - refers to straight up-and-down letters similar to those used in the manuscript writing.
6. italic - letters that slant to the right, similar to those used in cursive writing
Kinds of Handwriting
A. Manuscript writing - a kind of handwriting most often learned by school children who are
just beginning to write. It looks much like printing in a book; also referred to as printed letter
writing
B. Cursive writing - , the letters are joined, or run together; there is also a tendency for slanted
letters; cursive means “running”
Other Forms of Modern Writing
1. Gothic or block-letter – handwritings with fancy designs used by monks during the Middle
Ages to make beautiful books. It is still used today particularly in writing diplomas and
certificates.
2. English Round Hand or Copperplate – a beautiful but complicated style of cursive writing
used in Europe and the United States during the 1700’s and 1800’s
3. Spenserian – a fancy writing style taught in the United States in the 1800’s decorated with
loops and curves. Its took its name from Platt Rogers Spencer (1800-1864), an American
teacher who published many textbooks on penmanship.
4. D’Nealian – these are manuscript letters that are oval and slanted. They more closely resemble
cursive writing than conventional manuscript. This resemblance is intended to make cursive
writing easier for children to learn.
STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S HANDWRITING

1. When a person first begins to learn the act of handwriting, it is one of imitation only, and by a
process of drawing; focus of attention is in the form of letters;
2. As the person progresses, the matter of form recedes, and the focus of attention is centered on
the execution of letters into various combinations;
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3. The manual operation in the execution of letters is soon relegated to the subjective mind and
the process of writing becomes more or less automatic; the focus of attention is now on the
subject matter.
Mature writing is further modified by other factors, such as education, training, personal taste,
artistic ability, musculature and nerve tone, and the like. These may be caused and done in the
following:
a. Simplification – discarding of unessential details and may go as far as to strip the letter to
the skeleton making it either clear-cut and precise, or bare and careless;
b. Elaboration – decorative strokes are added to the plain letter form, giving it reek and ample,
or too ornate character;
c. Linear pattern – writing shows no concern for form so that lines and angles predominate,
and the loops and circles are not pronounced.
Once the mature writing, with its various modifications, have been crystallized by long usage,
the identifying characteristics will undergo a very slight change, if at all.
Examination of Handwriting
Three Essential Phases:
1. ANALYSIS – recognition of properties and/or characteristics through observation, measurement,
etc.
2. COMPARISON – properties or characteristics of the unknown that are determined through
analysis are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
3. EVALUATION – identification of similarities and dissimilarities, determination of likelihood of
occurrence, and weighing down of significance of each factor.
Qualities of Handwriting
1. roundness 3. legibility
2. smoothness 4. Speed
Writing Characteristics
FORM – refers to the shape or design of the individual letters
SYSTEM – refers to the particular style or system of writing practiced or learned in childhood
MUSCLAR HABITS/COORDINATION – the fingers function as a single unit holding the
pen against the thumb, are not the same in different writers because muscular coordination
peculiarities are beyond the control of the writer
STRAIGHT LINES – are found mostly in writings executed with speedy forearm
movement, and the most irregular are in writing made with the finger movement
CURVES – produced where there is smooth muscular coordination
ANGLES – usually serves as junction between straight lines and curves in writing strokes
RETRACING – any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke, some writers
execute letters with upward stroke moving over or retracing downward strokes, should be
given careful consideration as they are unconsciously made, and are inconspicuous that they
cannot by readily observed by the forger
CONNECTIONS – refers to the strokes of links which connect a letter with the one following
in signatures, it is commonly observed that initials of names are connected without lifting the pen
Divisions of Handwriting Strokes accdg. to Connections
a. Circular
b. oblong/elliptical
c. angular
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SIZE – as a writing characteristic is somewhat divergent under varying conditions and may
have little significance with only one example; but will become significance with a large
quantity which are claimed to have been produced at different times and they are like each
other in the matter of size.
SLANT – refers to the slope of writing in relation to the base line
SPACING – depends upon the length of the connecting strokes or links; short connections
result in a compact writing, while long connections result in a spread-out, extended one, it is
also influenced by speed and movement.
PROPORTION – individual characteristics in relation to other letters – proportion of a part,
of a letter, or the relative height of one letter to another
MOVEMENT – it embraces all of the factors related to the motion of writing
There are four different movements:

a. finger movement – very compact writing; confined to small spaces; a push-and-pull
movement
b. hand movement – lateral movement, though a step farther than movement, is still restricted
c. forearm movement – produced by movement of both hand and arm; the elbow is the pivot
of lateral movement
d. whole arm movement – used in Ornamental penmanship, blackboard writing, and by a few
writers in making all the capital letters
LINE QUALITY – refers to the visible record in the written strokes of the basic movements and
manner of holding the writing instrument.
TREMOR – means the deviations from uniform strokes brought about by the lack of smoothness
perfectly apparent even without magnification.
Causes of Tremors
a. lack of skill d. hesitation

b. self-consciousness e. nervousness
c. clumsiness due to lack of clear mental impression
Kinds of Tremors
1. Genuine Tremors (age, illiteracy, weakness)

2. Tremor of Fraud
SKILL – is dependent upon many factors, most importantly, manual dexterity, the bases of skill
are a) legibility, and b) symmetry.
RHYTHM – it is the balanced quality of movement, producing a natural result, not constrained
or artificial, the element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic
recurrences; it maybe classified as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality.
SPEED – classified into four divisions:

a. slow and drawn
b. deliberate
c. average
d. rapid
e.
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SHADING AND PEN POSITION – refers to the obvious increase in the width of strokes
brought about by variations in pressure in writing
PEN PRESSURE – one of the most personal but somewhat hidden characteristics in writing, it
accurately describes the proportions of strokes to each other in width as affected by shading and
by unconscious emphasis.
PEN-LIFTS – may come in the form of disconnections between letters and letter combinations,
it is one of those inconspicuous and unconscious characteristics, and are strong evidence of lack
of identity.
TERMINAL AND INITIAL STROKES – the strokes that commences or ends a writing; it may
either be “garlanded” or “arcaded”.
ALLIGNMENT – the relation of successive characters or letter of a word, signature or line of

writing to an actual or imaginary base line.
ARRANGEMENT – the habitual placing and positioning of letters and words, and are largely
governed by “artistic ability” or “sense of proportion”.
RUBRIC OR EMBELLISHMENT – refers to the additional, unnecessary strokes, but

incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
- it is usually added to signatures to enhance their “pleasing” appearance
- this also serves as security to make a signature more difficult to imitate or forge
CLASSIFICATION OF WRITING CHARACTERISTICS
A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – characteristics that are common to a group of people

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – characteristics that are highly personal or peculiar to a
particular writer.
Forms of Variation in a Writing
ABBREVIATING – taking away or reducing essential parts

EMBELLISHMENT – extension of strokes that are easily made, and are the natural outgrowth
of speed, freedom, or individual taste
DISGUISE – any change or alteration and modification employed by a person to distort or alter
his usual writing style and habits
STANDARDS OF COMPARISON – are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens

which, if adequate and proper, should contain a true cross-section of the material from a known
source. They are used by the document examiner as the basis f his identification or non-
identification of the documents.
a. Procured/Collected Standard – those which can be obtained from files of documents executed
in the course of a person’s day-to-day activities
b. Requested Standards – those which are given or made at the request of an investigator for
purposes of making a comparative examination with the questioned writing
SIGNATURE - a person’s name written in a distinctive way as a form of identification or

authorization.
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EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES
Reasons why Signature Verification is a specialized branch of Handwriting Examination
a. known signatures may contain certain elements and features not common to the writer’s usual
writing; and
b. factors of identification given close study in signature examination may not be given the same
special emphasis in general writing.
FORGERY
A Forged Signature is the signature of another person, or of a fictitious person, written

by a person who has no authority to do so, with the intent to defraud.
Forgery is the process of making, adapting, or imitating objects, statistics, or documents,
with the intent to deceive. The similar crime of fraud is the crime of deceiving another, including
through the use of objects obtained through forgery.
In the case of forging money or currency it is more often called counterfeiting. But consumer
goods are also counterfeits when they are not manufactured or produced by designated
manufacture or producer given on the label or flagged by the trademark symbol.
KINDS OF FORGERY
A. SIMPLE FORGERY – best termed as a “spurious signature”

- the forger merely signs the name in his own, or in a modified handwriting
- it can readily be detected as soon as a genuine signature of the person is obtained
B. SIMULATED FORGERY (freehand forgery) – the copying or imitation of a genuine signature
or writing
- a freehand signature in imitation of a model signature
- simulation gives attention to conspicuous features of form only and not to the many other details
and elements entering into the process, and therefore gives it unnecessary strain
C. TRACED FORGERY – the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact
facsimile of a genuine signature or writing, by some tracing process
- it is accomplished in a manner foreign to the writing process; it is not a writing because it does
not show data that identifies writing
- it is resorted by a forger who lacks the necessary skill required in an off-hand or free-hand
imitation, and is in most cases clumsy and poor piece of work.
Some Methods of Signature Tracing
a. Carbon Process/Carbon Outline Method

b. Indentation Process
c. Transmitted Light Process
Indications or Symptoms of Forgery
1.hesitations – pen-stops at unusual places

2.non-continuous strokes
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3.abrupt changes in direction of lines or strokes, showing uncertainty of movements

4.concealed or hidden joining
5.bulbous or blunt initial and terminal strokes
6.misplaced shading
7.shadings in more than one direction
ANACHRONISM – is something in the wrong place or time, the forger has trouble matching the
paper, ink, or writing instrument to the exact date it was supposed to haven been written, he may
use the stamps or letterheads; papers not manufactured at the time the document was supposed to
have been written. He may use a modern style of writing for a document that was written many
years before this kind of writing was taught
ALTERATIONS OF HANDWRITING
Alteration of Handwriting – refers to any change made on a document after its original
preparation, it is commonly done on checks, notes, receipts, and other related documents.
Methods of Alterations
1. By Erasure – a) mechanical means: rubber erasers, razors, blades, etc. b) chemical means:
liquid erasers.
2. By Obliteration – obscuring a writing by a series of x-types, haphazard, lines, blots, and
smears, etc.
3. By Addition – insertion of an extra matter on a document after its original preparation
4. By Substitution – replacing original entries with another
5. By Interlineations/insertion – insertion between lines or paragraphs
TYPEWRITING AND TYPE-PRINT EXAMINATION
Chronology of Development
1714 – Henry Mill invented the first writing machine in England with the patent granted by Her
Majesty Queen Anne
1833 - Xavier Progin, a French inventor who introduced another machine; his machine embodied
one of the principles employed in a modern typewriter: the use for each letter or symbol of
separate type bar, actuated by separate lever keys.
1868 - Christopher Latham Sholes, Carlos Glidden, and Samuel W. Soulé patented a writing
machine in; this was the so-called “blind writing machine”. In order to see what had been written,
it was necessary to lift the platen
1874 - The first typewriter, the Remington Model 1 was commercially marketed, followed by the
Model 2 in 1878
1892 – the Underwood Company introduced the first “visible” typewriting machine, and one of
the most successfully invented typewriter in the United States
1912 - portable typewriter was developed
1940 - significant changes were made in in the design of the letters “m” and “w”. until 1936
practically all machines had the high type of “m” and “w”. since 1940 almost none have them
1950 - Royal typewriter changed the design of its letters “m” and “w”
BASIS OF TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

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1. same type size
STANDARD TYPE SIZES

PICA – 10 characters per inch
ELITE – 12 characters per inch
2. same type design

a. 8 key letters – and other alphabetical characters
b. numerals 1-9 – and other signs and symbols
3. similar combination of correctly – and defectively – written characters

a. alignment defects
- horizontal alignment defects
- vertical alignment defects
- character printing “off-its-feet”
- “tilted” characters
b. typeface defects
permanent defects – actual breaks on typeface, like worn-off series, cunt on shanks, etc.
transitory defects – dirty impressions from clogged or dirty typefaces, and incomplete
impressions due to poor condition or worn-out, torn ribbon
Principal Techniques Utilized in Typewriting Identification
1. measure the typeface;

2. verify the size and design
3. look for individual typeface defects
Points to Consider in Preparing Typewriting Standards
1. Include all words and characters used in the questioned document.

a. use the same wordings as in the questioned document if possible
b. employ different degrees and speed
c. utilize the same or similar quality of paper
d. make no machine adjustments or ribbon changes until at least several standards are completed
2. Each sheet should contain data on the make, model, serial number of the machine, and initials or
signature of the investigator.
3. Submit the typewriter’s ribbon if it has not been changed since the questioned document was
typed.
Rules in Typewriting Identification
Two typewriting specimen can be considered the result of one typewriter if all type size,
design, and spacing are identical in the two documents. There should also be a unique
combination of defective characters, and there are no significant differences between the sets of
specimen.
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COUNTERFEITING - it is something made to imitate the real thing and used for gain, the word
is usually applied to a form of forgery involving money.
Identification of BSP Bank Notes and Coins
The following are the characteristics, designs and distinct features of BSP banknotes:
1. Paper - the genuine note is printed on a special kind of paper which is rough when you run our
fingers through it. It does not glow under UV light. During paper manufacture, the water marks,
security fibers, threads and iridescent band are imbedded.
2. Water mark – the water mark is the silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the note.
Sharp details of the light and shadow effect can be seen when the note is viewed against the light.
The contours of the features of the silhouette can be felt by running the finger over the design on
relatively new notes.
3. Security Fibers – embedded red and blue visible fibers are scattered at random on both surfaces
of a genuine note and can be readily picked off by means of any pointed instrument.
4. Embedded Security Thread – this is a special thread vertically implanted off-center of the note
during paper manufacture. This can easily be seen when the note is viewed against the light. It
appears as broken line for 5-, 10-, and 20-peso bills while straight line for 50-, 100-, 500-, and
1000-peso bills.
5. Windowed Security Thread – it is a narrow security thread vertically located like “stitches” at the
face of the note with a clear text of the numerical value in repeated sequence and changes in color
from magenta to green, or green to magenta depending on the angle of view. It is present on the
improved 100-, 500-, 1000-bills, and the new 200-peso bill.
6. Iridescent Band – a wide glistening gold vertical stripe with the numerical value printed in series.
The iridescent band is common on the improved versions of 100-, 500-, and 1000-peso bills.
7. Portrait – the new portraits appear life-like. The eyes “sparkle”. Shading is formed by the fine
lines that give the portrait a characteristic facial expression with is extremely difficult to replicate.
8. Serial Number – it is composed of 1 or 2 prefix letters and 6 or 7 digits. The letters and numerals
are uniform in size and thickness, evenly spaced and well-aligned. They glow under UV light. A
banknote with six “0” digit serial number is a specimen note and not a legal tender.
9. Background/Lacework Design – these designs are made up of multi-colored and well-defined
lines. The lacework designs are composed of web-crossing lines which are continuous and
traceable even at the intersection.
10. Vignette – the lines and dashes composing the vignette are fine, distinct and sharp. The varying
color gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it stand out of the paper.
11. Value Panel – the numerals denote the denomination of the note
12. Color – each banknote has its own distinct color:
13. Fluorescent Printing – it is the invisible numerical value located off the center of the face of the
note. It glows when exposed to UV light.
14. Micro printing – they are the minute and finely printed words located at the face or back of the
note that are clearly printed and readable when seen under a microscope. They are present on the
50-, 100-, 200-, 500-, and 1000-peso bills.
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15. Concealed Value – this is located at the lower left corner of the faced of the note and is
recognizable when the note is held at eye level. Present on the 500-peso bill.
16. Optically Variable Ink – it changes color from green to blue or blue to green when the note is
held at different angles. Present in the 1000-peso bill.
COUNTERFEITING METAL MONEY OR COINS

A Counterfeit money is a currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or
government to resemble some official form of currency closely enough that it may be confused
for genuine currency. Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud.
COIN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Casting – is a common method of making gold coins; plaster mold bearing an image of the gold
coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin; sand molds are used for high
temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys.
Striking/Stamping – consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure; it
is done by way of steel dies.
MAKING OF PAPER MONEY
Engraving – a process by which the lines to be printed are cut into pieces of metal by hand or
with machine, ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the extra ink wiped off
the top; pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the holes to be left on the surface of
the paper, this process is used in the production of all genuine bank notes
Letterpress Printing – the most common form of printing for books, magazines, etc., the letters
are made on raised pieces of metal which are covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper
in the same form as a rubber stamp, serial numbers of bank notes are usually added by this
process after the notes has been produced by engraving
Lithographic/Offset Printing – a photograph is taken of the desired material and a print is made
on a specially prepared aluminum plate where ink sticks only to those parts of the plate where
printing is desired; the plate is then put in contact to a rubber ruler which transfers the ink to the
paper, it is the most common modern method used by counterfeiters to make false paper money.
INVESTIGATION AND DETECTION OF FALSE DOCUMENTS AND ALTERATIONS

ON DOCUMENTS
TYPEWRITINGS
Amount of typewriting should first be taken with the machine in the exam condition in
which it is found. It is essential that these specimens showing the dirty typefaces should contain
an ample amount of material, for subsequent steps will make it impossible to supplement them.
Next, the typefaces should be thoroughly cleaned and a second set of standards taken.
Touch of the Operator
The operator’s touch vary from person to person. With the highly skilled it is uniform
both in force and rhythm, and the work of several skillful operators may at best show only the
slightest differences. With the less skillful, however, the typewriter is operated erratically. The
latter group of operators produce typewriting characterized by differences in the inked impression
of certain letters, irregular spacing, or variation on the baseline due to the improper use of the
shift key. In limited standards, these irregularities can lessen their value. But as a rule if a large
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amount of typewriting is found, the fact that several different persons prepared the documents
does not seriously detract from their comparison value.
BANKNOTES
The government buy the best grade of paper they can get in order that the paper money will
last as long as possible. Special paper also makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. A
useful test for the investigator is to examine a suspected counterfeit banknote by UV light. Most
modern printing papers have chemical added to them to make them look whiter. These chemicals
fluoresce under UV light. Banknote papers do not have this filler and does not show fluorescence
under UV light.
The investigator should also look at the banknote with a hand lens. He should pay particular
attention to the quality of the portrait on the banknote. The color of the ink should also be
compared with the color of a genuine banknote.
TRAVELER’S CHECKS
Traveler’s checks are issued by private companies. But governments have laws which makes
it an offense to reproduce these documents. Traveler’s checks are issued by the same companies
that manufacture banknotes and the same safeguards are used in their printing.
PASSPORTS
Passports are rarely counterfeited because they are quite complicated in design and
manufacture. The most usual method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make changes
in it. Many safety measures are incorporated in passports and are easily detected by close
inspection, and UV light. The investigator should also look closely at the photograph in any
passport. It is always necessary for the forger to remove and substitute another picture. The
position of perforations caused by staples and other fastening devices sold be looked at very
carefully. The place where a seal joins the photographs with the paper should be inspected for
evidence of displacement.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. GENERAL TERMS
Characteristics – any property or mark which distinguishes and in document examination

commonly refers to identifying details; there are two groups of characteristics, class and
individual.
Collation – as used in this text, means comparison or side by side examination
Comparison – the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying
qualities; it infers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the elements of one item are
related to the counterpart of the other.
Conclusion – results from relating observed facts by logical, common sense reasoning in
accordance with established rules or laws; it is common to refer to a Document Examiner’s
conclusion by the legal term, “opinion”.
Document Examiner – one who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in
order to identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them; also referred to as
Handwriting Identification Expert.
Examination – with questioned document, is the process necessary to discover the facts about
them; various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual, photographic, chemical,
ultraviolet, and infrared examinations.
Expert witness – a legal term to describe a witness who by reason of his special technical
training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of
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the issue, that is involved in a lawsuit, his purpose in court is to interpret technical information in
his particular specialty in order to assist the court in administering justice
Fluorescence – see Ultraviolet examination
Graphology – the art of attempting to interpret the character or personality of an individual from
his handwriting; also called “grapho-analysis” ; such an undertaking is beyond the realm of the
document examiner’s work.
Holographic document – any document which is completely written and signed by one person
in his own handwriting; in a number of jurisdictions a holographic will can be probated without
anyone having witnessed its execution.
Infrared examination – employs invisible radiation beyond the red portion of the visible
spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsion
Microscopic examination – any study or examination which is made with the microscope in
order to discover minute physical details
Natural variations – normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any
individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.
Oblique or Side light examination – an examination with the illumination so controlled that it
grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle
Qualification – before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that the
document examiner is qualified.
Quality – a quality is a distinct or peculiar character. In this text, quality is used in describing
handwriting to refer to any identifying factor which is related to the writing movement itself.
Reference collection – materials compiled and organized by the document examiner to assist him
in answering special questions. (typewriting, checks specimens, inks, pens, etc.)
Sample – a selected representative portion of the whole
Ultra-violet examination – maybe made visually or photographically by recording either the
reflected ultraviolet or visible radiation
- UV radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave lengths just below the visible blue-violet of the
spectrum. These invisible rays react on some substances so that visible light is reflected – a
phenomenon known as “fluorescence”.
-
B. HANDWRITING TERMS
Assigned signature – see Guided signature

Baseline – the rules or imaginary line upon which the writing rests
Copy book forms – the design of letters which are fundamental to a writing system
- this terminology is derived from the old methods of teaching handwriting from a copy book
which contained engraved script printed on each page for the student to imitate
Cross mark – historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X. this
authentic mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a
signature.
Cursive writing – a writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together.
Disguised writing- a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in hopes of
hiding his identity.
Guided signature – a signature which is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in
any way; also called Assisted signature
- under the law of most jurisdictions, such a signature authenticates a legal document, provided it is
shown that the writer requested the assistance
- it is commonly written during serious illness or on a deathbed
Habit – any repeated element or detail which may serve to individualize writing
Hand lettering – any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately; also
called hand printing
Imitated signature – synonymous with freehand forgery
Left-handed writing – see wrong handed writings
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Model signature – a genuine signature which has been used to prepare an imitated or traced
forgery
Natural writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control or
alter its identifying habits and its usual quality
Significant writing habits – is applied to any characteristics of handwriting which is sufficiently
unique and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification
Writing conditions – include both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and
the factors which influence the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution.
Wrong-handed writing – any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally used;
this is one means of disguise; also called “left-handed writing”
C. TYPEWRITING TERMS
Alignment defect – include characters which write improperly; can be corrected by special
adjustments to the type bar and type block
Carbon impression – any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action of the type
faces striking through carbon paper
- generally, carbon impressions are “carbon copies”, although original typewriting is made directly
through a carbon paper ribbon.
Character – in connection with typewriting identification is used to include either letters,
symbols, numerals, or points or punctuations.
Clogged type faces – when the typefaces become filled with lint, dirt, and ink, particularly in
enclosed letters.
Defects – describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter which is reflected in its
work and which leads to its individualization or identification.
Horizontal mal-alignment – a defect in which the character prints to either side of its proper
position.
Mal-alignment – synonymous with “alignment defect”
Off-its-feet – the condition of a type face printing heavier on one side or corner that over the
remainder of its outline
Platen – the cylinder which serves as the backing for the paper and which absorbs the blow from
the type face
Proportional spacing typewriting – a modern form of typewriting which resembles printing in
that all of the letters, numerals, and symbols do not occupy the same horizontal space as they do
with the conventional typewriter
- a typewriter of this design is known as a “Proportional spacing machine”
Rebound – a defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter part slightly
offset to the sides
Type face – the printing surface of the type block
D. ALTERED DOCUMENTS TERMS
Decipherment - the process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced
- also refers to the process of reading or making out the materials which is illegible without
actually developing or restoring the original writing on the document itself
Efface – to rubout, to strike or scratch out, or to erase
Erasure – the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from a document
Ink eradicator – consist of chemical solutions which are capable of bleaching ink.
Sympathetic/secret ink – a material used for writing which is not visible until treated by some
process or substance
Sequence of strokes – the order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper
Writing offsets – result from a paper coming in contact with fresh ink writing; they may be the
mirror of entire words or sentences, or just a portion of it.
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Lock-through of paper – the appearance of paper when viewed by transmitted light, thus
disclosing the texture or formation of the sheet
Pen nibs – the points which form the writing portion of the pen
Pencil grade – the quantitative description of the hardness or softness of a pencil, that is, how
dark a stroke is capable of making.
POLYGRAPHY /LIE-DETECTION TECHNIQUES
POLYGRAPHY – is the scientific deception detection with the use or aid of a Polygraph.
POLYGRAPH – is an instrument or device capable of recording internal bodily changes, such as

blood-pressure/pulse-rates, respiration, electro-dermal properties of the skin or the Galvanic Skin-
Reflex (GSR), which are indicative of emotional excitement, especially of lying, when
questioned. The word was derived from the Greek word POLY means “many” and GRAPHOS
means “writing/chart”.
The polygraph is not a lie detector but a device of several physiological functions
associated with variations of emotional states. The instrument is primarily used as an aid to
skillful interrogation, rather as an absolute indicator of lying. The usefulness of the polygraph in
recording symptoms of deception is based on the established principle that a conscious mental
effort on the part of the subject who is deceitful would produce involuntary physiological
changes. The changes from an established baseline are presumed to indicate an emotional
reaction when lying in response to a question. However, the limitations is clear since the
polygraph examination may only be administered to a willing subject and its result is not
accepted as an evidence in court, even if the data collected in a polygraph examination are
accurate since interpretation may vary and give rise to doubts".
Importance of Polygraph in crime detection and investigation

1. Eliminate innocent subject.
2. Recognized fabricated complaints.
3. Determine the veracity of information.
4. Narrow the focus of inquiry.
5. Locate the fruits of the crime.
6. Gather additional information on particular suspects and from reluctant Witnesses.
7. It aid the investigator to speed up the process of investigation.
Theory of Polygraph Examination
“When a mentally normal person tells a lie, physiological changes occur within his body that
could be recorded by the instrument and evaluated by the examiner”
Psychological and Physiological Aspects of Deception
Emotion refers to an acute disturbance in origin involving behavior conscious experience

and instinctive functioning. It is generally accepted that the human mind greatly influences all
bodily functions. The principle and theory behind detecting deception relies of the dogma that
involuntary and automatic bodily changes accompany deception. Such alterations are not derived
from consciousness of guilt but viewed as a result of fear of exposure and being detected.
The origin of such physiological changes is the HYPOTHALAMUS, the area of the
brain which acts as the control center for the integration of emotional expressions. This ends out
the automatic response to physical and psychological stimulation. When a warning of danger is
perceived, this control center dispatch message through the nervous system to prepare the whole
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organism for fight or fight defense mechanism. An evident and manifested result would be an
increase in pulse rate and blood pressure.
Objective Of Polygraph Examination
The ultimate objective of Polygraph Examination is to obtain the Subject's ADMISSION

or CONFESSION of the offense committed.
Principal Uses of Polygraph:
1.It is an aid to the. investigation.
2.t speeds the process of investigation
3.It eliminates innocent subjects
4 The investigator can concentrate to one subject to determine truth or deception.
Uses of Polygraph:
1. Criminal investigation
2. Pre-employment test and screening
3. Periodic personnel check (for integrity)
4. Claim verification test (for insurance compensation/benefits)
5. Loyalty test (for intelligence & honesty)
6. Promotion
Limitations of Polygraph
1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation.
2. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.
3. It does not determine facts; it record responses to that which the subject knows to be
true.
4.It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit the
examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.
6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person will be
considered guilty because he refused to take the test.
8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained with the subject.
9. No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.
10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject.
Legal Status of Polygraphy

1. Point of cross-examination during court appearance
2. Qualifications of an examiner
3. Barriers and limitations of polygraph
4. Minimum Requirements for a valid Polygraph Examination
 The Polygraph Examiner
 The Subject or Examinee
 The Polygraph Technique
 The Polygraph Instrument
Tripod Foundation of Polygraph Technique
a. Mechanical Leg Basis Premises

The polygraph machine is mechanically capable of making graphical records containing
reliable information regarding physiological changes
b. Physiological Leg Basis Premise

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Among the physiological changes that may be recorded and identified are those that
automatically occur only following, the stimulation of specific nervous system component and
from which stimulation of those specific nervous system components can be reliably diagnosed.
c. Psychological Leg Basis Premise
Under this polygraph leg premise, the specific nervous system component whose
stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary mental and emotional
processes of the individual who is consciously attempting concealment of deception specially if
that individual has something at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that
exposure
to detection is quite possible although undesirable.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
DECEPTION – is the act of deceiving or misleading through misrepresentation usually

accomplished by means of lying.
LYING – is the uttering or conveying falsehood or creating false impressions affecting acts,
opinions or affections of another. It is done through:
a. Verbal terms spoken by the mouth
b. Acts, feigns or ruses through marks, signs and symbols
DETECTION - The act of discovering the existence or presence of something hidden or
obscured.
STIMULUS - The force or motion reaching the organism from the environment and excites the
receptors (The five senses: smelling, touching, hearing, tasting, and seeing).
REACTION - It is an action in mental attitude evokes by external influence.
RESPONSE - is any activity or inhibition of the previous activity of an organism resulting from
stimulation.
Kinds of Response in Polygraph Examination
1. Normal Responses are responses of the subject that has no bearing on the matter
under investigation.
2. Specific Responses are responses which contain deviations or signs of deception

which has direct bearing on the matter under investigation.
NORMAL TRACING – is a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered in the irrelevant
question.
DICROTIC NOTCH - is a short horizontal line on cardio tracing located at the middle of
diastolic stern.
SYSTOLIC NOTCH – In polygraph this refers to an unsweep tracing of the pen movement
caused by the contraction of the heart.
DIASTOLIC NOTCH – the down sweep tracing of the pen movement caused by the relaxation
of the heart.
FALSE POSITIVE - The response of a truthful person is determined to be deceptive. "If we
look at laboratory-based studies, false-positive errors occur somewhat more often than false-
negative errors,”.
FALSE NEGATIVE - The response of a deceptive person is determined to be truthful.
POLYGRAPH EXAMINER – is one who conducts and administer the test.
CHART OR POLYGRAMS – refers to the composite records of Pneumograph, Galvanograph
and Cardiosphygmograph tracings recorded from series of questions.
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Some Known Methods of Detecting Deceptions

1. Ancient Ordeals
2. Observation Methods
3. Regular Police Methods
4. Hypnotism
5. Word Association Test
6. Truth Serum Test/ Intoxication
7. Polygraphy
1.Trial by Ordeal
Was an ancient judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused was
determined by subjecting them to a painful, or at least an unpleasant, usually dangerous
experience. It is also a term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin “ Dei
Indicum” meaning “Miraculous Decision.” Ordeal is also an ancient method of trial in which
the accused was exposed to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if he was
innocent.
A. Red Hot Iron Ordeal - Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the North Bengal;
Accused placed his tongue to a red-hot iron nine times (9) unless burned sooner; If
burned, he is put to death. Basis: Salivary Secretion-If tongue is dry; suspect is guilty
as dryness is a sign of nervousness.
B. Ordeal by Balance - Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India; Scale of balanced is
used; In one end of the scale, the accused is placed in the other end, a counter
balance; The person will step out of the scale listened to a judge deliver an extortion
is the balance and her back in. If he were found to be lighter than before then he
should be acquitted. Basis: Body incoherence due to trembling and fear reaction.
C. Boiling Water Ordeal - Used in Africa; the method was that the subject will plunge
their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into the other side of the
fire. All are told to undergo the test without a murmur. And when all are finished,
they are told to return at the same time the next afternoon. The one who by that time
had lost some or showed blisters would prove the thief (Point out who is the one who
steal among his tribe mates). Basis: Sweating of the Enhances blisters and Burns.
D. Ordeal by Rice Chewing - Practiced by Indians; It is formed with a kind of rice
called sathee, prepared with various incantations; The person on trial eats, with his
face to the and then spits upon an eyeful leaf; If the saliva is mixed with blood or the
corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.
E. Ordeal of the Red Water - Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa; The ordeal of
the “sassy bark” or red water is used; The accused is made to fast for twelve hours;
Then swallow a small amount of rice; Then he will be imbibed in dark colored water.
This water is actually an emetic and if the suspects eject all the rice, he is considered
innocent of the charge, Otherwise, the accused is guilty.
F. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal -The accused first fasted for 12 hours and
the given small amount of rice to eat followed by large amount of black colored
water. If the concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent;
Otherwise, guilty. Practiced by “West African Regions”.
G. Trial by Combat - A fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever lost the
battle will be the adjudged guilty. Originated from India and one of the examples of
this: a rich man or accuser could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused.
After the fight the loser is adjudged guilty of crime.
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H. Trial by Torture - The accused was put into a severe physical test.
I. Drinking Ordeal - The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest – if
innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria and India.
J. Trial of the Eucharist - This trial is reserved for the clergy, and administered with
pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty, the Angel Gabriel will descend from
heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in
the European countries.
K. Ordeal by Heat and Fire - The accused was compelled to walk bare footed through
a fire; if he remains unhurt then he is innocent. Practiced in East Germany, Early
Scandinavian Countries and early England.
L. Ordeal of Red-Hot Needle - Red hot needle was drawn through the lips of the
accused, if innocent; no blood will be seen flowing out. Practiced in Wanaka, East
Africa.
M. Ordeal of the Tiger - Accuser and accused were placed together in the same and a
tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared, further elimination followed.
Practical in Siam.
N. Test of the Cross Ordeal - The accuser and accused each were made to stand with
arms crossed on their breasts. The one who endured the longest was deemed to have
told the truth, the other, is the liar. Practiced in Europe.
O. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - Psychological theory, the donkey placed in one room alone
and observed it, and if the donkey cried is a judged of guilty of crimes, because deep
inside and conscience he is guilty.
2. Observation Methods
A. Thru Facial Expression

 Blushing, paling or profuse sweating of forehead.
 Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of the eyeballs and elevation of upper
eyelids.
 Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, disdain, distrust, etc.)
 Twitching of the lips.
 Excessive winking of eyes.
 Failure to look the inquirer “straight into the eye”.
 Failure to look the inquirer “straight into the eye”
 Excessive activity of Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple due to dryness
of throat and mouth.
 Quivering of nose or nostrils.
 A peculiar monotone of the voice.
 A forced laugh.
 Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another.
B. Thru Postural Reaction

 Fidgeting, tapping or drumming of fingers on the chair or other surfaces.
 Swinging of legs or one leg over the other.
 Unnecessary movements of hands and feet (like scratching, nail-biting,
thumb – or finger sucking.
 Pulsation of the carotid artery in the neck.
 Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body
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C. The CAUSE & EFFECT Process

 The Stimulus -> Reaction -> Response
 The Stimulus -> Fight! or Flight!
3. Regular Police Method

 The “five Wives and One Husband”
 (5 W’s and 1H)
 The “Three Eyes” (3 I’s)
Information
Investigation
Instrumentation
4. Hypnotism – Franz (Friedrich) Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)

The basis of hypnotism is through the recovered memory by the use of increased
dissociated functions, hyper-amnesia, and at times regressive and para-regressive experiences.
The subject, who is not actually asleep, but at complete comfortable state of relaxation and that he
would be doing whatever the hypnotist may tell him to do.
It is the alteration of consciousness and concentration in which the subject manifests a
heightened of suggestibility while awareness is maintained.
Not all persons are susceptible to hypnotic induction. Subjects who are compulsive-
depressive type, strong-willed like lawyers, accountants, physicians and other professionals are
usually non-hypnotizable.
5. Word Association Test (WAT)
Introduced by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) and Dr. Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), A
list of stimulus and non-stimulus words are read to the subject who is instructed to answer as
quickly as possible.
The answer to the questions may be a “yes” or a “no”. Unlike the lie detector, the time interval
between the words uttered by the examiner and the answer of the subject is recorded.
Dr, Jung was able to observe how the thinking reactions were linked into the emotional
habit of his subject. The theory behind this method is that, one word or idea is reflective of
another word or idea and the expression of their association forms a meaningful picture.
6. Truth Serum Test
Introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House (1858-1938), a U.S Physicist and Diplomat.
This method involved the intravenous injection or oral taking of various drugs, such as hyocine
bromide, morphine, ether, chloroform, sodium amytal and scopolamine, which may produce a
condition of anesthesia. There must be an immediate need for a physician to be present during the
test so that the application of these drugs be properly determined and supervised to produce
required results.
7. Intoxication
This method employs alcoholic beverages as stimuli to obtain truth. The person or subject
whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages to intoxication level or
point. When under the influence of alcohol, the power to control the body is diminished and the
investigator begins propounding questions.
The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which all of us are said to
wear (“mask of sanity”) is reflected in the age-old maxim, IN VINO VERITAS (“in wine there is
truth”). The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages to
almost intoxication. Confessions made by the subjects while under the influence of alcohol may
be admissible if he is physically capable to recollect the facts that he has uttered after the effects
of alcohol have disappeared. But in most instances, the subjects cannot recall everything that he
had mentioned or he may refuse to admit the truth of the statement given.
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Kinds of Lies
1. White Lie - Intended to protect or maintain harmonious relationship.

2. Pathological Lie - Lie made by a person who can’t distinguish right or wrong.
3. Red Lie- Lie that purports to destroy other ideologies by means of propaganda and brain
washing.
4. Black Lie - Lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing to cause
dishonor or discredit ones’ good image.
5. Malicious Lie - Intended to mislead or obstruct justice. Examples are “Perjury” and
“False Testimonies” of false witnesses.
Types of Lies
1. Direct Denial - This is a direct denial of the act in question that creates an emotional
sense of disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between what is true and the
attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the mind. Example: "I did not do it".
The vague response permits the person to evade inner conflict while seeming to answer
the question. The reply given to a query must be evaluated in terms of what was asked to
know if the answer is proper.
2. Lie of Omission - this is a type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to tell.
Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting details
that could create possible troubles.
3. Lie of Fabrication - this is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in an
interview.
4. Lie of Minimization - in this type of lie individual will accept that something has
occurred but downplays the implication. Lie of minimization could be used if a subject
wanted to stay close to the truth, however, he covers the truth for his or her own benefit.
Example: Mr. X is complaining because Mr. B boxed him and as a result the nose of Mr.
X is broken. If Mr. B uses the lie of minimization; he will state that he only slapped Mr.
X.
5. Lie of Exaggeration - This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of
obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on resume, where applicant
exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and length of service. The
exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies of the subject story.
Other Classification of Lies

1. Bald-Faced lie - A bald-faced (or barefaced) lie is a lie that is told when it is obvious to
all concerned that is it a lie. Example: a child who has chocolate all over his face and
denies that he has eaten the last piece of chocolate cake, is a bald-face liar.
2. Noble Lie - A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord it if were uncovered,
but that offers some benefit to the liar and perhaps assist in an orderly society and thus
potentially gives some benefit to others also. It is often told to maintain law, order and
safety. A noble lie usually has the effect of helping an elite maintain power.
3. Emergency Lie - An emergency lie is a strategic lie told when the truth may not be told
because, for example, harm to a third party would come of it. Example: a neighbor might
lie to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of his unfaithful wife, because said
husband might reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury to his husband.
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4. Perjury - It is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter
under oath or affirmation in a court of law or in any of various sworn statements in
writing. Perjury is a crime because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the
credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on an being truthful.
5. Jocose Lie - Are lies that are meant in jest and are usually understood as such by all
present parties. Sarcasm can be an example. Storytelling traditions that are present in
some places, where the humor comes from the storyteller’s insistence that he or she is
telling that absolute truth despite all evidence to the contrary.
6. Promotion Lies - Advertisements often contain statements that are not credible, such as
“we are always happy to give a refund.”
7. Belief Systems - It is alleged that some belief systems may find lying to be justified.
Example: Religious lies.
Types of Liars
1.Panic liar - a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He or she is
afraid of
embarrassment to loved ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational liar - is someone who has lied for years. This person is a practical liar and lies
when it has a higher pay off than telling the truth.
3.Tournament liar - a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being
detected. He views an interview as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the only
weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes that he or she will probably be
convicted but will rot give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confess. He wants people
to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethnological liar - a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person loves to be
interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he or she will never reveal
the truth, the creed of underworld gangs.
Types of Liars
1.Panic liar - a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He or she is
afraid of
embarrassment to loved ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational liar - is someone who has lied for years. This person is a practical liar and lies
when it has a higher pay off than telling the truth.
3.Tournament liar - a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being
detected. He views an interview as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the only
weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes that he or she will probably be
convicted but will rot give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confess. He wants people
to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethnological liar - a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person loves to be
interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he or she will never reveal
the truth, the creed of underworld gangs.
5. Psychopathic liar - this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his dishonest
actions and
manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult type of liar because he is a good actor, he can fool
most investigators.
Signs of Lies and Deceptions

1. Stammering;
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2. Swearing to or before God that he did not commit the crime;

3. Pointing his guilt to somebody else;
4. Subject refuses to answer questions thru alibis and excuses;
5. He is all the time absent-minded;
6. He is always requesting for repetition of questions;
7. He often asks counter-questions and counter-queries;
8. He often asks permissions to go to comfort-rooms, etc.
Sign and Symptoms of Emotional Tension
A. NON-VERBAL_CLUES - encompasses patterns in the body movements, gestures, facial

express1on, body posture, positioning and movements used to explain chosen words.
1. Color Change
A. blushing or red color face- indicates anger and humiliation or embarrassment and
cannot be controlled. Such indicators may indicate strong emotion and is not reliable sign
of deception.
B. pallor of the face- indicates of tension, fear and anxiety. Face - the people believe that
lies will commonly show up in the face and eyes. The face can have two messages: what the liar
is trying to show as well as what he or she is trying to hide)
2. Sweating (perspiration)
A. Sweating in an air-conditioned or well-ventilated room is a sign of emotional tension
but it may indicate anger, humiliation and nervousness.
B. Cold clammy perspiration - is a manifestation of chock-fear and anxiety. - too much

sweating could very well indicate an involuntary reflex with deception.
3. Inability to look straight at the interrogator's eyes - it is a symptom of guilt although not
concluded when the subject was observed to have constant movement and winking of the eyes
avoiding to look straight at the interrogator's eyes as if the interrogator might see something in the
eyes of the subject that will betray his guilt.
4. Heart rate and pulse beat
A. the pulse beat can be observed at the neck where there is an increased in the
pulsation of the carotid artery which almost always synchronize with the increase in heart rate. It
is an indicative of guilt, nervousness and fear.
5. Breathing - the holding of the breath 1s an indication of tension especially when critical may
indicate emotional tension of the subject, although breathing is an involuntary movement,
breathing is very much affected by stress. This stress may have nothing to do with the lie, but an
increase in breathing rate or volume may be a sign of deception.
6.Crying while being investigated- maybe an indicative of tension, depression, anger,
humiliation and sometimes a demonstration to prove his innocence about the crime in dispute.
Ordinarily a person cries because of sadness or gladness in their life. Trained actors know how to
cry, they think of something in their life that was typically sad, and they focus on that emotion.
Trying to cry at proper times and equally trying to hold back tears could be a sign of deception.
7. Other behavior such as crossing and uncrossing the leg over the other, tapping the table,
rubbing the face or hair, twisting the handkerchief or clothing, snapping the fingers, biting the
fingernails, manipulation of any object may indicate emotional tension, nervousness, anger and
sometimes mental disturbances.
8. Frequent swallowing - a dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion. Often the subject
is not aware of increased efforts at swallowing. During the time of the critical question, increased
swallowing might indicate deception.
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9. Emblems - are often performed deliberately, these are expressions made with the body, whose
meaning are clearly understood. Here are examples of emblem: shaking or nodding of the head,
shrugging the shoulders, the universal thumbs up sign, as well as the circled finger and thumb to
indicate "okay. Other examples would include a broad wink to show the remarks are to be taken
in joke, as well as a shrug of the shoulders.
B. VERBAL CLUES -include the words that are spoken, speed of delivery of the words, choice
of words, tone of voice and the tense of the language.
1. Methods of responding to the question - the way the respondent answers the question is a
clue of deception. In general, truthful people tend to be direct; untruthful people tend to be
cautious about their answers.
2. Length of time before giving response - in general, truthful persons answer questions
immediately after the question is asked; untruthful persons take their time in giving a response.
An awkward silence or a delaying tactic, such as "who me? * or "why would I do that?" may use
by the respondent.
3. Repetition of question -the act of repeating the question is another means for the deceiver to
gain time to frame his or her answer. The question may be repeated word for word or the
respondent may frame the answer with a request to repeat the question. Example: " are you asking
me if I was bribe?". A truthful subject does not have to think his or her answer.
4. Fragmented or incomplete sentences- untruthful person often speak in disjointed or curtailed

sentences. This is usually because he has started the answer, then thought better of it. Statements
such as "I... I... can't think... it seems to me... can be a clue of lying. Many liars will speak half-
truth as well and add qualifiers, such as “.. to the best of my memory... or... if I recall correctly."
5.Being overly polite - anger is a common response to an unjust accusation, as well as answering
the statement with a abrupt "no". untruthful subjects are more likely to be polite to the accuser,
using pleasing terms such as "sir" or "ma’am "boss" or "chief'. The suspect who has been accused
and is lying will often say "Sir, to tell you the truth, I didn't do it".
6. Oaths - lying persons will frequently utter oaths, such as "I swear to God, I didn't do it" or I
swear on my
father's grave". Most truthful people do not need to swear or affirm; they are ardent in their
denials. Some people who use words like "frankly" or "to tell the truth” Often neither being frank
nor are they telling the truth.
7. Clarity of response - honest people tend be very clear in their answers, while untruthful
persons tend to speak softly and broaden their answer. Such responses are to avoid the stress
caused by an untruthful response; the liar is hedging. In that way, if caught in a lie, the earlier
“soft" response may aid in diffusing the lie.
8.Use of words - as a general rule, truthful subjects have no trouble denying the allegation in
precise terms, while untruthful ones will have problems with the used of words.
9. Assertiveness - truthful persons are confident about their innocence and deceitful ones are not
confident unless they are practiced liars. Truthful people will respond directly without waiver or
qualification, deceptive people tend to respond indirectly with waivers and qualifications.
10. Inconsistencies - contradicting testimonies made by the witness are one of the best indicators
of dishonesty, liars get caught up in their own web of deceit. In the interview or interrogation, if
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Juan Dela Cruz says that he met Pedro Penduco for drinks, and then later denies the same
statement, there can be two explanations, he was mistaken or he was lying.
11. Slip of the tongue- liars; as freud discovered quite often slip up and divulge themselves
through a slip of the tongue. An example would be a witness who is referred to Mr. Santos when
he really intended to say Mr. San Juan. Could Mr. Santos, then, be the truth and Mr. San Juan is
the lie.
12. Tirades - people who are deceptive sometime reveal more than word or two, as in the slip of
the tongue. The information doesn't slip out, it pours out. Ekman a psychologist believes that
"leaking" out may be caused by the internal stress produced by a lie. Tirades may be in direct
proportion to the stress generate in the lie and arise at a time of anger or other strong emotion.
13. Pauses - Ekman says gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to deception. The
examiner should assess pauses in speech that are too long, too frequent or which occur at
inappropriate places.
14.Speed in speech - persons who are tense or upset frequently increases the swiftness of their
speech, words tend to run together and the conversation can be fragmented. A pattern of
increased speed of speech' during the relevant part of the questioning could show deception.
Aspects of Emotion
1. Emotion as CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCES - These concerns human feelings in

response to a variety of inner and outer stimuli, which are of paramount important to our
personal and social adjustment. (Example: Happy; Elation; Delight; Affection; Joy;
Laughter; Annoyance; Worry; Jealousy; Frustration; Shame).
2. Emotion as MOTIVES - This involves human behavior with the motivating factors, or a
power directing one’s behavior (facilitation) or away (interfering) from objects and
person in his environment.
a. Emotional Motive as Facilitating Behavior (Attack, Fight, Assault,

Destruction)
b. Emotional Motive as Interfering Behavior (Retreat, Surrender, Hide)
3. Emotion as RESPONSES - This concerns bodily reaction, usually muscular or

glandular process may either be external and internal ones. It is in this third aspect that
the polygraphy Examiner has to keep his eyes wide open to all the information regarding
emotional response. The theory of polygraph is based primarily upon this third aspect.
a. EXTERNAL RESPONSE - This response is very much observable even

without the aid of any emotion/recording machine. Good example for these
response as indicative of guilt or deception are those which were enumerated
under observation methods, especially both the facial Expression and
Postural reaction.
b. INTERNAL RESPONSE - Scientifically known as “VICCERAL”

responses this pertains to the responses of the internal organs of the
following system and property of the human body as applied in the study of
lie-detection with the use or aid of polygraph.
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Human Body Function Major Polygraph

System Organ Component
1. Nervous System Activator of the body Brain Pneumograph,
system (receives, evaluates, Cardiograph,
integrates, stores any Galvanograph
stimulus, and sent out
messages to various parts
2. Respiratory Take care the inhalation and Lungs Pneumograph
System exhalation process or the
breathing cycles.
3. Circulatory Regulates heart action, Heart Cardiosphygmograph
System blood pressure, and pulse
rate
4. Excretory Facilitates the change in the Skin Galvanograph
System electrical phenomena of the
GSR, its resistance, and the
brain potentials.
The Polygraph Components and Accessories

1. PNEUMOGRAPH - a rubberized corrugated tube about seven inches in length fastened
around the subject’s chest and abdomen. This occupies the two top upper pens of the instrument
which records the respiration.
Pneumograph Components
a. Rubberized corrugated tube which is ten (10) inches in length attached to the chest
and abdominal area of the subject. One end of the tube is sealed and the other end is connected to
the instrument by a rather thick-walled rubber tube considerably larger in diameter than the
pneumograph tube itself, it expands and contracts as the subject breathes.
b. The beaded chain another component of the pneumograph assembly is used to fix in
place the rubber convoluted tube.
Contributors to the Development of Pneumograph:
Harold Burtt- a scientist who, in 1918 determined that the respiratory changes were signs of
deception and concluded that systolic pressure changes are valuable in determining deception.
Vittorio Benussi-(1914) noted the changes in inhalation and exhalation ratio occurring during
deception. He recorded the respiratory curves of the pneumograph.
2. CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH - The blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that is
wrapped around one of the subject arms in such a way as to ensure that the rubber portion of the
cuff is place over the brachial artery of the right arm for more satisfactory recordings.
This is the fourth and the bottom pen of the instrument. The polygraphist inflates the
bladder with a hand pump to put air into the system, which recorded in a sphygmomanometer in
millimeter of mercury (generally 60-80 mm).
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Cardio-sphygmograph Component
a. Blood Pressure Cuff which is installed on the upper right arm of the subject, slightly
above the brachial.
b. Sphygmomanometer which is utilized to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to
the system.
c. Pump Bulb Assembly which inflates air into the system, also known as an air pump it
has a hose connecting the blood pressure cuff through which the blood pressure changes
and passed into the recording pen.
Pioneers that contributed to the development & use of the Cardiospyghmograph in lie
detection:
Cesare Lombroso – An Italian scientist who in 1885 used hydrosphygmograph procedure and
was credited to be the pioneer who envisioned the idea of using scientific procedures to lie
detection. He is considered as the first person to use an instrument for the purpose of detecting
deception.
Angelo Mosso – A pioneer who developed in 1895 a type of sphygmomanometer and utilized a
scientific cradle and focus on the significance of fear as an indication of deception.
Dr. William Moulton Marston (1893-1947) the creator of the systolic pressure test, which lead
to the creation of the polygraph (lie detector). Because of his discovery, Marston was convinced
that women were more honest and reliable than men and could work faster and more accurately.
John A. Larson – A pioneer who in 1921 developed an instrument capable of simultaneously
and continuously recording blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration. His invention was
designated as the “Bread Lie Detector”.
4. GALVANOGRAPH - This is the longest and the third pen of the instrument. The electrodes
used for obtaining the recording of the GSR or electro dermal responses, are fastened to the hand
or fingers by means of the passage of an imperceptible amount of electrical current through the
hand or fingers bearing the attached electrodes, a galvanometer unit provides recording of the
variation in the flow of the electrical current.
Galvanograph Component
a. Finger electrodes assembly which has a finger electrode plate and retainer bond
attached to the left index and ring finger of the subject. And a connecting plug
designed to fasten the system to the polygraph machine.
b. Recording pen unit which is usually 7 inches in length.
c. Amplifier unit which is made to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to
mechanical current.
Personalities involved in the development & use of Galvanograph
Sticker-(1897) worked on the galvanograph component & studied the influence and relation of
the sweat glands to skin resistance.
Veraguth- (1907) formulated the term psycho-galvanic skin reflex. He claimed that electrical
phenomena are due to the activity of the sweat glands.
Richard O. Arthur- developed and improvised polygraph machine with two galvanic skin
resistance.
Luigi Galvani (1791) – he is Italian Physiologist who was accorded the distinction for
developing Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) or the galvanamoter, which records electrical bodily
resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current ever recorded. The GSR reflected emotional
changes by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to electricity.
4. KYMOGRAPH - This is the chart-recording unit of the instrument. It has a synchronized
motor that drives the charts at the rate of six inches per minute and its speed constant is vital
because the vertical lines, which are spaced either at one inch interval, represents five- or ten-
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seconds interval on the chart. This provides the polygraphist with a means of determining pulse
rate and question spacing.
Kymograph Component
a. Chart is a rolled graph paper composed of 12 divisions in sixty (60) seconds run
designed to measure the rate of various body functions.
b. Rubber roller which pulls the paper out of the machine.
c. Paper rail guide serves to secure or ensure the chart paper’s forward movement without
shaking.
Personalities involved in the development of Kymograph
a. Leonard Keeler (1926) An American criminologist who invented the kymograph
machine. In 1949, the “KEELER’s Polygraph” incorporated the galvanograph with
measurement, blood pressure & respiration component & kymograph component. He also
devised a metal recording bellow, rolled chart paper and the method of question
formulation used in polygraph examination.
b. Sir James Mackenzie- an English heart specialist who first described the polygraph
machine as the “Ink Polygraph”.
c. Cleve Backster – created the numerical scoring on the polygraph chart and standardized
quantitative polygraph technique
Polygraph in the Philippines
The Polygraph was first introduced to the Philippines in 1945 by the Crime Laboratory of
the Military Police. The Crime Laboratory sent several people including Mr. Jose Navarro and
Conrado Dumlao to the U.S for polygraph training. In 1950 the National Bureau Investigation
sent Mr. Agustin Patricio to train at the keeler Polygraph Institute.
Lawyer Manuel C. Roura also trained their after he succeeded Mr. Patricio as chief of the
Polygraph Division of the NBI Crime Lab Personnel trained in Polygraph were Ernesto Lucena,
Ms. Tessie Logan and Artemio Panganiban Jr.
Four (4) Phases of Polygraph Examination:
1. Initial Interview - with the Investigator Handling the Case.
This is usually conducted by the investigator handling the case or a polygraph examiner
who was given brief but significant details of the case & it is designed to obtain pertinent
information necessary for the conduct of the test. Test questions are prepared by the polygraph
examiner based from the facts and information.
This includes such as:
a. Obtaining and evaluating case facts
b. Determine areas the subject needs to asked about
c. The investigator should furnish the examiner adequate facts of the case
2. The Pre-Test Interview - with the subject to be examined.

The primary purpose of the pre-test interview is to prepare the subject for the test. Its
duration usually lasts for 20 to 30 minutes. This phase includes:
a. The Subject must be appraised of his constitutional rights.
b. Obtain subject’s consent to undergo the test (signing of the statement)
c. The taking of the personal data of the subject
d. Determines his or her suitability of the test
e. Clinical observation of the subject
f. Evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject
g. Informing the subject of his involvement with the case
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Prior to the polygraph examination the following considerations are taken into account:
1. The subject should avoid taking medication for at least two (2) days prior to the
examination;
2. The subject should not be hungry;
3. The subject must refrain from smoking at least two (2) hours prior to the test;
4. The subject must refrain from consuming alcoholic beverages for at least twelve (12)
hours prior to the actual test;
5. The subject should not be suffering from physical or emotional abuse;
6. The subject should calm down and relaxed;
7. If the female subject is pregnant or having menstruation, the test will not be undertaken;
8. The subject should not wear tight apparels or clothing as this may cause inference in the
test results;
9. The subject should have at least five (5) hours of sleep prior to the examination.
3. The Conduct of Instrumental/Actual Test - with the asking of questions previously reviewed
with the subject.
a. Transducers are attached to the body of the subject
b. Test instructions are given to the subject
c. Stimulating and conditioning the subject
d. Conduct preliminary evaluation/Initial Findings
The Ideal Examination Room

a. The room must be spacious for two persons with a polygraph desk, subject’s chair with
arm rest and an examiner’s stool;
b. The room must be devoid of pictures, paintings, ornaments and other decors;
c. The room must be well ventilated & lighted;
d. The room must be private and 90 percent soundproof free from outside noise &
distracting influence;
e. Installed with a one-way mirror and remote sound system or video device and
amplifier for monitoring and recording the test proceedings to authorized observers;
f. The polygraph machine should be tested and widely used by most Asian countries,
latest version, well maintained and in a well running condition.
4. Post Interview/Interrogation - with the subject

This phase includes all consideration that bear on the examination just after the
instrument is turned off. If the polygraph test result indicates deception, then the examiner
proceeds to conduct a short interrogation, the purpose of which is to obtain confession or
admission. However, if the test charts of polygraphs indicate that a subject is telling the truth then
he will be released cordially and the examiner will thank then/him for his cooperation.
The General Rule in Chart Interpretation:
1. There must be specific response.

2. To be specific, it must form a deviation from the norm.
3. The specific responses must appear in at least two (2) test charts.
4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneously specific in the three (3) tracings of
the chart.
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The General Rules in Question Formulation:
1. It must be simple and direct.

2. They must not involve legal terminology, such as rape, assault, murder killed. etc.
3. They must be answerable by yes or no only and should be as possible.
4. Their meaning must be clear and phrase in a language the subject can easily understand.
5. They must not be in the form of accusation.
6. Questions must never contain inference (opinion).
7. All questions must refer to one offense only.
8. They must not contain inferences to one’s religion, race or belief.
Is Polygraph Result Conclusive?

Answer: No, because polygraph result is opinionated.
Types of Question
1.Irrelevant Question
2.Relevant Question
3.Control Control
1. Irrelevant Question - These are questions which have no bearing to the case under
investigation. The question may refer to the subject’s age, educational attainment, marital status,
citizenship, occupation, etc.The examiner asks these types of questions to ascertain the subject’s
normal pattern of response by eliminating the feeling of apprehension (Pre-Test Interview).
2. Relevant Questions - These are questions pertaining to the issue under investigation.
They must be unambiguous, unequivocal and understandable to the subject. They must be related
to one issue or one criminal act. It is equally important to limit the number of relevant questions
to avoid discomfort to the subject.
Types of Relevant Questions
2.1. Weak Relevant

2.2. Strong-Relevant
a. Evidence Connecting
b. DYAT Question
c. SKY Question
d. Knowledge
e. Sacrifice Questions
f. etc.
A. Weak/Secondary Relevant - Concern some secondary element of the crime or

problem and deals mostly on guilty knowledge and partial involvement. Example: Between 7:30
A.M to 10:30 A.M of October 25, 2021, did you open the table drawer of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?
B. Strong/Primary/ Crucial Relevant - Is a relevant question having an intense and

specific relationship with the crime or problem being considered. It is designed and constructed to
test for direct involvement only, and specifically designed to produce an emotional response in
guilty subjects.
Example: Were you the one who actually stole the missing P 50,000 of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?
Types of Strong Relevant:
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1. Sacrifice or DYAT Questions- This is designed to absorb the responses generally

generated by the introduction of the first relevant question in the series. It reveals the subject's
norm plus stimulus and excitement level. Example: Regarding the stolen wristwatch, do you
intend truthfully to answer each question about that?
2. Knowledge Questions - This is the questioned designed to prove whether the subject
possess information regarding the identity of the offender, or as to the location of the evidence or
other secondary elements of the facts of the case under investigation. Example: Do you know for
sure who stole the wristwatch of Hazel?
3. Evidence Connecting Questions - This is designed to stimulate the guilty subject and
focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt.
Example: Were the footprints outside the house of Hazel is yours?
4. Control Questions - These are questions which are unrelated to the matter under
investigation but are of similar nature although less serious as compared to those relevant
questions under investigation.
Types of Control Questions
4.1. Primary Control Question - focus on past experience or involvement of the

subject in a crime. Example: Before reaching the age of 20, have you ever stolen
anything?
4.2. Secondary Control Question - focus on present experience but different in

nature of crime. Example: Have you ever committed any crime in your community
or have you ever stolen anything?
5. Symptomatic Questions - These questions are designed to detect and evaluate the
presence of the outside issue factor neither a case which he is involved, but is nor a subject matter
under investigation. Example: Are you now convinced that I will not ask you any questions
aside from those which we have reviewed?
6. SKY Questions - These three questions grouped together by Backster confirm the
previous charts and may detect indirect involvement or guilty knowledge. The "S" stands for
suspect, the "K" stands for knowledge, and the "Y" question stands for You.
Example: Do you suspect anyone in particular of stealing Hazel wristwatch?
Do you know for sure who stole Hazel wristwatch?
Did you steal Hazel’s wristwatch?
Development of Questioning Technique
Leonarde Keeler (1942) - He developed the "relevant –irrelevant test”. The theory of
this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and innocent shows no reactions. Keeler is
also credited with introducing the "card test" and specialized in "peak of tension test”.
John E. Reid (1950)- He developed the "reviewed control question" consisting of a

known lie incorporated into relevant- irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the
innocent subject, to identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor and to improve
contract between innocent and guilty subjects. He also discovered the "guilt-complex test"
administered to the overly responsive subject."
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Cleve Backster (1960) - He conceived the psychological sit theory that forms the basis
of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant monitoring of the subject’s reactivity
and designed to disclose outside issue. This is known as the "Backster Zone Comparison Test".
He was also introduced the SKY Question Technique.
TEST PROCEDURES
1. All test or polygraph examination must be conducted only after having a pre-test interview
with the subject to condition him for the test;
2. The polygraph examination should consist of asking the subject a list of not more than twelve
(12) prepared questions in a planned sequence.
3. There should be at least three (3) charts taken with each chart which should not exceed for four
(4) minutes with a rest interval of from five (5) to ten (10) minutes between charts.
Types of Tests
The number of tests required when the subject indicates deception is at least five (5) test
which may be any of the foregoing:
1. General Question Test - The test ss about the case under investigation. These are
sequence of relevant, irrelevant and control question asked in a designed order. The question is
arranged in order to contrast the subject's responses between relevant questions and control
questions. The answer to the question is restricted to yes or no only.
1-Irrelevant- Is your first name Raine?

2-Irrelevant - Do you know that today is Thursday
3-Weak relevant - Between 7:30 AM to 10:30 AM of October 25, 2002, did you open the
table drawer of Mr. Raynaldo Suave?
4-Irelevant - Are you married?
5-Strong Relevant - Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50, 000.00 cash
money of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?
6-Control - before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen anything?
7-Irrelevant-Do you know how to read?
8-Evidence Connecting - Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Mr.
Reynaldo Suave, yours?
9-Knowledge - Do you know who stole the cash of Fr. Reynaldo Suave?
10-Secondary Control -- Have you ever stolen anything from your current employment?
2. Card or Number Test (Stimulation or Verification Test) - The examiner will show to
the subject (7) variously numbered cards, face down. The cards are set in such a way the
examiner will right away know which card has been chosen by the subject. The numbers, 11 and
13 should not be used because other subjects are too superstitious and numbers 6 and 9 should not
be included to avoid confusion on the part of the subject. The cards with numbers15,8,5,3,4,14
and 12 are used.
The subject is given an instruction to get a card, look at it and memorize the number of the
card that was chosen ana return it without showing it to the examiner or telling the number. After
the selection is finished, the examiner shuffles the cards and will instruct the subject to answer
"no" to each question regarding the cards, even if the number or the card has chosen is asked. In
short one of the subject's answers to the question will be lie.
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In short one of the subject's answers to the question will be lie. The verification test is
intended to assure the innocent examinee of the accurateness of the test and of the test and of the
competency of the polygraphist. It further serves to arouse the guilty examinee.
3. Spot Responder Test - This test contains question previously asked questions in
General Question Test (GQT). With the same number of the same question on the earlier test.
- Questioning is not in order.
- composed of 10 questions
- Answerable by Yes or No
Sequence of SRT
1. Irrelevant
3. Weak Relevant
2. Irrelevant
5. Strong Relevant
4. Irrelevant
6. Primary Control
7. Irrelevant
8. Evidence Connecting
9. Knowledge
10. Secondary Control
4. Mixed Question Test - The test is the same with test III but question of GQT is again
mixed and the sequences of the question are as follows:
Sequence of MQT
4-Irrelevant
10-Irrelevant
9-Knowledge
6-Primary Control
2-Irrelevant
3-Weak relevant
10-Secondary Control
5-Strong Relevant
2-Irrelevant
8-Evidence Connecting
5. Silent Answer Test - In this test the subject is instructed by the examiner to avoid from
giving any verbal answer to the questions that are to be asked of him during the test.
- To serve as an affirmative check
- To compare the degree of reaction between relevant and control question.
- To check feasible distortion when selected number is sked.
- To determine the responsiveness to critical questions.
6. Peak of Tension Test - Refers to the series of questions in which only one has a bearing
on the matter under investigation. This is conducted where there is a widespread knowledge
pertaining to a crime but the intimate details are known only by the offender. It is answerable by
“No” only.
Example:
Do you know whether the stolen watch from Fred is Boluva?
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It is an Elgin?
Is it a Colorado?
Is it a Rolex?
7. Guilt Complex Test – in cases where the subject is overly responsive, this test is given
which consists of a test pertaining to a purely fictitious incident of a similar nature to the one
under query. It is designed to compare the responsiveness on it with those that appeared on the
actual test record wherein questions are those which pertains to that which is under Investigation.
This test is designed for diagnostic purpose to aid in the post examination interrogation of a lying
subject.
Kinds of Response
A. Normal Responses - are responses of the subject that has no bearing on the matter under
investigation.
B. Specific Responses - are responses which contain deviations or signs of deception which has
direct bearing on the matter under investigation.
Chart Marking
Beginning X
Stimulus //
Yes +
No -
Subject fail to answer No sign
Subject Talk T
Talking Instruction TI
Coughing C
Mechanical Adjustment Arrow
Tearing of throat CT
Outside Noise OSN
Sigh S
Sniff SN
Sneeze SZ
Burp B
Yawn Y
Deep breathing DB
Subject Laugh L
Breathing Instruction BI
Repeat Question R
Paper Jump PJ
Ending XX
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FORENSIC BALLISTICS
BALLISTICS – is the science of the motion of projectile.
ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC – The word “BALLISTICS” originated from the

Greek word “Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word
“Ballista” which is machine to hurl a stone.
-From those words the modern term for Forensic Ballistics was derived
to indicate the science of moving projectile.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
a. INTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the projectiles while still

in the firearm, namely the studies of combustion of the powder, pressure
developed and velocity.
b. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the projectiles after
leaving the muzzle namely trajectory, velocity, range penetration, etc.
c. TERMINAL BALLISTICS – traits of the effects of the projectile on impact
on the target.
d. FORENSIC BALLISTIC – the science of firearms identification by means of
the ammunition fired through them.
DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS:
a. FIELD INVESTIGATION – refers to the work of an investigation in the

field. It concerns mostly with the collection, marking, preservation, packing
and transmission of firearms evidences. It include the study of class
characteristics of firearms and bullets.
b. TECHNICAL EXAMINATION – refers to the examiners who examine
bullets/ or shells, whether fired from also whether or not cartridges were
loaded and ejected made by the suspected firearms submitted. Reports are
made by the examiners and testify in court regarding their reports.
LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – “Firearms” or “Arms” are herein used

includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other
deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may
discharge off by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also
includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber and limited range used
as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all
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purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290
National Internal Revenue Code).
TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – instrument used for the

propulsion of a projectile by means of expansive force of gases from burning
powder.
AMMUNITION (defined) – under the National Internal Revenue Code the word
“Ammunition” shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers and pistols from which bullets, ball shot, shell or other missile may
be ammunition for air rifles.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLETS)
1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their

bores all possesses individual characteristics markings of their own.
2. When a bullet is fired from rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the
rifling and this engraving will vary in its minute details with every
individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the bullets fired
from one barrel will be different from another bullet fired from
another barrel.
3. Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprint on very single
bullet fired through it just as every breech face leaves its thumb mark
on the base of every fired cartridges case.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS)
1. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave

microscopical individualities of their own.
2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on ever
cartridges case which it fires.
3. The whole principles of identification is based on the fact that since
the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the
cartridges cases which it fires are imprinted with this individuality.
The imprints on all cartridges cases fired from the same weapon are
always the same; those on cartridges cases fired from different
weapons are different.
TYPES OF PROBLEMS: There are six (6) types of problems in Forensic

ballistic, namely:
Type 1-Given bullets, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which
it was fired.
Type 2-Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of
firearm from which it was fired.
Type 3-Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
Type 4-Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearms, to determine
whether or not the cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.
Type 5-Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired
from only one firearm.
Type 6-Given two or more cartridges cases, to determine whether or not they
were fired from only one firearm.
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CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determine prior to the

manufacturer of the firearm and are within control of man. These serve as basis
to identify a certain class or group of firearm.
a ) Caliber (Bore Diameter) e ) Width of grooves

b ) Number of lands f ) Direction of twist
c ) Number of grooves g ) Pitch of rifling
d ) Width of lands h ) Depth of grooves
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determinable only

after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is
beyond the control of man and which have random distribution. Their existence
in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation resulting
through wear and tear, abuse, militilations, corrosion, erosion and other
fortuitous causes.
SMALL ARMS – firearms which propel projectiles of less than one inch in
diameter.
TYPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL:
a. Smooth-bore – firearm which do not have rifling

Ex: shotguns, muskets
b. Rifled-bore – firearm which contain rifling marks.
Ex: pistols, revolvers, rifles
SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION – small arms ammunition consists of cartridges

used in rifles, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns and shell used in
shotgun.
EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILLIMETERS:
a. Caliber .22 – About 5.59 mm.

b. Caliber .25 – About 6.35 mm.
c. Caliber .32 – About 7.65 mm.
d. Caliber .30 – About 7.63 mm. (mouser)
e. Caliber .38 – About 9 mm.
f. Caliber .45 – About 11 mm.
g. Caliber .30 – About 7.56 mm. (Luger)
RIFLING – consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of

the bore. The rifling in firearms may be divided into the following types:
a. Small type – four grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of equal
width. (4R G-L)
b. Smith and Wesson type – five grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands
of equal width (5R G-L)
c. Browning type – six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader
grooves (6R G2X)
d. Colt type – six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves
(6L G2X)
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e. Webley type – seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader
grooves (7R G3X)
f. Army type – four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader
grooves (4R G3X)
PURPOSE OF RIFLING – is to impact a motion of rotation to a bullet during

its passage inside the barrel in order to insure gyroscopic in the flight, and so
that it will travel nose-on towards the target.
PARTS OF CARTRIDGES
a) Bullet c ) Gunpowder
b ) Shell d ) Primer
TYPES OF CARTRIDGES:
a. Pin-fire – the pin extends radically through the need of the cartridges case
into the primer.
b. Rim-fire – the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the rim of
the head of the cartridges case. The flame produced is in direct communication
with the powder charge. Used in the calibers .22, .25 and .45 Derringer pistols.
c. Center-fire – the primer sup is forced into the middle portion of the head of
the cartridges case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the
firing pin. The flame is communicated to the powder charge through the vents
leading into the powder charge.
TYPES OF CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGES:
a. Rimmed type – the rim of the cartridges case is greater than the diameter of
the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22
b. Semi rimmed type – the rim of the cartridge case is slightly greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal. Super .38 auto, Pistol, .32
and .25
c. Rimmed less type – the rim of the cartridges case is equal to the diameter of
the body of the cartridge case. Ex: Cal .45 Auto Pistol .30 carbine .223
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
1. PERCUSSION – Action whe , when the priming mixture of chemical

compound hit or struck by firing in,ld ignite.
2. JUXTAPOSITION – Two objects is evidence bullet and test bullet are
examined and compared under the bullet comparison microscope. Includes
also the examination of fired shells.
3. BALLO or BALLEIN – Greek words where Ballistics was derived from
which means “to throw”.
4. BALLISTA – The early Roman was Machine – a gigantic bow or Catapult.
5. BALLISTICS – Science of the motion of projectiles.
6. FORUM – A Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation
in relation to the court of justice.
7. FORENSIC BALLISTICS - The study of firearms identification by means of
ammunition fired from them.
8. BALLISTICIAN – Person whose knowledge in identification is accepted by
the courts and other investigation agencies.
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9. ABRASSION – (in the world) Scratches cause by using improper cleaning

materials, or by firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material
was adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due
to the abrasive action of the bullets.
10. BLACK POWDER – A mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur and salt
paper. Burned with considerable white smoke.
11. CARTRIDGE – is a complete unfired unit of bullets, cartridge case,
gunpowder and primer.
12. AMMUNITION (legal ) – SEC. 877 of the RAC – shall mean “loaded
shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols which
a ball, bullet shot shell or other missile maybe discharges by means of
gunpowder or other explosive. The term includes ammunition for a rifles
as mentioned else where in the code.
Ammunition (technical) – refers to a group of cartridge or to a single

unit cartridge, meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of bullets, cartridge
case, gun powder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round.
13. BALL BULLETS – Bullets have soft lead course inside a jacket.
14. ROUND – one single complete cartridge.
15. BULLET ENERGY – the powder possessed by a moving bullet, or in
other words its ability to keep going meets an obstacle of immense
importance, for obviously, the more powder a bullet has and the harder it
is to stop the, more effective it can be as a weapon.
16. BULLET RECOVERY BOX – consist of a wooden box, 12” x 12” x 96”,
with the hinged to cover and with one end open. This long box is filled
with ordinary cotton and separated into section by card board partitions.
17. CALIBER – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is
measured from land to land.
18. DUMDUM BULLET – “Dumdum” is an out molded and generally
misused term. It was an unofficial name first applied hallow point bullets
maid at the British arsenal at Dumdum, India.
19. EROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the
gun barrel due to the mechanical abrasion or gliding.
20. CORROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun
barrel due to rust formation or chemical action of the by products of
combustion after firing.
21. CANNELURE (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the
body of the bullet which contains wax for lubrication in order to
minimize friction during the passage of the bullet inside the bore.
22. CALIPER – an instrument used for making measurement such as bullet
diameter and bore diameter.
23. CHILLED SHOT – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened
by the addition of a slight amount of antimony.
24. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those that are determinable even
before the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into caliber or
gauge number of lands and grooves, width of land and grooves,twist of
rifling, patch of rifling and depth of grooves.
25. RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle and target.
26. POINT BLANK RANGE – popularity used to indicate the distance the
bullet will travel before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A
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shot fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for

effective aiming.
27. MAXIMUM RANGE – the farthest distance that a projectile can be
propelled form a firearm.
28. GALLERY RANGE – the indoor targets range on properly constructed
indoor ranges, firing maybe conducted with center fire pistols and
revolvers at range of 25 years and 50 years. Such installation are
generally referred to as indoor ranges the term gallery being applied
usually only to short range 22 caliber installation.
29. EXTREME RANGE – the greatest distance the bullet will travel the
cartridge is fire.
30. EFFECTIVE RANGE – the maximum distance at which a bullet may
reasonable be expected types of live target.
31. ACCURATE RANGE – the distance with in which he shoots has control
of his shots.
32. FOULING - the accumulation of a deposit wit in the bore of a firearm
caused by solid by products remaining a cartridge is fired.
33. GUM COTTON – a very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerine which
is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the action
of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or nay other kind of cellulose.
34. LANDS – the raised portion between the grooves in the interior surface
of the gun barrel.
35. LAPPING – is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel.

36. MACHINE REST – a machine used for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
37. KNOCKING POWER – power of the bullet which believer of a very
paralyzing blow that put the victim down and may then recover if the
wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
38. STOPPING POWER – power of the bullet which put the victim out of
the action instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power is
not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However, stopping
power depends very largely on the location of the shot.
39. PRIMER – the complete assembly of cup, priming composition, paper
discs and anvil.
40. CARTOUCHE – French word of cartridge which means ROOL OF
PAPER.
41. CHARTA – Latin word for cartridges which means PAPER.
ORIGIN OF FIREARM
13 t h Century – development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in

Western Europe.
Berthold Schwartz – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk are
both credited with gunpowder invention.
-Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and Scientist
with the invention of gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, with
application of gunpowder to the propelling of a missile in the early
1300’s. This powder was that we now call “Black Powder”.
1245 – Gen Batu, The Tartar leader, used artillery in Liegnits when he defeated
the poles Hungarians, and Russians.
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- It is also often stated that the gunpowder was first invented by Chinese,
were of gunpowder and its use as propellant long before its advantages
became recognized in Europe.
- It may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of
chemistry at that time.
1247 – One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in war far was that of an
attack on Seville, Spain.
1346 – Cannons used by King Edward II of England at Crecy.
1335 - Mohammad II of turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.
-First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of
being carried by an individual soldier; hence, the development of
cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.
Man never satisfies to himself. He is always trying to improve

himself and his surrounding. He created some rule crude or primitive
weapons which were subsequently developed into sophisticated firearms
of modern times.
The following are the stages of development of man’s weapon:
1. Stones
2. Cubs Knives Spears and Darts
3. Sling shots to hurl objects
4. Bows and arrows
5. Cross – bows
6. Guns
7. Missiles
PROMINENT PERSONALITIES
1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D, OS Army – Father of Modern Ballistics.

2. Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith and Weapon and pioneered the
making of breech – loading regales.
3. Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partner of smith in revel verb making.
4. John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pandered breech
loading single shot rifle.
5. John T. Thompson – pioneered the making of Thompson sub-Machine.
6. David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first know carbine.
7. Alexander John Forsythe – Father of the percussion system.
8. Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making colt firearms.
9. Eliphalet Remington – One of the first rifle makers.
10. John Malon Martin – Founder of martin Firearms Company.
11. James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the model 1855
riffled – musket.
12. Samuel Colt – (1814-1862) – Produced the first practical revolver.
13. Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole classes of firearms.
14. John C. Garand – Designed the semi-automatic US Rifle, Cal. 30
15. Oliver F. Wichester – One of the earliest rifles and pistol makers.
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY
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1313 -Gunpowder as a propellant. Te age of gunpowder began with outs first

use as a propellant for a projective. Such use has been recorded as early as
1313.
1350 -Small arms, Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the
middle of the 14 t h century that portable hand, F.A was introduced. These guns
were ignited by a hand-held wire or lighted match.
1498-Riffling, The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. Although its
important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it was many years
after before rifling was generally used.
1575-Cartridges, Paper cartridges combining both powder and ball were
developed. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying
loose powder.
1807 -Percussion system, the discovery of Forsythe in 1807 the that certain
compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the charge in a firearm,
for the basis for all later percussion and cartridges development.
1835-Samuel Colt-patented the first practical revolvers in which the cylinder
was rotated by cooking the hammer.
1836 -Pin fire. Cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836, was probably the
first self really the first rim fire cartridge.
1858 -Center fire Cartridge. The Morse Cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning
of the rapid development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 -Automatic Machine Gun. Hiran Maxim built the first fully Automatic
gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge.
1885-Smokeless Powder. In Frnece, Veille, Developed the first satisfactory
smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke
characteristics of black powder, but also more powerful.
1845-Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Florbert develop a “bullet” “breech cap”
which was in really the first rimterfire Cartridge.
I. TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun Barrel

Internal Construction)
A. Smooth-bore firearms – fire arms the have no rifling (land and

grooves) inside their gun barrel.
Ex. Shot guns and muskets
B. Rifled-the bore Firearms – Firearms that have rifling inside their gun
barrel.
Ex. Pistols, Revolvers, Rifles
II. MAIN TYPES OF .As. (According to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled)
A. Artillery – Those types of firearm that propel projectiles more than one
inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas
B. Small Arms – Propel Projectiles less than 1 inch in diameter, Can be
operated by one man.
Ex. Machines guns Shoulder arm and hand arms
III. TYPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical

Construction
A. Single Shot F.A – type of firearms designed to fire only one shot for
every loading.
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Ex. Pistols, Rifles, Shot guns – single shots

B. Repeating Arms – Fire several shots in one loading
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns
C. Bolt Action Type – Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns, Machine guns
D. Automatic Loading Type –After the first shot is fired, automatic
loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.
E. Slide Action Type (Trombone) –Loading takes place by back and forth
manipulation of the under forearm of the gun.
F. Lever Type (Break Type) –Loading takes place by lever action of the
Firearm.
IV.TYPES OF FIREARMS according to USE
A. Military Firearms
Ex. 1. Pistols 3. Rifles
2. Revolvers 4. Machine Guns
B. Pocket and Home Defense F.A

Ex. 1. Pistols 3. Rifles
2. Revolvers
IV. UNUSUAL OR MISCELLENEOUS TYPE
--Those types of fire arm that is unique in mechanism and construction
1. Paltik Pistols
2. Paltik Revolvers
3. PaltikRifles
4. Paltik Shot Guns
THE THREE MAIN PARTS
REVOLVERS – Cal .38 PISTOL –Cal .45
1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel Assembly

2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly
3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver
RIFLE – Cal .30 SHOT GUN – Gauge 12
1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly

2. Magazine Assembly 2. Magazine Assembly
3. Stock Group 3. Stock Group
The automatic Pistol-Caliber .45 besides having the main parts and
detailed it has also the so called auxiliary parts (accessories) which must all be
removed before disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished.
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1. Recoil Plug 4. Recoil Spring

2. Barrel Bushing 5. Recoil Spring
3. Slide stop pin
PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOTING CASES
When an officer arrives upon the scene of a shooting case, he is usually

confronted by a condition of utter confusion. Neighbors and onlookers are
crowded around the place; relatives are weeping and hysterical. In his career as
an officer he will meet with other situations which require as much as much
poises tact and common sense when he appears upon the scene of homicide.
His first duty is to clear the premises of all persons so that an

intelligent investigation is not a matter of five or ten minutes, but it requires
that a definite routine shall be followed, if mistakes are to be avoided. Things
should be done, which may appear wholly unnecessary at the time, but only to
become vitally important later. One can never forces the angels that will
develop and it is far better to do a hundred things unnecessarily than to miss
doing one that might mean the solution of the case. The victim is dead and will
stay dead. The officer may be important by reporters or other to do things
which he is not yet ready to do – to give statement to the press or to draw
conclusion. In spite of all persuasions, he should bear in mind that there is one
purpose and one purpose only, and that is to carry out an intelligent
investigation.
Upon receiving a cell to the sense of a shooting case, the officer should
always take along with him a loose-leaf notebook and fountain pen to make
notes at the time and on the place and not trust to his memory to reconstruct the
situation at his convenience.
When the officer is summoned on such an errand, his procedure should

follow a logical pattern. His observation should be put in writing at the time of
his investigation to keep for future references and to produce in court if
necessary.
The following are suggestions for the investigator to observe in testifying in

courts of justice:
1. Be prepared.
2. Be calm and well poised.
3. Tell the truth, nothing but the truth.
4. Be courteous.
5. Be natural and sit straight forward.
6. Do not volunteer.
7. Keep your temper.
8. Listen to the question asked before giving your answer.
9. Speak loud enough to be heard.
10. Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the courtroom.
11. Answer only what you are asked, no more.
ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER
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1. It is an old standard weapon, every one is used to it, and almost every
one knows something about to handle it.
2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry then
an automatic pistol.
3. The mechanism of a revolver allows the trigger pull to be better then that
of the average automatic weapon.
4. A misfire does not put revolvers out of action.
5. It will handle satisfactorily old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition
which gives a reduced velocity that would jam an average automatic
pistols.
DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER
1. It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol.

2. Its grip on handle is generally not as good as that of pistol.
3. It is hard to clean after firing.
4. It is slower to load.
5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, it is factory job.
6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to
improper up of cylinder.
ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL
1. It as a better grip fits the hand points naturally.

2. It is more compact for the same fire power.
3. It is easier to load than a revolver.
4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at little
expense without sending the gun to the factory.
5. It gives a greater number of shots than revolvers.
6. It is easier to clean than revolvers.
7. It gives greater fire power and greater ease of firing.
8. There is no gas leakage in its operation.
DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL
1. Ammunition must be prefect. Old and deteriorated ammunition will cause

a jam.
2. A misfire stops the functioning of the gun.
3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long period of time, the magazine
spring is under tension and may deteriorate and cause trouble.
4. The automatic pistol can not use blank or reduced loads.
5. It has a poor trigger pull than the revolver.
6. The magazines require a jacketed bullet which is not as good for
practical use as that of lead bullet.
7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and fire especially for
inexperienced people due to the fact that after one shot it is always
cooked and loaded.
8. It is not adapted to reloading. It throws away empty shell at each shot.
9. Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face at each shot.
10. Its throws out empty shells on the ground to remain as evidence.
11. It can not be fired from the pocket without jamming.
EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently check his revolvers for:

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1. Obstruction in the barrel.

2. Bulging or swollen barrel.
3. Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward
position.
4. On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in
relation to the firing pin hole (to insure blow in center of the primer).
5. Evidence of “spitting lead” around breech of barrel for complaints of
fellow shooters in the firing line.
6. Tightness of all side plate screws.
7. Tightness of ejector if the weapon is a Smith and Wesson revolvers.
8. Cleanliness and projective film of oil to prevent rust.
NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTION
BARREL – initiates the path of the bullet.

FRAME – Houses the internal parts.
YOKE – Connecting pivot between the frame and cylinder.
EXTRACTOR – Pulls the empty shells from the cylinder simultaneously.
EXTRACTOR ROAD – Activates the extractor and is a locking device.
CENTER PIN – Serves as a looking device for the cylinder.
CENTER PIN SRPING – Holes the center pin in a locked position.
SIDE PLATES – Provides access to the internal parts.
SIDE PLATE SCREW – Hold the side plate and yoke in place.
HAMMER BLOCK – Safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer.
DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – Built into the weapon to allow double action fire.
HAMMER – Strikes the blow that initiates or ignites primer.
BOLT – Disengage center prim to allow opening of cylinder and blocks
hammer.
THUMBLATCH – Actuates bolt to release the cylinder.
HAND (pawl) – Rotates the cylinder when the hammer is cocked.
CYLINDER STOP – Stops and holds the cylinder alignment for firing.
TRIGGER – Actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon.
TRIGGER GUARD – Guards the trigger from unnecessary action to avoid
accidental firing.
REBOUND SLIDE – Returns trigger, actuates hammer block and locks
hammer.
TRIGGER SPRING – Provides energy for return movement or rebound slide.
TRIGGER LEVEL – Contacts rebound slide to return trigger forward.
MAIN SPRING – Provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism.
STRAIN SCREW – Controls tension of the mainspring.
TRIGGER STOP – Prevents excessive rearward movement after hammer the
release.
RACKET – Helps in the withdrawal of the Cartridges or shells from the
chambers of the cylinder.
CYLINDER NOTCH – It helps hold the cylinder in place and aligned ready for
firing.
NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE
1. Bullet – A projectile propelled from a firearm by means of explosive

force of gases coming from burning powder.
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2. Cartridge Case – A tubular metallic container for the gunpowder

sometimes called shell.
3. Gun Powder – Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash
is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot
charge through the barrel and on the target.
4. Primer – The metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture
of chemical compound which when hit or struck by the firing pin would
ignite, such action is called “PERCUSSION”.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE
A. According to the type of firearms asked
1. Revolver cartridges Used in revolver

2. Pistol cartridges Used automatic pistol
3. Rifles cartridges Used in rifles
4. Shot Cartridges Used in shot gun
B. According to location of primer
1. Pin fire cartridges no longer used (absolute)
2. Rim fire – the primer is located at the rim or the base portion
-- Use in cal .22, pistol, revolvers and rifles
3. Canter fire – Priming powder is located at the center

-- Economical can be repealed
a. Rimmed type – Used in revolvers cal .38 and .35

b. Semi-Rimmed – Used in super .38
c. Rimless – Used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine
gun
A. TYPICAL RIMMED FIRE CARTRIDGES
A – Case
B – Priming mixture
C – Propellant powder/ gun powder
D – Bullet
E – Sensitive Area
B. According to Caliber
1. cal .22 – used in revolvers, pistols and rifles

2. cal .25 – used in pistols and rifles
3. cal .30 – used in carbine and other rifles
4. cal .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. cal .380 – used in pistols
6. cal .38 – used in revolvers
7. cal .357 – used in .357 revolvers (magnum)
8. cal .44 – used in magnum revolvers
9. cal .44 – used in automatic pistols
10. cal .50 – used in cal .50 machine gun (not use in crimes)
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Cartridge Life – a well made cartridges have a life of 10 years some have only
5 -6 years.
45 years or more – depend upon the surrounding of the cartridge and climate,
damp, warn, condition.
Bullet / slugs - is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled

from a firearm by means of expansive gases coming from burning gun powder.
Slugs – laymen’s term – use in court during proceedings. Projectiles propelled
from a shot gun are termed shots or pellets.
Iced Bullet – Super cooled water made as a projectile of solidified bullets have
a life of 3 minutes maximum
History – Bullet derive from a French word Boulette which means small ball
In Government parlance a cartridges containing bullet is called Ball-Bullet
Ball – Comes from terminology of bullet
-- The core of the slugs is an alloy of lead, antimony and sometimes tin.
Armor piercing bullet a core of tungsten chrome steel with continues to

penetrate armor cars after the jackets and the filler have been striped away by
contract with the resistance surface.
CLASSIFICATION
A. According to mechanical construction

1. Lead Bullet – Those which are made of lead alloys of this mental –lead, tin,
antonym—which is slightly harder than pure lead.
2. Jacketed Bullets – Those which core of lead covered by jacket of harder

metal
-- The primary function of the “jacket” in a bullet is to prevent adherent of
metal (lead) to the inside of the gun barrel.
B. According to shape
Flat Base Boat Tailed Square Base Hollow Base
KEY HOLE SHOT – The tumbling of a bullet in its flight and hitting the target
sideways as a results of spinning on its axis. (due to destroyed barrel or loose
barrel)
In generally .0002 sec. explosion of a bullet by means of a tremendous

explosion of burning gases.
RESISTANCE of a .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 m/pound

CONTACT WOUND – 4,8 inches – distance of the fire with gunpowder without
the burning of the tissue means firer is more than 24 inches
Copper nickel ----- 60%

----- 40%
Gliding metal ------ 90%

----- 10%
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PURPOSE OF BULLETS
.38 Bullet --- disability purpose – used by police officers to get confession
.45 Bullet --- knocking subdue purpose
M16 --- Fatal effect
Garand and Carbine --- penetration, long range shooting
.45 Bullet --- Knowing Subdue Purposes
Rifled Bullets (5 Principal Parts)
1. Ball Bullets
2. Armored Piercing
3. Tracer Bullet
4. Incendiary
5. Explosive (fragmentation)
B. All Bullets --- have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against
personnel only.
Armored Piercing --- have hardened steel cores and are a fired against vehicle
and other armored target is general.
Tracer Bullets --- contains a compound at the base usually similar barium
nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet is projected.
--- The flash of the smoke from the burning permits the light of the
bullet to be seen
In Cendiary --- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other materials
that can be set on fire by impact.
---They are used against target tat will readily burn such as air crafts or
gasoline depot.
Explosive (Fragmentary ) --- contains a high changed explosive, because of
their small size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small
size ammunition.
For the reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20 mm.
and above.
Pointed Bullet --- is more effective ballistically than the round ball of the same
weight
Soft Point or Mushroom Bullet --- will expand on striking an object and there
for produce much more serious check, and have corresponding greater stopping
power.
Hollow Point Bullet --- a bullet with a cavity in the nose design to increase the
expansion when it hits the forget.
Metal Cased Bullet --- colonially use to indicate either a metal patched or full
patched bullet.
Metal patched --- any metal patched bullet
Bullet having soft steal jacket often clog or plated with gilding metal to
prevent rusting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL
128
-- Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container which old together the bullet,

gunpowder and primer.
-- The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridges that is automatically
ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and this remains at the scene
of the crime. This is a firearm evidence than can help trace particular firearms
use.
FUNCTION:
1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are

assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a waster proof contained for gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the
cartridges cases are forced against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure. It serves as the “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.
PARTS
1. RIM – Serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of the cartridges
into their chambers and this also limit the clearance. If any between the
heads and the supporting surface of the bolt or breech block.
2. PRIMER POCKET – Performs tipple function:

a. Holding primer securely in control position
b. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the rear of the
cartridges.
c. Providing a solid support from primer anvil without which the
latter could not be fired.
3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLE – Is the hole in the web or bottom of the

primer pocket thought which the primer “flash” impart ignition to the
primer charges.
The “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD – THE BODY – constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech
of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – That part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the bullet.
6. CANNELURES – are the separate grooves that are sometimes found

“rolled” into the neck and bodies of the cases at the location of the
bullets bases to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP – Is that part of the mouth of the cases tat is turned in upon the
bullet.
a. if aid in holding the bullet in place
b. if after resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck
which effects the burning of the powder.
8. BASE – The portion of case which contains:

a. The primer which contains the priming mixture
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b. The shell head which contains the head stamp caliber and the year
of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER – That portion which support the neck.
10. EXTRACTION GROOVE – The circular grooves near the base of the
case of shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after each
firing.
mouth
neck
shoulder
shell cannelure
body
gun powder
vent
extracting grooves
rim
primer
shell head
STANDARD CARTRIDGES HEAD FORMS ARE:
A. RIMMED – designed to use in revolvers, the diameter of the base of the

cartridges is very much bigger than the diameter of the body of the
cartridges.
-- straight type cartridges
-- found in cal .30 (carbine) .32, .38 and .35
B. SEMI-RIMMED – designed to be used in automatic weapons like pistols

and sub-inactive gums such as super .38 uz1, 9mm.
-- normally found at the crime scene because they are
automatically ejected for easy firing of the firearm.
C. RIMLESS – case within the diameter of the body of the cartridges is the
same as the diameter of the cartridges case.
-- Use in automatic pistols such as cal .45 thompson Sub-machine
gun and cal .45 grease gun.
-- Automatically ejected like semi-rimmed type.
PRIMERS
Is that portions of the cartridge which consist of the brass gilding metal-
cup containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which
when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is
called Percussion.
Use for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from the firing pin on the primer
cup compresses the priming mixture and this causes the composition to
detonate on explodes. This detonating on explosion produces “flame”
which passes through the “event” on “flash hole” in the cartridges case
and this ignites the gunpowder.
ORIGIN
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1807 – Alexander John Forsyth

First one to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds for igniting
powder charges in small arms by percussion.
A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist and hunter.
A well known authority on firearms
First successful priming mixture was one composed of Potassium
chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form.
PARTS: In a typical center fire cartridges have four parts
1. PRIMER CUP – container of the priming mixture made up of brass,

gliding metal or copper.
2. PRIMING MIXTURE – highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in
the primer cups.
3. ANVIL – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is
crushed by a blow from the firing pin. To provide the resistance
necessary to fire the priming mixture.
4. DISC – piece of small paper on disc of the pin, foil which is pressed
over the priming mixture.
Two fold purposes
a. to help hold the priming mixture in place

b. to exclude moisture
1. primer cup 2. priming mixture 3. anvil 4. disc
PRIMING COMPOUNDS: Classes
1. Corrosive primers – e.g Potassium chlorate – if ignited produce

potassium chloride, draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds
the rusting and corrosion in gun barrel. Advances in chemistry produce
new composition which potassium chlorate has been eliminated.
2. Non-corrosive – every manufacture has his own formula mixture of the
mercuric primers of 25 years ago.
Ingredients:
- Potassium chlorate (initiator and fuel 45%)

- Antimony Sulfide (elements and fuel 23%)
- Fulminate way came the standard mixture by Frankford Arsenal
known as FH-24 had the following composition:
- sulfur - 21.97%
- Potassium chlorate - 47.20%
- Antimony Sulfide - 30.33%
- German have their own composition barium nitrate in the place of

Potassium chlorate together with some Picric Acid to strengthen
mixture.
- This formula: Fulmirate of mercury - 39%
Barrium nitrate - 41%
Antimony Sulfide - 9%
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Picric Acid - 5%
Ground glass - 6%
- Swiss Army has been using non-corrosive primer since about
1911. This was base on the formula of a Swiss inventor named
ZIEGLER: Swiss formula.
Fulmirate of mercury -40%

Barrium nitrate -25%
Antimony sulfide -25%
Barrium carbonate - 8%
Ground glass - 4%
GUN POWDER
Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to

gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot changes through the
barrel and on the target.
Class or Composition:
1. BLACK Powder – although if features loss important still manufactured by

the Europeans. In recent time has completely superseded by smokeless powder.
Ingredients:
Potassium nitrate -75%
Sulfur -10%
Charcoal -15%
Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel.

Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited.
Block Powder – relies for its explosive properties on 3 quantities which
are typical of all explosives
FIRST – when ignited it will burn by it self without aid from the outside
air.
SECOND – in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
THIRD – a considerable amount of heat is evolved.
2. SMOKELESS POWDER – terms smokeless powder is misnomer for the

are neither powder nor they are smokeless. The letters terms term being
applied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white smoke
like the black powder.
Two main Classes of smokeless powder
1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE

-- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelatoriged with
nitrocellulose
2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT
-- composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as their major
ingredients according by one more ingredients such as:
a. Centralize
b. Vaseline Phthalate esters
132
c. Inorganic salt
Purpose of minor ingredients
a: Insure stability
b. Reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)
Double – base Propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in
size and shape to the single – base propellants.
Almost all smokeless powder grains have perfectly definite shape such as
a. small squares d. strips

b. disc e. pellets
c. flakes f. perforated cylindrical grains
The powder is made in different shapes to obtain certain types of burning.
SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION
1. Bullet Comparison Microscope

A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms
identification expert is the bullet comparison microscope, with camera
attachment.
2. Stereoscopic Microscope
No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court
tampered serial number.
3. Shadowgraph
A series of microscopic lenses of different magnification use to
determine class characteristics of fired bullets and shells.
Also for orientation purposes.
It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons made in
the circulation ground glass.
4. CD-6 Comparison Projector
Very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope
No eyestrain because the magnified image appears on the large screen.
What can be seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of
camera.
5. Bullet Recovery Box
Long box (12” x 12” x 96”) filled with ordinary cotton and separated into
sections by and board partitions.
6. Helixometer
Used in measuring “pitch of rifling”. Distance traveled by the bullet in
one complete rotation.
7. Micrometer
Similar in use as caliper
8. Caliper
Use for making measurements such as bullet diameter barrel length.
9. Analytical or torsion balance
Use to determine weights of bullets and pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber and make from which fired.
10. Onoscope
Small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the
gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun
133
barrel. It has a tiny lamp the terminal portion and is inserted inside the
bore for internal examinations.
11. Taper Gauge
Use primarily for determining bore diameter.
12. Electrical Gun Maker
Used in the laboratory for making fired bullets fired shells and firearms
submitted for examination.
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL: Evidence bullets, cartridges cases and suspected firearms once

submitted by the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its
markings or initials will be physically examined to determine its markings or
initials made by the investigators for identification purposes.
TEST FIRING: The firearms is test fired from a bullet recovery box in
order to obtain test bullets and test cartridges cases for comparison with
evidence bullets and cartridge cases, but before firing the cartridge will be
marked at the side of the case on the nose portion of the bullet with letter T
(test) followed (eg T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of firing to distinguish the
number 1 test from 2 and 3. After the recovery of the test bullets and test
cartridges cases, they will be compared with the evidenced bullet and evidence
cartridges cases, under the bullet comparison microscope to determine whether
or not they have the congruency of striations or the same individual
characteristics.
Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells
are examine in a JUXTAPOSITION - That is, the two object-evidence and the
test bullet are examined and compared:
1. at the same time

2. at the same place or level
3. at the same direction
4. at the same magnification
5. at the same image
For conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least 3 test bullets that should
be compared
First 1 for Comparison/ preliminary
Second 1 for confirmation
Third 1 for conclusion
PERIPHERY
These are the sides of the bullet are in contact with the inner surface of
the barrel.
STRIATIONS
A individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base portion
and of the side of the bullet come in contact with the inner surface of the
barrel.
TEST BULLETS
134
Are those recovered from bullet recovery box for a comparison with the
evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.
A fired or evidenced bullets or cartridges cases are those recovered from the
crime scene.
Interconnected or intermarriages 8 or more striations can be accepted by the

court.
3 Points of basic positive identification the markings must be:
1. Prominent
2. Significant; and are
3. Consistent
Means of –test firing, other than the recovery box.
1. Water tank 5. Darak

2. Saw dust with oil 6. Banana trunk
3. Sand 7. Rubber trips
4. Waste threads
PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
Two things mark by one and same tool will bear the same markings, likewise
two or more things mark by different tools will have the same markings.
DEFINITIONS
PISTOL – a hand firearm usually applied to simple sot and automatic loading.
REVOLVER – a hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively
-- places cartridges into position for firing.
SHOTGUN – a smooth-bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets
in one charge.
RIFLE – a type of weapon designed to be fired from the shoulder.
CARTRIDGE – term used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of the
bullets, primer cartridges case and powder charge.
BULLET – is a projectile propelled from a charge.
AUTOMATIC – a weapon is automatic when its mechanism is so arranged that
it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed.
DOUBLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the trigger both cocks and
release the hammer.
SINGLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the trigger release the
hammer that must be manually cocked.
CALIBER – term used to indicate the bore diameter which is measured between
two opposite lands.
GAUGE or GAGE – as applied to shotguns, it indicates that the bore diameter
is equal to the diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is equal to the
reciprocal gauge index.
Ex. bore diameter of a lead ball weighing 1/12 of a pound.
BORE – the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the projectile
travels.
135
PITCH OF RIFLING – the distance that the rifling advances to make one
complete turn.
EXPERT – as used in, court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted
on grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience.
BREECHBLOCK – the steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the
force of charge or that part in the breech mechanism that locks the action
against the firing of the cartridges; the face of this block is known as the breech
face.
CHAMBER – that part of the weapon in which the cartridge is placed into
position for firing.
EJECTOR – that mechanism in a firearm which causes the empty shell or
ammunition to be thrown out from the gun.
EXTRACTOR – that mechanism in a firearm by which the empty shell or
ammunition is withdrawn from the chamber.
GROOVES – the depressed channels cut in the interior of a rifled gun barrel.
LANDS – that raised portion between the grooves inside a rifled gun barrel.
VELOCITY – is the forward speed at which the bullet travels measured in feet
per second.
PRESSURE – the outward thrust of the burning powder gases against the
breechblock, chamber and bore normally measured one inch from the breech and
recorded in pounds per square inch.
Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for caliber .45 automatic pistol.
RANGE – the straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.
PENETRATION – the depth to which a projectile sinks in the tar get.
Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood.
TRAJECTORY – in the actual pattern or curved path of the bullets in flight.
FIRING PIN – that part of that firearm which strikes the primer causing the
firing of the cartridge.
HAMMER – that part of the firearm controlled by the trigger which causes the
firing pin to strike the primer striking the gun.
CORROSION – the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to rusting
or the action of salts deposited from they cap or powder.
EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to sliding
friction when the bullet passes through it.
BERDAN PRIMER – a primer with two flash holes or vents.
BOXER PRIMER – a primer with only one flash hole or vents.
RIM – the projection edge of the base or head of a certain cartridge.
OGIVE – is the technical name of the cylindrical head critic of the bullets.
BREECH end – the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartridges is
inserted.
136
Criminalistics Review Questions
1. There is freehand invitation and is considered as the most skilful class of forgery
A. simulated or copied forgery
B. simple forgery
C. traced forgery
D. carbon tracing
2. Condensed and compact set of authentic specimen which is adequate and proper, should
contain a cross section
of the material from known sources.
A. disguised document
B. questioned document
C. standard document
D. requested document
3. Specimens of hand writing or of typescript which is of known origin.
A. Letters
B. Samples
C. Exemplars
137
D. Documents
4. A document which is being questioned because of its origin, its contents or the circumstances
or the stories of
its production.
A. disputed document
B. standard document
C. requested document
D. questioned document
5. The art of beautiful writing is known as
A. Drafting
B. Calligraphy
C. Art appreciation
D. Gothic
6. Any written instrument by which a right or obligation is established.
A. Certificate
B. Subpoena
C. Warrant
D. Document
7. A type of fingerprint pattern in which the slope or downward flow of the innermost sufficient
recurve is towards
the thumb of radius bone of the hand of origin.
A. ulnar loop
B. tented arch
C. accidental whorl
D. radial loop
8. The forking or dividing of one line to two or more branches.
A. Ridge
B. Island
C. Delta
D. Bifurcation
9. The point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.
A. Divergence
B. Island
C. Delta
D. Bifurcation
10.The following are considerations used for the identification of a loop except one:
A. Delta
B. Core
C. a sufficient recurve
D. a ridge count across a looping bridge
11.The process of recording fingerprint through the use of fingerprint ink.
A. Pathology
B. Fingerprinting
C. Dactyloscopy
D. Printing press
12.The fingerprint method of identification.
A. Pathology
B. Fingerprinting
C. Dactyloscopy
D. Printing press
13.Two lines that run parallel or nearly parallel, diverge and surround the pattern area.
A. Ridges
138
B. Delta
C. Type line
D. Bifurcation
14.A part of the whorl or loop in which appear the cores, deltas and ridges.
A. type line
B. bifurcation
C. pattern area
D. furrow
15.Fingerprints left on various surfaces at the crime scene which are not clearly visible.
A. plane impressions
B. visible fingerprints
C. rolled impressions
D. latent fingerprints
16.The impressions left by the patterns of ridges and depressions on various surfaces.
A. kiss marks
B. finger rolls
C. thumb marks
D. fingerprints
17.Which among the following is not considered as a basic fingerprint pattern?
A. Arch
B. Accidental
C. Loop
D. Whorl
18.The minimum identical characteristics to justify the identity between two points.
A. Eighteen
B. Fifteen
C. Twelve
D. Nine
19.A fingerprint pattern in which the ridges form a sequence of spirals around core axes.
A. whorl
B. double loop
C. central pocket loop
D. accidental
20.A fingerprint pattern which one or more ridges enter on either side of the impression by a
recurve, and terminate
on the same side where the ridge has entered.
A. Loop
B. radial loop
C. ulnar loop
D. tented arch
21.A person allowed who gives his/her opinion or conclusion on a given scientific evidence is
considered
A. interrogator
B. expert witness
C. prosecutor
D. judge
22.The application of scientific knowledge and techniques in the detection of crime and
apprehension of criminals.
A. Law Enforcement Administration
B. Forensic Administration
C. Criminal Psychology
D. Criminalistics
23.Lens that is characterized by a thicker center and thinner sides.
139
A. concave lens
B. convex lens
C. negative lens
D. positive lens
24.The normal developing time of a paper or film.
A. 30-60 minutes
B. 20-30 minutes
C. 5-10 minutes
D. 1- 2 minutes
25.This part of a camera is used to allow light to enter the lens for a predetermined time interval.
A. holder of sensitised material
B. view finder
C. shutter
D. view finder
26.A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
A. telephoto lens
B. long lens
C. normal lens
D. wide angle lens
27.Chemical used as an accelerator in a developer solution.
A. Potassium Bromide
B. Sodium Carbonate
C. Sodium Sulfite
D. Hydroquinone
28.A part of a camera used in focusing the light from the subject
A. view finder
B. lens
C. shutter
D. light tight box
29.A component of the polygraph instrument which records the breathing of the subject.
A. Cardiosphygmograph
B. Pneumograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph
30.A component of the polygraph instrument which records the blood pressure and the pulse rate
of the subject.
B. Pneumograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph
31.A component of the polygraph instrument which is a motor that drives or pulls the chart
paper under the
recording pen simultaneously at the rate of 6 or 12 inches per minute.
B. Pneumograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph
32.The following are specific rules to be followed in the formulation of the questions in
a polygraph test except one.
A. Questions must be clear and phrased in a language the subject can easily
understand.
B. Questions must be answerable by yes or no.
140
C. Questions must be as short as possible.

D. Questions must all be in the form of accusations
33. In “ polygraph examination”, the term “ examination” means a detection of
A. Forgery
B. Emotion
C. the mind
D. deception
34. It refers to an emotional response to a specific danger, which appears to go beyond a
person’s defensive
power.
A. Fear
B. Stimuli
C. Response
D. Reaction
35. The primary purpose of pre-test interview.
A. Prepare subject for polygraph test
B. Obtain confession
C. Make the subject calm
D. Explain the polygraph test procedures
36. The deviation from normal tracing of the subject in the relevant question.
A. positive response
B. specific response
C. normal response
D. reaction
37. The study of the effect of the impact of a projectile on the target.
A. Terminal Ballistics
B. Internal Ballistics
C. External Ballistics
D. Forensic Ballistics
38. The unstable rotating motion of the bullet is called
A. Trajectory
B. Yaw
C. Velocity
D. Gyroscopic action
39. The part of the mechanism of a firearm that withdraws the shell or cartridge from the
chamber.
A. Extractor
B. Ejector
C. Striker
D. Trigger
40. The pattern or curved path of the bullet in flight.
A. Yaw
B. Range
C. Velocity
D. Trajectory
41. This refers to the deflection of the bullet from its normal path after striking a resistant surface.
A. Misfire
B. Mushroom
C. Ricochet
D. Key hole shot
42. A type of primer with two vents or flash holes.
A. Bordan primer
141
B. Berdan Primer
C. Baterry Primer
D. Boxer Primer
43. This refers to the helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore.
A. swaging
B. ogive
C. rifling
D. breaching
44. It refers to the unstable rotating motion of the bullet.
A. Trajectory
B. Yaw
C. Velocity
D. Gyproscopic action
45. It is the measurement of the bore diameter from land to land.
A. Calibre
B. Mean diameter
C. Gauge
D. Rifling
46. He is known as the Father of Ballistics.
A. Hans Gross
B. Charles Waite
C. Albert Osborne
D. Calvin Goddard
47. A document in which some issues have been raised or is under scrutiny.
A. Void Document
B. Illegal Document
C. Forged Document
D. Questioned Document
48. The following are characteristics of forgery except one:
A. Presence of Natural Variation
B. Multiple Pen Lifts
C. Show bad quality of ink lines
D. Patchwork Appearance
49. Standards which are prepared upon the request of the investigator and for the purpose of
comparison with the
questioned document.
A. relative standards
B. collected standards
C. extended standards
D. requested standards
50. Any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke.
A. natural variation
B. rhythm
C. retracing
A. shading
51. The name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
A. Opinion
B. Document
C. Signature
D. Handwriting
52. A kind of document which is executed by a private person without the intervention of a
notary public, or of competent public official, by which some disposition of agreement is
proved.
142
A. commercial document
B. official document
C. public document
D. private document
53. An instrument that can be legally used in comparison with a questioned document, its origin
is known and can be
proven.
A. simulated document
B. forged document
C. standard document
D. compared document
54. The process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced.
A. Comparison
B. Collation
C. Obliteration
D. Decipherment
55. A document which contains some changes either as an addition or deletion.
A. inserted document
B. altered document
C. disputed document
D. obliterated document
56 .A kind of erasure by using a rubber eraser, sharp knife, razor blade or picking instrument.
A. mechanical erasure
B. electronic erasure
C. magnetic erasure
D. chemical erasure
57. It is the periodic increase in pressure, characterized by widening of the ink stroke.
A. Shading
B. pen lift
C. pen emphasis
D. pen pressure
58. A kind of document executed by a person in authority and by private parties but notarised by
competent
officials.
A. private document
B. commercial document
C. public document
D. official document
59. The detection and identification of poisons.
A. Bacteriology
B. Posology
C. Toxicology
D. Chemistry
60. The specimen that is preferably used in the determination of abused drugs in the body.
A. blood
B. saliva
C. body fluid
D. urine
61. A forensic chemist is tasked to examine the chemical nature and composition of the
following except one:
A. Fingerprint
B. Explosives
C. Blood
143
D. Body fluids
62. Who qualifies a forensic chemist as expert?
A. defense lawyer
B. judge
C. prosecutor
D. the chemist himself/herself
63. Methamphetamine hydrochloride is commonly known as
A. Coke
B. LSD
C. Heroin
D. “shabu”
64. An area surrounding the place where the crime occurred.
A. crime scene
B. police line
C. area of operation
D. area of responsibility
65. The body of the crime.
A. Evidence
B. body of the victim
C. criminology
D. corpus delicti
66. One of the following is a derivative of the opium poppy.
A. Demerol
B. Caffeine
C. Morphine
D. nicotine
67. Number restoration is necessary in determining whether there is tampering of serial number in
A. Typewriter
B. Firearm
C. Prisoners
D. Bank notes
68. In forensic examination, a tip of the hair is examined to determine if it was
A. Bend
B. Folded
C. Stretched
D. Cut
69. All of the following are accurate tests for the presence of alcohol in the human body except
one:
A. Saliva test
B. Harger Breath Test
C. Fecal test
D. Blood test
70. The application of chemical principles and processes in the examination of evidence.
A. Forensic Medicine
B. Forensic Evidence
C. Criminalistics
D. Forensic Chemistry
71. Volatile poisons may be isolated by means of this process.
A. Dialysis
B. Dilution
C. Distillation
D. Extraction
144
72. The process in reproducing physical evidence by plaster moulds.

A. Casting
B. Cementing
C. Moulage
D. Sticking
73. The test used to determine the presence of semen particularly in stained clothing.
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio’s Test
C. Microscopic Test
D. Ultra-Violet Test
74. The test used to determine the presence of blood in stained material.
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio’s Test
C. Takayama Test
D. Phenolphtalein Test
75. It is the major component of a glass.
A. Lime
B. Soda
C. Silica
D. Gel
76. Poisons which produce stupor and less feeling.
A. Narcotics
B. Irritants
C. Depressants
D. Stimulants
77. A supercooled liquid which possess high viscosity and rigidity.
A. dry ice
B. cartridge case
C. gel
D. glass
78. The study and identification of body fluids.
A. Pharmacology
B. Serology
C. Posology
D. Immunology
79. The test to determine whether blood is of human origin or not.
A. Blood typing
B. Precipitin Test
C. Confirmatory Test
D. Preliminary Test
80. The circulating tissue of the body.
A. Blood
B. Cells
C. Muscles
D. Liver
81. The complete, continuous, persistent cessation of respiration, circulation and almost all brain
function of an
organism.
A. Apparent death
B. Molecular death
C. Cellular Death
D. Somatic death
82. The approximate time for the completion of one case for DNA Testing.
145
A. minimum of eight weeks

B. minimum of six weeks
C. minimum of four weeks
D. minimum of two weeks
83. DNA stands for
A. Deonatural Acid
B. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
C. Denaturalized Acid
D. Deoxy Nucleic Acid
84. The Geneticist from Great Britain who pioneered DNA testing and fingerprinting.
A. Alec Jeffries
B. Lowell C. Van Berkom
C. William Reynolds
D. Henry Van Dyke
85. The cause of death of a person who immediately died because of lack of oxygen for around 3
to five minutes.
A. Stroke
B. Asphyxia
C. Stupor
D. Exhaustion
86. The most serious burn involving skin, nerves, muscles and bones, causing death due to loss of
fluids and
electrolytes in the body and massive infection.
A. First Degree Burn
B. Second Degree Burn
C. Third Degree Burn
D. Sunburn
87. A discoloration of the body after death when the blood tends to pool in the blood vessels of
the most dependent portions of the body and starts 20 to 30 minutes after death and is completed
by 12 hours.
A. livor mortis
B. primary flaccidity
C. maceration
D. rigor mortis
88. A wound which if inflicted in the body so serious that it will endanger one’s life.
A. mortal wound
B. trauma
C. coup injury
D. superficial wound
89. A wound produced by a blunt instrument such as club and stone.
A. incised wound
B. hack wound
C. lacerated wound
D. punctured wound
90. A displacement of the articular surface of the bone without external wounds.
A. Hematoma
B. Fracture
C. Sprain
D. Dislocation
91. A condition of exposure to cold temperature of certain parts of the body which produces
mechanical disruption
of cell structure characterized by cold stiffening and diminished body.
146
A. immersion foot
B. trench foot
C. frostbite
D. gangrene
92. A condition of women who have had one or more sexual experience but not had conceived a
child.
A. virgo-intacts
B. demi-virginity
C. moral virginity
D. physical virginity
93. Fixed discoloration of the blood clothed inside the blood vessels or has diffused to different
parts of the body.
A. hypostatic lividity
B. diffusion lividity
C. hyper lividity
D. rigor mortis
94. Things used by a person in the commission of a crime, or objects left in a crime scene which
are the subjects of
criminalistics.
A. testimonial evidence
B. hearsay evidence
C. circumstantial evidence
D. physical evidence
95. The science dealing with the motion of a projectile and the conditions governing that
motion.
A. Ballistics
B. Forensic Ballistics
C. Terminal Ballistics
D. External Ballistics
96. The application of medical knowledge in the solution of crimes.
A. Forensic Science
B. Forensic Chemistry
C. Forensic Ballistics
D. Forensic Medicine
97. The science or art of obtaining images in scientific materials by the action of electro
magnetic radiation rays.
A. Polygraphy
B. Dactyloscopy
C. Photography
D. Chemistry
98. Instrument used in the measurement of temperature.
A. Endometer
B. Barometer
C. Thermometer
D. ananometer
99. The scientific detection of deception.
A. Polygraphy
B. Dactyloscopy
C. Toxicology
D. Chemistry
100. The test conducted to determine the presence of gunpowder residue in the hands of a
suspect.
147
A. diphenylamine test
B. ultra violet test
C. paraffin test
D. Simon’s Test
Criminalistics Answer Key
148
1. A 21. B 41. C 61. A 81. D

2. C 22. D 42. D 62. B 82. C
3. C 23. A 43. D 63. D 83. B
4. D 24. C 44. B 64. A 84. A
5. B 25. C 45. A 65. D 85. B
6. D 26. D 46. D 66. C 86. C
7. D 27. B 47. D 67. B 87. A
8. D 28. B 48. A 68. D 88. A
9. C 29.B 49. D 69. C 89. C
10. B 30. A 50. C 70. D 90. D
11. B 31. D 51. C 71. C 91. C
12. C 32. D 52. D 72. C 92. A
13. C 33. D 53. C 73. A 93. B
14. C 34. A 54. D 74. C 94. D
15. D 35. A 55. B 75. C 95. A
16. D 36. A 56. A 76. A 96. D
17. B 37. A 57. D 77. D 97. C
18. D 38. B 58. C 78. B 98. C
19. A 39. B 59. C 79. B 99. A
20. C 40. D 60. D 80. A 100. C

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1

Alphonse Bertillon - (1853-1914) father of anthropometry. Developed a system to distinguish

Francis Galton - (1822-1911) father of fingerprinting. Developed fingerprinting as a way to

Calvin Goddard - 1891-1955) father of ballistics.Developed the technique to examine bullets

1. Joseph Nicéphore Niépce: Heliography – writing of the sun.

When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the

3. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to

4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and

Different Views in photographing

5. For Discovering and Proving

b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to

6. For Court Exhibits

9. Reproducing and Copying

1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)

E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

The properties of all electromagnetic radiation can be described by three inter-related

The wavelengths of visible light are measured in nanometers (nm) where 1 nm = 1

4 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY

PRIMARY COLORS SECONDARY

 White is the presence of all colors

PRIMARY COLORS OF COLORING MATTERS

Natural Light Source (Sunlight)

Artificial Light Source

Forensic Light Sources

Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons

B. Artificial Light - otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

Electronic Flash - produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges

Parts of the Sensitized Material

1. Black and White Film - usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or

FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.

1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value

Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA

II. Photographic Paper

Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)

1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely

Essential Parts of a Camera

OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

Types of focusing device:

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type) - Coincidence otherwise

TYPES OF THE CAMERA

Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.

1. According to the type of image to be produced

INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.

a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)

Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Fingerprints and Its Allied Sciences

“Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will

Dr. Paul L. Kirk

The Allied Sciences of Fingerprints

 Dactyloscopy – It is the practical application of the science of fingerprints identification

 Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of personality

Important Terms in Fingerprint