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Compendium of Criminalistics Subjects

Criminalistics
= Is the application of the principles of various sciences in solving problems in
connection with the administration of justice.
= Also referred to as Forensic Science or Police Science.
The word forensic was derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means a
“market place”, a place where people gathered for “public discussion” . When it is
used in conjunction with other sciences it simply connotes the idea of application to law
or for the administration of justice. Sometimes it is also referred to as “legal”.

Dr. Hans Gross = An Australian magistrate to described Search for Truth as the
ultimate goal of all investigative and detective works. He is known as the Father of
Modern Criminalistics.

A. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
“Law of Multiplicity of Evidence” The greater number of similarities or
dissimilarities; the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
Alphonse Bertillion = Father of Personal Identification. The first to devise a
scientific method of identification called Anthropometry.
A fingerprint was first used in China before the birth of Christianity. They called it
Hua Chi.

I. Personalities in Fingerprints:
1. Nehemiah Grew (1684) – describes the ridges and pores of the hands and feet
(Philosophical Transaction) presented in Royal Society of London, England.
2. Govard . Bibloo – works on the sweat pores and ridges.
3. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – Professor at the University of Bolognia, Italy, known
for his discovery of the Epidermis and Dermis layer. Written the book entitled “De
Externo Tactus Organo” Father of Dactyloscopy.
4. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) – the first to state that fingerprints are never duplicated in two
persons ( Anatomiche Kuphertafeln).
5. Johannes Purkenjie (1823) – Professor at the University of Breslau, Germany.
Established a certain role for classification and be able to identify nine (9) types of
pattern although never associated to identification
6. Herman Welcker – took his own fingerprints twice with a lapse of forty-one years
and show the ridges formation remains the same.
7. William Herschel – the first to advocate the use of fingerprints as substitute for
signature from among Indian native to avoid impersonation.
Rajadhar Konai = the first person Herschel printed the palm.
8. Henry Faulds – A surgeoon at Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, who claimed that
latent prints would provide positive identification of offenders once apprehended ( A
Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy).
9. Francis Galton – Developed the Arch. Loop and Whorl Patterns as general
classification and identified nine (9) types of pattern. First to establish a Civil Bureau
of Personal Identification. He said that the possibility of two prints being alike was
1:65,000,000,000.
10. Edward Richard Henry – Developed the Henry System of Classification at Scotland
Yard which was accepted by almost all English-speaking country. Known as Father
of Fingerprint.
Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Hem Chandra Bose – the two Hindu
police officers who have help Henry in attaining his goal.
11. Juan Vucetich – A Spanish counterpart of Henry who developed his own system of
classification in Argentina and was accepted in almost all Spanish Speaking
country.

IN AMERICA
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Gilbert Thompson = a geologist in New Mexico, adopted the first individual use of
fingerprint in august 8, 1882 as a protection to prevent tampering with the pay order.
Isaiah West Tabor = Photographer in San Francisco who advocated the use of
the system for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.
Samuel Langhorne Clemens = An Englishman who informally introduced
Dactyloscopy in the United States in his book “ Life in the Mississippi” and “ Pupp n
Head Wilson”.
Francis Galton
Dr. Henry p De Forest = Utilized the first Municipal Civil use of fingerprint for
Criminal Registration on December 1902 (Mun. Civil Service Comm., New York).
Capt. James L. Parke = Advocate the first state and penal use of fingerprint
adopted in SingSing prison on June 5, 1903 later on Auburn Napanoch and Clinton
Penitentiaries.
Sgt. John Kenneth Ferrier = First fingerprint instructor at St. Louis Police Dept.
Missouri.
Maj. R. Mc Cloughry = warden of the Federal Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth.
Established the first official National Government use of fingerpprint.
Mary K. Holand = first American instructress in dactyloscopy.
FBI = identification unit herein was officially established by an act of congress in
1924.
Institute of Applied Science = First private school to install laboratories for
instruction purposes in dactyloscopy.
People vs. Jennings, Dec. 21, 1911 = United States leading case wherein the
first conviction based on fingerprint was recognized by the judicial authorities (14
points).

IN THE PHILIPPINES
Mr. Jones = one who first taught FP in the Phils. (1900)
Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS fingerprint was used.
Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by P.C.
Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Dept. and Flaviano Guerrero, FBI
Washington – gave the first examination in FP in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of
the Phils. Top the Examination
People of the Phils. Vs. Medina- First conviction base on Fingerprint and leading
case decision in the Phil. Jurisprudence (10 points).
Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) now known as Phil. College of Criminology, first
government recognized school to teach the Science of Fingerprint and other Police
Sciences.
John Dellinger – known U.S. public enemy number one who attempt to destroy
his own prints using corrosive acids.
Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged his own fingerprints and was
named “Man without fingerprint”
Lucila Lalu – the first Filipina Chop-chop lady who was identified through
fingerprint.
Alphonse Bertillion – known as the Father of the first scientific method of
Identification (Anthropometry)

DACTYLOSCOPY
Definition
Dactyloscopy – (derived from the Latin words Dactyl = finger and Skopien – to study
or examine) is the practical application of the science of fingerprints.
Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint as a means of identification.
Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of personality
interpretation.
Dermatoglyphics = is the science which deals with the study of skin pattern. It is
derived from two Greek words, Derma which means Skin and Glype which means
Carve.
Basic Principles of Fingerprint
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1. Individuality
No two persons have the same fingerprint (based on Statistic Probability)
2. Infallibility
That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of identification. It cannot be
easily be forged.
3. Constancy or permanency
That the friction ridge once fully developed its arrangement will remains the same
throughout man’s life.
Fingerprints
Is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and thumb on smooth
surface through the media of ink, sweat or any substance capable of producing visibility.

Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint:

1. Chiroscopy – ( Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” –to examine) is the science
which deals with the study of the prints of the palms of the hand.
2. Podoscopy – ( Greek word “Podo” – the foot, and Skopien – to examine)is the
science which deals with the study of the footprints.
3. Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – a pare, and “Skopien” – to examine) is the
scientific study of the arrangement of the sweat pores. (Edmond Locard- Father of
Poroscopy)

Phalange = is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three bones.
a. Basal or proximal phalange – it is located at the base of the finger nearest the
palm.
b. Middle phalange = the next and above the basal done.
c. Terminal phalange = the particular bone covered with friction skin, having all
the different types of fingerprint patterns and it is located near the tip of the
finger.

Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of
the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows.(Also called as Papillary skin).
Components of the Friction Skin
1. Ridge surface
a. Ridge – the elevated or hill like structure/ the black lines with tiny white dots.
b. Furrow – the depressed or canal like structure/ the white space between
ridges.
2. Sweat pores – the tiny opening/ the tiny white dots.
3. Sweat duct – the passage way.
4. Sweat glands – the producers of sweat.

Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin

1. Epidermis – the outermost layer
a. Stratum Corneum,
b. Stratum mucosum
2. Dermis – the inner layer containing the blood vessel, dermal papillae, various glands
and nerves.
Ridge Formation – (Ridges starts to form in the fingers and thumb during the 3rd to 4th
months of the fetus life.)
Dermal Papillae = are irregular pegs composed of delicate connective tissue
protruding and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles of the
feet.
Ridge Destruction – destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary or
permanent. Generally temporary destruction occur when only the epidermis layer of the
friction skin has been damage, while permanent damage can be injected to the friction
skin due to damage to the dermis layer.
General Rules on Ridge Destruction
a. Destruction of the Epidermis – temporary, dermis – permanent damage.
b. Cut == a depth of more than 1 mm will constitute permanent scar.
The Fingerprint Patterns
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1. The Arch (5%)

a. Plain Arch (A) – is a pattern in which the ridges flows from one side to the other
side with a slight raise at the center.
b. Tented Arch (T) – is a type of pattern having either an angle, uptrust or an
incomplete loop form.
2. The Loop (60%)
Elements of loop
1. A core 3. A sufficient Recurve
2. A delta 4. At least one Ridge count
a. Radial Loop (RH=/. LH=\) is a type of loop pattern in which the slanting or looping
ridge flows towards the thumb finger.
b. Ulnar Loop (RH=\, LH=/) is a type of loop pattern in which the slanting or looping
ridge flows towards the little finger.
3. The Whorl (35%)
Basic Elements of Whorl
1. Two or more Deltas
2. At least one complete circuiting ridge

a. Plain Whorl (W)

At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by the imaginary line
traversing between the two deltas.
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl
No circuiting ridge within the pattern area is touched or cross by an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.
c. Double Loop Whorl
1. Two separate loop formation
2. Two Separate and distinct shoulder
3. Two deltas
d. Accidental Whorl
1. A combination of two different patterns with the exception of the plain arch.
2. Two deltas

Ridge Characteristics (Galton Details)

1. Ridge Dot (island ridge) – refers to a ridge formation in a form of a dot or period.

2. Bifurcation – a ridge formation in which a single ridge splits or divides into two or
more ridges. It resembles a fork shape.

3. Converging Ridge – two ridges that meets at a certain point

4. Diverging Ridge – two ridges that spread apart

5. Enclosure or Lake ridge – a single ridge that divides into two but does not remain
open and meet at a certain point to form the original single ridge.

6. Ending ridge – it refers to an abrupt end of a ridge

7. Type lines – is a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern area and serves
as a basic boundary of fingerprint impression.

8. Pattern Area – is a part of a loop of whorl pattern surrounded by the type lines and
consisting of the delta, the core and other ridges.

9. Recurving ridge – a single ridges that curves back to the direction where it started.

10. Sufficient Recurve – a recurving ridge which is complete with its should and free
from any appendage.
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11. Appendage – is a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurve

12. Rod or Bar – is a short of long ridge found inside the recurve and directed towards
the core

13. Obstruction ridge – is a short ridge found inside the recurve which blocks the inner
line of flow towards the core.

The Two Fingerprint Terminus (Focal Points)

1. The Delta (also called the outer terminus) is a point along a ridge formation found
at the center or near the center of the diverging type lines.
2. The Core (also known as the heart or the inner terminus) usually found at the
center or innermost recurve.

Types of fingerprint impression

1. Rolled Impression – are fingerprint impression taken individually by rolling each
finger from one side to the other side and from the tip to the end of the first joint.
2. Plain Impression – are impression made by simultaneously pressing the finger to the
card, use as a reference to classification.

Basic Instrument in taking prints:

1. Ink Slab – is a metallic or glass plate where the ink is spread for purpose
2. Ink Roller – is a rubber made roller designed to spread the fingeprint ink to
the slab.
3. Fingerprint Ink – is a special form of ink designed for taking fingerprint
impression sometimes submitted with a printer’s ink.
4. Fingerprint card – is an 8” x 8” card designed for recording fingerprint
impression
5. Card holder – usually a fixed card holder placed in a flat table designed to
prevent the movement of the card in the course of the taking of the fingerprint.
Basic Rule in taking Fingerprints:
1. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax facing the slab.
2. The subject hand should be completely dry
3. Thumb fingers are rolled towards the body while other fingers are rolled away
from the body.
Fingerprint Classification Formula:
1. Checking
2. Blocking-out – is the process if placing under each pattern the letter symbols
representing their pattern interpretation prior to the actual classification
formula.
3. CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
a. Primary Division. Always represented by a numerical value assigned
to whorl patterns depending on what finger they appear.
Arch and Loop are non-numerical patterns.
A, T, / \ = Zero (0)
Whorl patterns.(WCDX)
Finger 1 and 2 Right Thumb and Right Index (16)
Finger 3 and 4 Right middle and Right Ring (8)
Finger 5 and 6 Right little and Left Thumb (4)
Finger 7 and 8 Left Index and Left middle (2)
Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and Left Little (1)

The sum of the numerical value assigned to even number of finger represent the
numerator and the sum of the assigned value to odd number represent the denominator
Plus the pre-established fraction of l/1 to complete the primary.
b. Secondary – Represented by Capital and small letter combination
based on interpretation made during the blocking.
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Capital letter – derived from the index fingers which can be

(A, T, U, R, W, C, D or X).
Small letter – derived from the thumb, middle, ring and little
fingers.
It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t).
c. Sub-secondary Division – derived by ridge counting of loop and ridge
Tracing of whorl found at the index, middle ring fingers only.

c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop

Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count =I
10 or more =0
Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count =I
11 or more =0
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count =I
14 or more = 0

c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl

Inner Whorl (I) When the tracing goes above or inside the right delta
and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.

Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge goes below or outside the
right delta and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.

Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only two orless intervening ridge/s

c.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are always dash (-)

d. Major Division (Taken from Thumb fingers only)

d.1 Whorl = Ridge tracing = I, O, or M.
d.2 Loop = Ridge Counting = S, M or L
Table 1 Table 2
1 to 11 = S 1 to 17 = S
12 to 16 = M 18 to 22 = M
17 or more = L 23 or more = L
d.3 Arch = dash (-)

e. Final Division (derived from the little fingers only).

e.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to ridge counting.
Radial or Ulnar
Plain or Central pocket loop Whorl = will be treated as an ulnar
loop.
Double loop Whorl – get the ridge count of the top loop
Accidental Whorl = get the least ridge count.
e.2 Arch = dash (-)

f. Key Division = derived by getting the ridge count of the first (l) loop
except the little fingers. In the absence of the loop, the first whorl will be
ridge counted for the purpose.

Reference Classification Formula = is an additional formula serve as a reference in case

of doubtful prints. Place the bottom of the classification formula.
Latent Prints = prints found at the scene of the crime.

Types of latent prints

1. Visible prints = are those prints which are readily visible to the naked eye. It can
either be: Molded prints or Prints made by contamination with colored
substance.
2. Invisible prints = prints that are generally made by sweat or perspiration that
requires developing for visibility.
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Factors Affecting Stability or Prints at the Crime Scene

a. Subject Factor
b. Nature of the surface
c. Climatic Condition

Methods of Developing Prints:

1. Dusting Method = considered as the simplest and traditional methods used in
developing prints at the scene of the crime. (Use of Powder and Brush)
2. Rolling Method = basically used in developing prints in paper done by simply
rolling the paper with powder spreading in its surface.
3. Fuming Methods = done by using chemical fumes such as Iodine and
Ammonium Fumes.
4. Silver Nitrate method – done by spraying a 5 percent solution of silver nitrate
to the surface of the paper.
5. Ninhydrin Method = is considered as one of the best method used in
developing prints in paper.
6. Laser Method = is a modern method of tracing and developing prints.
Post Mortem Fingerprints = are prints taken from a diseased person.

D. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which

means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to
Draw”. Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first
wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot.
= Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through
some sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and
the chemical process required in order to produced a photograph.

2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market
place” where people gathered for public discussion.
= When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to
the administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word
legal.

3. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is

relation to the police work and in the administration of justice.

4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture

and photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all
kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a
product of photography.

B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Personal Identification
= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of
photography is police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized
photography in police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry
system.

2. For Communication
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= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of

communication considering that no other language can be known universally than
photograph.

3. For Record Purposes

= Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.

Different Views in photographing

a. General View
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows
direction and location of the crime scene.

b. Medium View
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it
into section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.

c. Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of
the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.

d. Extreme Close-up View

= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some
magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.

4. For Preservation
= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for
preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time
but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be
preserved properly.

5. For Discovering and Proving

= Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things
such as:

a. The use of Magnification

Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object
through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to
show a minute details of the physical evidence.

Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of

small object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of
film a scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.

Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.

Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object

with the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.

b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to

show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.

6. For Court Exhibits

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= Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires

that they satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and
competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the
evidence and its relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph
of the evidence giving reference as to where it came from.

Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either

Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.

7. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced
photographic equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the
extent of preventing them from initially occurring.

8. Police Training
= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in
police training as well as in other agencies.

9. Reproducing and Copying

= With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence
can be made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow
other experts or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.

C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the
speed of 186, 000 miles per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light
from reaching the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the
reflected light coming from the object to form the image.
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound
which is capable of being transformed into an image through the action of
light and with some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into
a form so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what
we called Photograph.

D. THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)
= It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we
observe a piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would
naturally will make the log move up and down.

2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)

= this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion
of very small particles such as electrons.

3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)

= Based on electromagnetics.
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All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law
enforcement need not to be very focus on this but rather go along with the
accepted conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in
form.

E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per
second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity,
wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second.

Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or
through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom.
Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a
millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent
measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter.

Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either:
Reflected, Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and
it bounce back. Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow
the light to pass through its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored
object and prevents it from either bouncing or passing through.

Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is
actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to
hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with
colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible
light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.

1. Types of Light

Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

a. Visible Light
= Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the
human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of
the human eye.

b. Invisible Light

= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite
the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.

2. Photographic Rays

a. X-ray
=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by
passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was
incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in
the principle of shadow photography.

b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

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= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph

fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment
of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black
Light”.

c. Visible Light
= It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons
designed for ordinary photographing purposes.

d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

= Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from
700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written
documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography.
It is sometimes referred to as heat rays).

3. Light Source

A. Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the
intervention of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the
object appears glossy.

2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is
due to thin clouds that cover the sun.

3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the
sun.

Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under
shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object
being photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and
quality of the reflected light coming and not coming from the source should
likewise be considered.

B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.

1. Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It
is a light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the
common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
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Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as
the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in
photographing.

Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires
which sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody
likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of
electrical consumptions.

Infra-red Lamp

Ultra-violet Lamp

2. Short Duration type

Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid
combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the
bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the
bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the
filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that
ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.

Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in

charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical
energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually
ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because of this,
subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs.

4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of
emulsion containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or
reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the
silver grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion
surface can be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with filters
intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and
prevents halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion

I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a
suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white
photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan
X-plus.
2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type
and the reversal type of colored film. The former is usually
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having names ending in color while the word chrome

represents the latter.
e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film,
Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film.
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to
the different wavelength of the light course.
1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.
2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green.
( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM)
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive
to all colors of the visible light)
3.1. Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures
under average lighting condition and has the
advantage of the grain structure.
3.2. Grain Panchromatic film
3.3. High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for
photographing object under adverse lighting
condition.
4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.

FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic
value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system.
Used in the same principle as the ASA.

Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of

ASA and DIN rating.

II. Photographic Paper

It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final
development and become the photograph.

Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the
positive print is the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity
to light is low and give blue-black tones when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process.
This is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography.
Will give a black tone when properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact
printing. Slow emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it
uses a special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast
responses upon exposure to different colors of light.
B. According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is
not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be
mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in
ordinary photographic purposes.
 14

3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up
under rough treatment.
b.2. Surface Texture
a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brillant image
formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather
than detail is necessary.
b.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or
when warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
C. According to Contrast (grade)
1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or
extremely exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for
very thin or weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast
is desired.
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.

5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted
or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.

Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light
tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.

Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold
other parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an
image on the film.
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens
designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the
multiple or blurred image
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent
of the coverage of the given lens

OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

A. Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the
photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized
material.
B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the
exposed film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed
film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
 15

C. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time
exposure of the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the
sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.

1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.

The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light
gathering than that of the right number
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a
person provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to
maintain normal exposure.
D. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in
relation to the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the
lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is
expressed in F-number.

f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens
opening the greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the
sensitized material.

If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the

lens in which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
E. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the
degree of sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained
by estimating the distance from the camera and that of the object that will
make a sharp or clear image.

Types of focusing device:

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of
focusing a single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus,
but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or
superimposed to form a single object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once
the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then
the object is already focused

2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in
focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once
adjusted.

3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on
his estimation do this.

TYPES OF THE CAMERA

1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of
camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work
due to its interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing
and the other for forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera,
used for movie making
 16

5. LENS
= It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on
the quality of the image to be formed.

= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to

form an image.

= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and
change the direction of light.

Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that
it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of
bending the light together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that
it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual
image on the same side of the lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic
aberration
INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the
lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.
2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light
that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the
lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect
with respect to one another.
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion
distortion (curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength.
The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer
wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis
are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and
vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set
to focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the
diagonal half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short
distance with wider area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not
longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
 17

c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal
half of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with
narrow area coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.

2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest
object in apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is
focused with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the
maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image.
The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.

6. CHEMICAL PROCESS

The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.

a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)

= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form
the image.

Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents

b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic
acid that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the
developer and the acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are
dissolved or removed from the emulsion surface and making the image
more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves
unexposed silver halides.

Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative

Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener

Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator

Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during

enlarging.

Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging

and printing.

Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful
adjustment on the dodging board.

Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the
photograph.

Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative

used for purposes of making a balance exposure.
 18

C. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that
affects their motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which
is a product of series of experimentation, observation and testing. Ballistics is not an
exact science rather it is applied physics or applied science, which is subject to changes
and improvement depending upon the demands of the modern civilization. Motion
refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves the shell
empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach its target or fall in the ground. A
projectile is any metallic on non-metallic ball which is propelled from a firearm. Its
motion can be categories into three general types: Direct motion, Rotatory motion
and Translation motion.

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the
shell by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled
bore barrel firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.

3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and

subsequently ricocheted.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word “ballo” and the
word “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”.

The term also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called
“Ballista”, a gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object at a distance
like stone, dead animal or even dead person.

The study of Ballistics in the early age is divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal
Ballistics, Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. From the time the gun
was fired until it reach the target and have its maximum effect. At present ballistics is
branches into four (4) and this is due to its subsequent used in solving problems in
connection with the administration of justice particularly cases involving firearms and
ammunition which is termed as Forensic Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics

1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still
inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech to the muzzle. The
conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:

a. Firing pin hitting the primer

b. Ignition of the priming mixture

The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located
either at the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the striking effect of the
firing pin will ignite and such action is known as “Percussion action”.

c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.

d. Expansion of heated gas.

e. Pressure developed
 19

f. Energy generated

g. Recoil of the gun

Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward movement of
the gun in relation to the forward movement of the bullet.

Jump is another portion of the recoil action characterized as the backward

and upward movement of that takes place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.

h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel

It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the
barrel expressed in feet per second.

i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel

j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile

after leaving the gun muzzle.

a. Muzzle Blast

Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.

b. Muzzle energy

Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.

c. Trajectory

Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the
muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken
by a bullet during its.

d. Range

It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun
and the target.

d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter or

gunner has control of his shots.

d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the bullet
was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.

d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be propelled

from a firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity

Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time
usually express is feet per second (ft/sec.)

f. Pull of Gravity
 20

It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface

due to its weight.
g. Air Resistance

Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.

3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects of the
impact of the projectile on the target.

a. Terminal Accuracy

It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

b. Terminal Energy

Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as
striking energy.

c. Terminal Velocity

Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

d. Terminal Penetration

Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

4. Forensic Ballistics

This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to law.
The idea comes with the used of the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived
from the Latin word “forum” meaning a “market place” where people gathered for
public disputation or public discussion. When used in connection with the word ballistics
or other natural science, it suggests a relationship to the courts of justice or legal
proceedings.
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile as
applied to law or simply the science of firearm identification by means of the ammunition
fired through them.

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation

2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits

3. Legal Proceeding

The Evolution of Firearms

MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech
loading single shot rifled which was adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace
Maker, a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950.
5. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
6. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30.
M1 garand.
 21

7. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease
gun) developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
8. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet
Union) adopted by the Russian Army in the year 1951.
9. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered in
making breech loading rifles.
10. Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt
Company from July 1959 onwards.
11. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun Company.
12. John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and
model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
13. Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of Revolver.
14. David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.
15. Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.

IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS

1242 A.D. Roger Bacon published the “ De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On
the Marvelous Power of Arts and Nature), which noted Black powder
formula.

1498 Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech loaders
were attempted although never succeeded yet even multi shots arms due
to lack of good ignition system.

1500’s The development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same principle as
the modern day cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500’s “snaphaunce” was
developed.

1575 Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were wrapped
in chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of numerous pre-
measured charges or pre loaded rounds.

1750 The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of

FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson, COLLIER Rifle, which is a
flint lock repeating rifle operated on a revolving principle and, the HALL
Rifle patented in 1811 by Col. John Hall and was the 1st breechloader
adopted by the U.S. Army.

1805 The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a

compound that would ignite upon blow that would ignite the powder
charge. In 1840, it replaces the flintlock ignition and was adopted in 1838
by the British and in 1842 by the American.

1835 The first real cartridge was developed “The Flobert Cap” same as the
BB and was considered the forerunner of .22 short cartridge.

1835 Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a breech
loading revolver.

1836 Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire
cartridge was also developed in the same year by Houiller.

1845 Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which
was considered the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. In the same year,
New Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the
effort of Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry
Rifle.
 22

1846 Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in the
year 1864 by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in Rifle by the year
1884 by M. Vieille of France.

1873 Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver in
history and legend was manufactured.

1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully automatic
gun.

Firearms
Legal Definition of Firearm
Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun,
pistol, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or
other missiles maybe discharge by means of gun powder or other explosives. This term
also includes air rifle, except such of being of small caliber and limited range used as
toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes
hereof. (Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue
Code).

Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the
expansive force gases coming from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms
Identification).

B. Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel Construction)
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside
their gun barrel.

Examples: Shotguns and Musket

2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.

Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

B. Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)

1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one
inch diameter.

Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:

2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter
and it can be handled, moved and operated by one man.

Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.

2.1 Machine guns

Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily designed for military use.
Even in investigation of shooting cases done in the city, it is not usual or common
to encounter this type of firearm having been used. It can be grouped in three
general types:
 23

Sub Machine Gun

Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size

ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may not be folded and
designed to be fired with both hands.

Shoulder Arms

Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from
the shoulder.

Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a
long rifled bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.

Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It
fires a single projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for
every press of the trigger.

Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms

designed to fire a shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of
musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.

Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a
number of lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore

construction.

A. cylinder bore type = which the bore size is the same through out the barrel
B. choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore diameter
type towards the muzzle. This type is designed to cause an effect to the travel
of the shots. It makes the shots travel longer before it spreads.
C. “paradox gun”.= still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun can
be observed to be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired
using one hand.

Ex. Pistols and Revolvers

a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as pistols. There
were three classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi
automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.

b. Revolver

Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into position for

firing with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two
types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action. T

Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the

hammer before squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a type of
revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both
cocked and released the hammer causing a much faster firing.
 24

C. Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)

1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every
loading.

Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.

2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one
loading.

Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.

3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single

press of the trigger and while the trigger is press.

Examples: Machine guns and rifles

4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and
forth manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.

Examples: Shotgun and pistols

5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by

manipulating the both back and forth.

Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.

6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.

Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed for
other purpose to which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish
gun.

3. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
4. Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy
identification.
3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.

4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.

5.Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war
designed to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
6. Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from
the muzzle point.

8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally
used for construction of furniture.

9. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
10. Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun.

Ammunition
 25

Legal Definition
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun,
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired by
means of gun powder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air
rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well as
Sec 877 RAC)

Technical Definition

Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a

complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and
gunpowder (propellant).

Origin

The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning – a
“paper” and also from the French word “Cartouche” meaning – a rolled paper. This
only indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was about
the turn of the 16th century that the term “cartridge” comes to use.

A. General types of Ammunition (Fig. 6)

a. Dummy ( used as a model)

b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)

c. Black Ammunition (without bullet)

d. Live Ammunition

B. Classification of Cartridge

I. According to the Location of the Primer

a. Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is

concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it.
b. b. Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located
at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the
firing pin on the rim of the case (cavity rim).
c. Center fire = t refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is
centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture
is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.
II. According to Rim Diameter

a. Rimmed Case type.

b. Semi-Rimmed type

d. Rimless type
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but which has a
rim diameter smaller than the body of the case

e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body just in
front of the extraction groove.

III. According Caliber

Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm

and use:
 26

Inches MM.

Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles

Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.

Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other rifles

Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)

Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers

Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols

Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers

Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols

Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge

It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer,

case, wads and gunpowder .

Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics
in terms of its diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of
measurement used in shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the
number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can be
prepared from one pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with
the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed below are the
equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.

Gauge Inch

10 .775 inch

12 .729 inch

16 .670 inch

20 .615 inch

28 .550 inch

.410 .410 inch

Types of Shots

1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small
amount of arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a spherical drop as
it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened, loose their
velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out more.
 27

2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony

mixed with lead to increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns, less
string and more uniform velocity and penetration.

3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated
with thin copper through electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity,
great resistance to deformation and leading and better pattern.

Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

Bullets
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a
small ball. This term is generally used when we are referring to projectile fired from any
small arms, which has a variety of form, especially during the earlier history. In a more
technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from
a firearm it is sometimes called as shots or slugs.

Bullets have various types depending upon their specific nature and purpose. In
general bullet can be classified as either Lead or Jacketed.

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type – is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of lead
metal. Its used was due to its density; having a good weight is a
small size and easy for casting.
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead
core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high power
guns.

According to their Maximum Effect to their targets

1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and
general use.

2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel

armor. Its mechanical construction makes it capable of penetrating through some
light vehicles.

3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will

detonate on impact.

4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target,

generally designed to use by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to ignite.

5. Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or

traces while in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the
shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss

Cartridge Case
Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of brass
(70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into
one unit. It is also known as shell or casing.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.
 28

2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.

3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant

gas upon firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.

5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber
in a rapid firing of firearms.
Parts of the Cartridge Case

1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp
marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer and in some
cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.

2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the
cartridge to chamber.

3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed
for automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.

4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for the
primer to be put in the central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold the primer
in place; (b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid
support for primer anvil.

5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.

6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the
cartridge which is evident in a bottleneck type.

7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case
designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from being
push down to the powder charge. In some instance it is even being utilized for
identification.

8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is
obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.

9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two
purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out from the
shell and Two (2) to offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning
of the gun powder.

10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as the
passage way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charge.

Primer
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center
fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or
bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer type. It
is also known as the percussion cup.

The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by

Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance Department.
 29

The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the
Royal Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming
mixture, the disc and the anvil.

2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by

the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as percussion powder.

3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs
the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.

4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order
to protect it from moisture attack.

Gun Powder
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of
chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its
expansive force of gas when burned.

Two of the most popular individual whose name is always attached to

gunpowder discovery were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a short
description of how their names are always mentioned in the history.

Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote the ---“De Mirabili
Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an
anagram.

Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious

monk of Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an engraving dated
1643, while experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge
and thus blew off the lid, and from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a
tube and propelling a shot (Encyclopedia of ammunition).

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter
(75%), charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%).

These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the
introduction of the smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of
the Prussian Army, made the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in shotgun in the
year 1864. (Although historically nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in 1846).
The basic ingredient used for smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that was first
produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.

Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the
year 1884 and named it “poudre B” taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In 1887, Alfred
Nobel invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and nitrocellulose (60%)
as the main composition and called it “Ballistite”. In Great Britain, they utilized picrid acid
in addition to cellulose powder which they called “Lyddite” and in germany TNT (Tri-
nitrololeune ) was the one used, more powerful than picric acid but much difficult to
detonate. Also In the year 1889, Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist developed
 30

“Cordite” a smokeless powder with same composition as Nobel in the form of cords or
sticks. And in early 1890’s smokeless powder had replaced black powder and became
uniformly used worldwide by the year 1900.

Firearms Characteristics
Stages in the manufacture of barrel
A. Drilling

B. Reaming
C. Rifling
This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and
such can be performed in any of the following methods:

1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)

2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)

3. Broaching system – (broach)

4. Button – system (button)

D. Lapped
The Breech face
Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same
important.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a firearms which
can be determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such
characteristics are considered to be a manufacture’s designs or specifications and
security.

Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore was
reamed. The distance measured between two opposite lands inside the
bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in
either caliber in inch or in millimeters.
2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves inside
the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3
to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.

Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun,
grooves, width and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference
after subtracting all the grooves width.

4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance between the

two dies or edge of a grooves.

5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to
the left or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore,
in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.
 31

6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and

grooves. It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to
make a complete turn inside the barrel.

7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the

bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the
height of the lands.

B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are

being determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured. They are
the product of machine imperfections and some later due to the used of the firearms.

Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right
twist and the width of the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)

2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width
of the grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).

3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist
, the width of the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)

4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of
the grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)

5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist,
the width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)

6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the groove is three time larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)

7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is three time larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test
firing which will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the
individuality of its property based on the left marks on every bullet and shell fired
from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification
is necessary to discover individuality.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the
elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight
depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of
the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.

3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a
revolver. It is more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to
its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before Grooveit initially
rotates. Mark
 32

4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-fit”

barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.

Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical

reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)

5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver

cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.

6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on

oily or oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge
case more specifically near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at
the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most important
marks for identification of firearms using fired shell.

2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.

3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired
cartridge case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.

4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an

automatic firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of
shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.

5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in

the primer near the firing pin mark.

6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by
the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.

7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge
case cause by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.

In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face
marks can be used as basis for identification, in the absence or none use of
these two, both the ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary
choice.

Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from which
it was fired.

2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from
which it was fired.

3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.

4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
 33

5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired
from one and the same firearm.

6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they
were fired from one and the same firearm.

Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
3. Bullet Recovery box
4. Chronograph
5. Caliper
6. CP-6 Comparison Projector
7. Electronic Gun maker
8. Helixometer
9. Micrometer
10. Onoscope
11. Shadowgraph
12. Stereoscopic Microscope
13. Taper Gauge
14. Torsion Balance
D. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

Document
Any material that contains a mark symbol or sign, either visible, partially visible or
invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or a message to someone.
It is any written statement by which a right is established or an obligation
extinguished. (People vs. Moreno, C.A., 38 O.G. 119)

Two Categories of Document

1. Questioned Document – Document to which an issue has been raised or which is
under scrutiny. The focal point of the examination and to which the document
examiner relies as to the extent of the problem. (also referred to as disputed
document).
2. Standard Document – Document in which the origin is known can be proven and
can legally be used as sample to compare with other things is questioned.

Types of Standards
a. Collected/Procured Std. – Standard specimen executed in the regular course of
man’s activity or that which are executed on the day to day writing activity.
b. Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.) – a Standard document which are
executed upon request, they are prepare at one time.

Contemporary document = documents which are not more than five (5) years
before or after.

Legal Classification of Documents:

1. Public Document = a document created, executed or issued by a public
official in response to the exigencies of the public service, or in the execution
of which a public official intervened.
= is any instrument authorized by a notary public or a competent
public official, with the solemnities required by law ( Cacnio , et.al.
vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 724).
2. Official Document = a document which is issued by a public official in the
exercise of the functions of his office. Am official document is also a public
document as a larger classification.
3. Private Document = A deed or instrument executed by a private person
without the intervention of a notary public or other person legally authorized,
 34

by which documents, some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or

set forth. (US Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g. Theater Ticket.
4. Commercial Document = any document defined and regulated by the Code
of Commerce ( People Vs. Co Beng, C.A. 40 OG 1913) or any other
commercial law.

Classes of Questioned Documents:

1. Document with questioned Signature (most common).
2. Document containing fraudulent alteration (Any form of changes either an addition
or deletion to the contents of a document).
3. Holograph Document – a document that is completely written and signed by one
person
4. Document questioned as to the material used in their production.
5. Documents questioned as to their age or date.
6. Documents involving typewriting
7. Document which may identify a person through handwriting
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked or disputed.
9. Documents containing printing or type prints.

Writings and Signature:

System of Writing – is the combination of the basic shape and designs of letter and the
writing movement which was taught in school.
Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic designs of letters that is fundamental to
the writing system.
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as,
pressure, rhythm, pen lifting, etc.
Writing – is the visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a
combination of certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and muscular
habits acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
Handwriting – is a visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious
expressions of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental impression of certain
ideas associated with script form.
Writing Habits – refers to any repeated elements of once handwriting which serves as
an identifying characteristics.
Significant Writing Habits – elements of one’s writing that are sufficiently unique and
well fixed to serve as a strong basis of individuality.
Slant = refers to the relative degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline.
Baseline = an imaginary or straight line in which the writing rest.

Types of Handwritings
1. Cursive – Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together.
2. Handlettering – refers to writing characterized by a disconnected style.
3. Natural Writing – a specimen of writing that is executed normally and without any
attempt of altering its usual writing habits.
4. Disguised – a specimen of writing executed deliberately with an attempt of changing
its usual writing habits in the hope of hiding one’s identity.
5. Guided/assisted – a specimen of writing executed while the writer’s hand is at
steadied. Usually employed by beginners in writing.

Signature – a name of person signed by himself on a document as a sign of

acknowledgement.
Model signature – genuine signature which has been used in preparing a simulated or
traced forgery.
Evidential Signature – specimen signature which was executed in particular date,
particular time and place, under a particular writer’s condition and for a particular
purpose.

Classes of Signature
1. Formal or complete – used in signing very important document
 35

2. Informal or cursory – used for routine document

3. Careless scribble – used for not so important document such as delivery of
mail or receipt of purchase equipment etc.

Forgery – is an act of falsifying or counterfeiting any treasure or bank notes, paper bills
or any documents which are payable to the bearer.
- is an act of simulating or tracing somebody’s signature without the latter’s
consent for profit.

Major types of Forgery

1. Simple forgery – a forges signature where no attempt has been made to make a
copy or facsimile of the genuine writing of a person purported to sign the document.
Also known as spurious signature
2. Simulated or Copied forgery – a forged signature which resembles the genuine
signature written in free-hand. Considered as the most skillful type of forgery.
3. Traced Forgery – forged signature which closely resembles the genuine made by
some tracing process or outline form.
Methods of tracing
a. Carbon outline process – used of carbon paper.
b. Indention process- used of considerable pressure, Canal-like process.
c. Projection or transmitted light process- used of light from the back or bottom.
d. Laser method – used of hologram.

CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING:
Characteristics – refers to any property, marks or elements which distinguishes. Also
referred to as identifying details.

Types of characteristics:
1. Class Characteristics – characteristics or properties which are common or which
can be found in the specimen writing of other person. Gross characteristics.
2. Individual Characteristics – characteristics which are highly personal or peculiar.
That which is unlikely to occur in other’s handwriting.
Elements of Forms in Writing:
1. Arc – the rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend or crook,
2. Beard – is an introductory up and down strokes found in some capital letters. Also
called as double hitch.
3. Blunt – is a part of a stroke characterized by a abrupt beginning or end at which the
pen does not creates a diminishing strokes.
4. Buckle Knot is a horizontal or loop strokes used to complete letters A, H, F and D.
5. Central Part – is the body of the letter. Characterized by a small rounded or circular
strokes.
6. Ductus-link, Ductus-broken- refers to the connection between letters, either joined or
disconnected.
7. Eyelet/ eyeloop – refers to small oblong strokes.
8. Hitch – an introductory backward strokes found in most capital letters and in some
small letters.
9. Hiatus = an obvious gap between letters.
10. Humps – is the outer portion of an upper curve bend or crook, (see arc)
11. Knob – is a tiny pool of an ink at the beginning or ending strokes.
12. Loop – is an oblong strokes
13. Stem/shank/staff – is considered as the backbone of the letter characterized by a
long downward strokes
14. Initial/terminal Spur – a long running initial or terminal strokes.
15. Through – refers to any garland form of a letter strokes
16. Whirl – is the long upward strokes usually found opposite the stem

Embellishments – added strokes that serves as an ornamental or flourish to the design

of the letters. They considered unnecessary to the legibility of the writing.
 36

Diacritics = strokes added to complete certain letters. They are necessary to the
legibility of the letters.
Writing Movement – refers to all factors relative to the motion of the pen.

Line Quality – is the visible records in the written strokes of the basic movements and
manner of holding instrument. It is derived from a combination of factors, including
writing skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of movement, shading and pen emphasis.

Types of movement:
1. Finger (used by beginners)
2. Hand (wrist serves as the point of pivotal & of limited freedom)
3. Forearm (most skillful type of movement)
4. Whole arm (used for ornamental or large writings)

Elements of Writing Movement

1. Pen pressure – is the average or usual pressure applied in the writing.
2. Pen Emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper
surface with an increase in speed.
3. Rhythm – is the harmonious or balance recurrence of strokes or impulses.
4. Skills – refers to the degree of writer’s proficiency in writing
5. Speed – cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but it
can be interpreted in broad term as to either fast, slow or moderate.
6. Pen-lift – an interruption is strokes caused by sudden removal of the writing
instrument from the paper surface.
7. Shading – refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter
strokes.
8. Pen Position – is the relative location of the pen in relation to the paper
surface.
9. Pen scope – represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest.
10. Retracing or retraced – is the strokes which goes back over another writing
strokes that is slightly to occur in other’s writing.
11. Retouching or patching – is a stroke, which goes back over a defective
portion of a writing to repair or correct an error.

Factors that affects writing characteristics:

1. Natural Variations – is the usual or normal deviation found in a repeated specimen
of an individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.
2. Transitory Change – are meant to those changes which only continue to exist while
the basic cause of the deterioration is still affecting the writer, once the such cause
has been removed from the writer, the writing will reverts in its normal form.
3. Tremor – is the weakening of the strokes characterized by a wavering or shaky
strokes.
a. Genuine Tremor
a.1. Weakness of sickness
a.2 Old age
a.3. Illiteracy (lack of skills)
b. Tremor of Fraud
4. Writing Conditions – refers to all factors affecting the over-all quality of writing such
as the writer’s condition under which the writing was prepared.

5. Writing instrument
a. Ball point pen (John Loud) consisting of a ball bearing at the point of the pen.
b. Fountain pen (Lewis Watterman) consisting of pen nib point.
c. Fiber pen (originally designed by Hongkong)

Miscellaneous Document Problem

1. Detection of Alteration
Alteration - refers to any form of changes either an addition or a deletion to
the original content of the document which is not a part of its original preparation.
 37

2. Decipherment of Erased Writings

Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or any part of a document either
by mechanical or chemical process.
Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive method through
rubbing or scrapping.
Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of bleaching agent called
ink eradicator.
Usually examined with the aid or fuming, transmitted light, oblique
light and ultra-violet light examination.
3. Decipherment of Obliterated writing
Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it
undecipherable or illegible. Done with the used of superimposing inks.
Usually examined with the used of Infra-red light.
4. Examination of Charred Document and water soaked document
Charred Document – refers to partly burned or brittle document. Decipherment
is usually accomplished with the used of infra-red light examination.
5. Development of Invisible writing
Invisible writing – writing that has no readily visible ink strokes. Made by
Sympathetic inks such as acids, juice and others. They are possible of
development depending on the ink used. Methods of development can be by
heat. Water, chemical fuming or by ultra-violet light process.
6. Decipherment of Contract writing
Contact writing – refers to partially visible ink strokes cause by sudden contact
between a sheet of paper with another paper containing fresh ink. Can be
enhanced through fuming or ultra-violet light process.
EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING
Definition of Terms:
1. Typeface – is the printing surface of the type block in a conventional typewriter. In
electric typewriter it is the printing surface of the rotating head sphere.
2. Typeface defect – any form of peculiarity of the type printing caused by actual
damage to
the typeface metal or which maybe an abnormality in its printing condition.
3. Characters – in connection to typewriting, it is used to include letters, symbols,
numerals or points of punctuation.
4. Pica typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced ten (10) characters to the
horizontal inch.
5. Elite typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced twelve (12) characters to
the horizontal inch.
6. Proportional spacing machine – a typewriter with a type letter spacing similar to the
type spacing of conventional printed in which all letters are allotted horizontal in
conformity with their relative widths.
7. Transitory Defects – is an identifying typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated
by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
8. Permanent Defects – any identifying typewriting characteristics of the type face
which cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the
ribbon.
9. Mal alignment or alignment defects – refers to defect in the printing condition of the
type character in which the letters are printed either at the top or bottom, left or
right of inclined from its proper position.

Principal technique utilized in typewriting identification

1. Measure the type face pitch
2. Verify the type size and design (W-G-T)
3. Look for individual type face defects

Typeface Defects
1. Vertical mal alignment – a character printing above or below of its proper position.
 38

2. Horizontal mal alignment – an alignment defect in which the characters are printed
to the left or right of its proper position.
3. Twisted letters – letters and characters are designed to be printed at a certain angle
to the baseline. Once letters leans to the left or right of its proper position such is
called twisted letters.
4. Off-its-feet – is a condition of the type face printing at which then character outline is
not equally printed, that is the printing is heavier in one side than the remainder of
the outline of the character.
5. Rebound – typeface defect in which a character prints a double impression with the
lighter one slightly off-set to the right or left.
6. Actual breakage – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
type face metal.
7. Clogged type face (dirty) – is a typeface defects characterized by dirty prints due to
constant used without cleaning of the type bar or due to use of new carbon. These
are common in closed letter outline such as o, a, p, g etc.

E. LIE DETECTION AND INTERROGATION

Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting deception done with the aid of a

polygraph machine.

Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or several and Graph =
(writing chart) is a scientific instrument capable of recording simultaneously changes in
blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as indicative of emotional
disturbance especially of a lying subject when being questioned.
Thomas Jefferson (first man to used the word “polygraph”)
Polygraph machine is a sensitive machine which is likened or compared to an X-ray,
which requires proper interpretation for validation and its accuracy is said to be directly
proportional to the knowledge, skills, education, desire, competency and integrity of the
operator. Hence, the attitude of “let’s put them on the lie box” should be firmly
discouraged. There are three fundamental bases on the polygraph test and they are:
1. Mechanical Leg basic Premise = polygraph is capable of making graphic
record containing reliable information regarding physiological responses of the subject.
2. Physiological Leg basic Premise = that among the physiological responses
that may be recorded are those that automatically occur only following the stimulation
of specific nervous component system.
3. Psychological Leg Basic Premise = states that specific ervous system
component whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the
involuntary and emotional processes of the individual who is continuously
attempting concealment of deception especially if that individual has something at
stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that exposure to
deception is quite possible although undesirable.

Definition of terms
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually
given with some justification or exemplification in admitting.
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the
low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
5. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the
middle of the diastolic stem.
6. Electrodermal response = it refers to human body phenomenon in which the skin
changes resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also
referred to a Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
7. Emotion = it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to be
beyond a persons defensive power.
 39

8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired from the
time he was conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents to their
offspring through the genes.
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is reluctant to divulge
information.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading
impression with the intention of affecting wrongfully.
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an
organism or part of the organism resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a subject to
an obstacle or trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which considered a
deviation from the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which
reach an organism has the tendency to arouse.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve
caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the
arteries.

Ayur Vida = a hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered as an
earliest known reference to a method of detecting deception.

Early methods of Detecting Deception

Trial by Combat
One of the ancient practice of detecting deception whereby an accuser will
fight against the accused or will hire a champion to fight the accused in a duel,
whosoever lost the duel, will be adjudged guilty.

Methods of Ordeal
1. Red hot Iron Ordeal (Accused touch his tongue to an extremely hot metal
for nine (9) times.)
2. Boiling Water Ordeal (Practice by Borotso Native in Bengal India)
3. Balance Ordeal
4. Rice Chewing Ordeal
5. The red Water Ordeal
6. The Donkey’s tail ordeal
7. The ordeal of the axe etc.

Scientific Methods of Detecting Deception

1. Polygraphy test
= aid and not a substitute or replacement for investigation.
= not admissible in court to prove the guilt of the subject.
= cannot be conducted if insufficient amount of information were gathered.
= minors, mentally-ill or retarded are exempted.
= cannot be conducted to unfit subject.
= polygraph machine is not a lie detector machine.
= the accuracy of the machine is directly proportion to the credibility of the
examiner.
= cannot be used for diagnostic purposes.
2. Use of Alcoholic Beverages
= the subject is made to drink hard liquor in such a mount that would make
him lose control or inhibitions.
= information gathered through this method is not admissible in court.
3. Narco-Analysis Test/Administration of Truth Serum
= use of narcotic or anaesthetic drug.
= drugs injected hypodermically or intravenously.
= dangerous and not admissible.
 40

4. Word Association Test

= group of words, objects or photographs will be presented.
= time pressure.
This was first devised by F. Galton in 1870 and later was modified and
improved by others such as Munsterberg, Orosland, Luria and Jung. In the
Galton’s technique there are two main criteria for detecting indications of
deception and these are: (1) Incriminating answer words, and (2) Delayed
answer.

5. Use of Hypnotism
= information gathered through this method is also not admissible in court.

Development of the Polygraph

A. Cardiosphygmograph
a. Cesare Lombroso (1895)
Credited to be the first to conceived the idea of utilizing scientific lie
detection

b. Angelo Mosso (1895)

Utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the importance of fear as a strong
influence to deception
c. William M. Marston (1915)
He made used of a sphygmomanometer and focus on the importance of
the Systolic Blood pressure. He also devised the discontinuous technique
in questioning.
d. John A. Larson (1921)
Devised the so-called “Bread Lie Detector”, a scientific instrument
capable of simultaneously recording changes in blood pressure, pulse
beat and respiration.
B. Galvanograph
a. Sticker
Works on the galvanograph component and study the influence of the sweat
glands to skin resistance.
b. Veraguth
Formulated the term Psycho-galvanic skin reflex following the study of
sticker
c. Richard O. Arthur
The person who developed a polygraph machine with two galvanic skin
resistance.

C. Pneumograph
a. Vittorio Bennussi
Focus on the formulation of the Inhalation and Exhalation ratio.
b. Harold Burtt
Considered respiration as a weak basis in determining deception and
incorporate the systolic blood pressure to respiration.

D. Keymograph
Leonarde Keeler
Developed the kymograph machine and the Keeler’s Polygraph in the year
1926 as one of the great advancement to the development of the polygraph
machine.

OTHER PERSONALITIES:
John E. Reid – Developed the Reid Polygraph with an incorporation of muscular
resistance compare to the Keelers and the Stoelting. Also developed the SAT test
and Control Question Test.
Francis Galton = Formulated the Word Association test.
 41

Cleve Backster = Formulated the Numerical Scoring on the polygraph chart and
standardizing quantitative polygraph technique.
Sir James Mackenzie = a heart specialist who published in two British journal the
machine he used in his work and named it “ INK POLYGRAPH”

The Major Components and its Parts:

The Polygraph machine is basically composed of three major components
serving as the detecting mechanism and five major sections by adding kymograph
component and pen and inking system to serve as the recording mechanism.
1. Pneumograph – designed to detect changes in respiration of the subject
consisting of the Chest and the Abdominal Assembly with sub part:
a. Rubber Convulated Tube – a 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to
the body of the subject.
b. Beaded Chairn – used to lock the rubber convulated tube.
c. Recording pen unit – consisting of two 5 inches recording pen
d. Resonance Control Unit
e. Centering knob
f. Sensitivity knob

2. Cardiosphygmograph – Designed to detect changes in blood pressure and

pulse beat of the subject
a. Blood pressure Cuff – attached to the upper right arm of the subject,
above the brachial artery.
b. Sphygmamonometer – used to indicate the amount of air pressure
inflated to the system. Usually about 60 mm of mercury for male
subject.
c. Resonance Control Unit
d. Recording pen unit – five (5) inches length
e. Air Pump – designed to supply air to the system
3. Galvanograph – to detect changes in skin resistance of the subject.
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
a.1 finger electrode plate and retainer bond – attached to the left index
and ring finger of the subject.
a.2 conecting plug – designed to attached the system to the machine
b. Recording pen unit – usually 7 inches
c. Amplifier Unit – designed to support the galvanometer in converting
electrical to mechanical current.
Keymograph – serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine.
The one that records the different trracing by driving the paper out under a
recording pen unit.
a. Chart – (approximately 100 ft.) rolled graph paper composed of twelve
division in one minutes run designed to measure the rate of various
body functioning.
b. Cutter bar = used to cut the paper at the end of the test
c. Rubber roller – the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the
machine.
d. Pen table = flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
e. Paper rail guide – serves as the security for the unnecessary
movement of the chart paper or to ensure the paper’s forward
movement without shaking.
f. Synchronous motor = to run the chart paper at the uniform rate speed
regardless of the voltage change.
Pen and inking system = the one that provides for the permanent record of the
test.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test:

Initial Interview
Conducted by an investigator handling the case, designed for the
obtaining of pertinent information necessary for the conduct of the test.
 42

This is falling short of the basic process of investigation. All information

gathered by the investigator will be copied furnished to the investigator.
As a rule no polygraph test can be conducted if there is insufficient
amount of data gathered.
1. Pre test Interview
An interview conducted by the polygraph examiner designed to prepare or
condition the subject for the actual test. It usually last for about 20 – 30
minutes. There are four basic things being undertaken in this stage.
a. Informing the subect of His Basic Constitutional Rights
a.1 Right to remain silent
a.2 Right to be informed of the nature and the cause of his
accusation
a.3 Right to council
a.4 Right against self-incrimination
b. Taking of the subject consent
c. Taking of the subject personal data sheet
d. Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological
suitability to undergo the test
d.1 the subject should stop from smoking at least 2 hours prior
to the test
d.2 the subject should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before
the test
d.3 the subject if female should not be: pregnant, having
menstruation or not wearing tight shirt or girdle.
d.4 the subject should not be hungry
d.5 the subject should not be physically or emotional abuse
d.6 the subject should not be highly nervous. Etc.

2. Actual Test
Is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph
examiner:
Condition of the room
1. It should be spacious for two
2. Well lighted
3. Well ventilated
4. Sound Proof
5. Not decorated

3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation

Is an interview or an interrogation administered by a polygraph examiner
after
the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the subject. An
interview
is conducted when the subject indicates an innocent response and very
cooperative
to the examiner. An interrogation is conducted when the subject shows sign
of deception and being uncooperative to open an information.

Types of Reaction
1. Internal Reaction – reaction of the internal organs which may not be readily
noticeable.
2. External Reaction – rreaction of an individual which are observable and which
can either be:
a. Facial
b. Postural
General Rules in formulating Test Questions:
1. Questions must be simple and direct
2. They must not involve legal terminologies
3. They must be as simple and as short as possible
 43

4. Answerable by Yes or No.

5. They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
6. Their meaning must be clear and they must be phrased in a language that the
subject can easily understand.
7. They must never contain inference which presupposes knowledge on the part
of the subject.
8. They must refer to one offense only
9. They must refer to one element of the offense.
10. They must not contain inference to ones religion, race or belief.

Types of Questions
1. Irrelevant – questions pertaining to the basic background of the subject and
are generally not related to the case in issue but are designed to obtain or
established the individual norms of the subject.
= answerable by “yes”.
= designed to absorb the initial response as to the question
sequence commence and to produce little or no emotion change in
the subjects normal reaction under testing condition.
2. Relevant
= the primary of key questions asked by the examiner in order to
resolve specific subject matter.
=questions related to the issue which may either be:
a. Strong Relevant – directly proving the guilt of the subject
- questions with intense and specific relation to the crime or
problem being considered.
- Constructed to test for direct involvement only and specifically to
produced emotional response in guilty subject.
b. Weak Relevant – indirectly proving the guilt of the subject and is
further sub-divided into three:

b.1 Knowledge – questions given for the purposes of determining

information known or the subject possess.
b.2 Evidence Connecting – designed to obtain link between the
subject and the crime.
b.3 Sacrifice – questions designed to determine truthfulness of the
subject.
c. Control Questions – questions that either relevant or irrelevant
designed to established response from an innocent subject.
- further classified into primary based on a known lie and
secondary control question.
Types of Test
1. General Question Test
= consist of series of relevant and irrelevant questions in a planned order.
2. Peak of Tension test
= consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant questions.
= resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of
the asking of a series of question in which only one has any bearing upon
the matter under investigation.
= padding questions before the after the relevant questions.
3. Card test
= the subject is presented with seven (7) previously numbered cards face
down.
= he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of
the cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him,
with the instruction that he will answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one
being shown to him is the one he has seen earlier.
4. Guilt Complex Test
= used primarily for overly responsive subjects.
 44

= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being

investigated and make him believe it is real.
= The purpose is to compare the response with those response made
concerning the actual matter under investigation
5. Silent Answer test
= Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject will only
answer in his mind.
6. Yes test
7. No test
8. Guilt complex test
9. Mixed test = consist essentially of an arrangement of the first and third test
questioned.
= administered response on earlier test or to compare the degree of
reaction between relevant and control questions.

F. NOTES OF FORENSIC MEDICINE

Law- defined as a rule of conduct, just and obligatory, land down by legitimate authority
for the common observance and benefit.

Medicine- A science and art of dealing with prevention, cure and alleviation of disease.
It is that part of science and art of restoring and preserving health.

Legal- Refers to anything conformable to the letters or rules of law as it is administered

by the court.

Jurisprudence- A science of giving wise interpretation of the Laws.

Legal Medicine = is that branch of medicine which deals with the application of medical
knowledge to the purposes of law and in the administration of justice.

Forensic Medicine = use of medical science to elucidate legal problems in general

without specific reference or application to a particular case.

= it encompasses a variety of fields in forensic science such as pathology,

anthropology, odontology, toxicology, entomology, and others.

Medical Jurisprudence = a branch of law which concerns with the aspects of law and
legal concepts to medical practice. It includes rights, duties, and liabilities of physician,
patient and health institution.

Medico-Legal Cases
1. Injuries or deaths involving persons who have no means of being identified.
2. Persons pronounced as “dead on arrival”
3. Death under the following circumstances:
a. Death occurring within twenty-four (24 hrs) of admission when the clinical
cause of death is unknown or indeterminate:
b. Unexpected sudden death especially when the deceased was in apparent
good health;
c. Death due to natural diseases but associated with physical evidence
suspicious of foul play;
d. Death as a result of violence, accident, suicide or poisoning; and
e. Death due to improper or negligent act of another persons.
4. Physical injuries caused by:
 45

a. gunshot wound, stab wound etc.,

b. Vehicular accident;
c. Asphyxia
d. Electrocution, Chemical or thermal insult;
e. Accident, Attempted homicide or suicide; and
f. Poisoning
5. Cases of child abuse, domestic violence, rape alcoholism and drug addiction.
6. Cases involving the mental in competency of the patient.
Difference between a medical jurist and an ordinary physician
1. An ordinary physician ignores trivial injuries not needing treatment which a
medical jurist records all injuries to qualify the crime or justify the act.
2. An ordinary physician sees injury or disease to be able to treat while a medical
jurist sees injury or disease in order to find out the cause.
3. The purpose of an ordinary physician is to arrive at a definite diagnosis and
institute proper treatment while a medical jurist testifies on bodily lesion seen for
justice.
Difference Between Legal Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence

1. Legal medicine is a branch 1. Medical jurisprudence is a branch of law

of medical science
2. It is a medicine applied to 2. It is a law applied to the practice of medicine
law and administration of
justice

3. It originates from the 3. It emanates from the act of congress,

development of medical executive orders, administrative circulars
science customs and usages and decisions of tribunals
which have relation to the practice of medicine

4.It is based on the principle of 4. it is based on the principle of subordination;

coordination; that legal that is the duty of the physician to obey the laws
medicine coordinate medicine in as much as our government is established on
to law and justice the principle of government of laws and not of
men and that no one is considered above the
law.

C. The Medico-legal System

1. Medico-Legal Office System
The system used in the Philippines, which is handled by a medical jurist who
is a registered physician duly qualified to practice medicine in the Phils. The
National Bureau of Investigation and the Phil. National Police have their own
medical jurist who handles medicol-lagal cases. His duty is to examine the victim
or assailant, to make report, and to appear in court as an expert witness when
summoned by the proper authorities.

2. Medical Examiner System

This is a system under the control of the Chief medical Examiner that is a
doctor of medicine and appointed by the mayor from the classified lists
compiled by the civil service by the basis of competitive examination. The
office of the chief medical examiner is on 24 hours work with clerical staff always
present. His duty is to investigate the cause of death especially violent death of the
victim.
 46

3. Coroner System
The coroner system is headed by a country coroner or borough coroner who
may be a barrister, solicitor or a legally qualified practitioner of not less than five (5)
years standing in his profession and is elected by the county council or borough
council.

The coroner is an inquest officer whose duty is to inquire into the

circumstances of certain medico-legal deaths within his jurisdiction. Unlike the
medico-legal officer or the medical examiner whose qualifications, duties, and
powers are practically the same, the coroner has investigative and judicial functions.

Medical Evidence

Evidence is the means, sanctioned by the Rules of the Court, of

ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact
Types of Medical Evidence:
I. Autoptic or Real Evidence:

This is an evidence made known or addressed to the senses of the court.

It is not limited to that which is known through the sense of vision but is
extended to what the sense of hearing, taste, smell, and touch is
perceived.

Limitations to the presentation of Autoptic:

a. Indencency and Impropriety – Presentation of an evidence may be

necessary to serve the best interest of justice but notion of deceny and
delicacy may cause inhibition of its presentation.
b. Repulsive Objects to those Offensive to Sensibilities- Foul Smelling
objects, persons suffering from highly infectious and communicable
disease, or objects which when touch may mean potential danger to the
life and health of the judge may not be presented.
II. Testimonial Evidence:
A physician may be commanded to appear before a court to give his
testimony. While in the witness stand, he is obligated to answer the question
propounded by the counsel and presiding officer of the court. His testimony must be
given orally and under oath or affirmation.

a. Ordinary Witness:

A physician: who testifies in court on matters be perceived from his patient

in the course of physician-patient relationship is considered as an ordinary
witness.

b. Expert Witness:

A physician on account of his training and experience can give his opinion
on a set of medical facts. He can deduce of infer something, determine the
cause of death or render opinion pertinent to the issue and medical in
nature.

III. Experimental Evidence:

A medical witness may be allowed by the court to confirm his allegation or
as a corroborated proof to an opinion he previously stated.
 47

IV. Documentary Evidence:

A document is an instrument on which is recorded by means of letters,

figures or marks intended to be used for purpose of recording that matter which
may be evidentially used. The term applies to writings, to words printed,
lithographed or photographed; to seals, plates or stones on which inscriptions are
cut or engraved; to photographs and pictures; to maps or plans.

V. Physical Evidence:

These are articles and materials which are found in connection with the
investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator or the
circumstances under which the crime was committed, or in general assist in the
prosecution of a criminal.

Types of Physical Evidences:

a. Corpus Delicti Evidence- Objects or substance which may be a part of

the body of the crime.
b. Associative Evidence- These are physical evidences which link a
suspect to the crime.
c. Tracing Evidence- These are physical evidences which may assist the
investigator in locating the suspect.
MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

= Law of Municipality of Evidence (is true in the case of identification.)

The greater the number of similarities or dissimilarities, the greater

is the probability for the conclusion to be correct.

= The value of the different points of identification varies in the formulation of

conclusion.

= The longer the interval between the death and the examination of the remains
for purposes of identification, the greater is the need for experts in establishing
identity.

= It is necessary for the team to act in the shortest possible time specially in
cases of mass disaster.

= There is no rigid rule to be observed in the procedure of identification of

persons.

Importance of Identification of Persons:

1. In Criminal case, the identity of the offender and that of the victim must
be established, otherwise it will be a ground for the dismissal of the
charge or acquittal of the accused.
2. Identification of missing person or presumed dead will facilitate
settlement of the estate, retirement, insurance and other social
benefits. It vests on the heirs the right over the properties of the
identified person.
3. Identification resolves the anxiety of the next-of-kin, other relatives and
friends as to the whereabouts of a missing person or victim of calamity
or crime.
 48

4. Identification may be needed in some transaction, like cashing of

check, entering a premise, delivery of parcels or registered mail in post
office, sale of property, release of dead bodies to relatives, parties to a
contract, etc.
Methods of Identification:
1. By comparison – with the used of standard specimen, evidence under
question can be compared in order to effect identification.
2. By exclusion = is two or more persons have to be identified and all
but one is not yet identified, then the one whose identity has not been
established may be known by the process of elimination.
Ordinary methods of Identification
I. Points of Identification applicable to the living only:

a) Characteristic that may easily be changed:

- Growth of chair, beard or mustache
- Clothing
- Frequent place of Visit
- Grade of profession
- Body ornamentation
b. Characteristic that may not easily be changed:
- Mental memory
- Speech
- Gait a manner of walking or moving on food (Webster dic.)
1. Ataxic Gait- a gait which the foot is raised high, thrown
forward and brought down suddenly.
2. Cerebellar gait- a gait associated with staggering
movement.
3. Cow’s Gait- a swaying movement due to knock-knee.
4. Paretic gait- a gait in which the steps are short, the feet
dragged, the legs held more or less widely apart.
5. Spastic gait- a gait in which the legs are held together and
moves in stiff manner, and the toes to drag and catch.
6. Waddling gait- a gait resembling duck
7. Frog gait- a hoping gait in infantile paralysis.
Gait line = the straight line connecting the center of the succeeding steps. It is more or
less in zigzag fashion especially when the legs are far apart while walking

Foot line = the longitudinal line drawn on each foot mark.

- Mannerisms- These are the characteristic movement

of the body peculiar to a person.
1. Way of sitting
2. Movement of the hands
3. Movement of the body
4. Movement of the facial muscles
5. Expression of the mouth while articulating
6. Manner of learning
- Hands and feet

- Facies
- Left or right handedness
- Degree of nutrition (thin, medium built or stout)
- Changes in the eye
II. Points of identification applicable to both living and dead before onset of
decomposition:

1. Occupational Marks
2. Race- In the living, race may be presumed on:
 49

a. Color of the skin

Caucasians- fair

Malayans- brown

Negroes- Black

b. feature of face:

Caucasian- prominent sharp nose

Malayan- flat nose with round face

Mongolian- almond eyes such and

prominent cheek bones.

Negroes- thick spreading lips

c. Shape of Skull

Red Indians- Flat head

Malayan- Round head

3. Stature (height)
Methods of approximating the height of a person

a.) measure the distance between the height of a person

fingers of both hands with the arms extended laterally and it
will be equal to the height of the person.

b.)Two time the length of one arm plus 12 inches for the
clavicle and 1.5inches for the sternum is the
approximate height.

c. Two times the length from the vertex of the skull to the public
symphyses.
b) The distance from the sternal netch and the public
symphyses is about one-hand of the height.
e.) The distance from the base of the skull to the coccyx is
about 44% of the height.

4- Teeth

The following points must be considered in the study of the

teeth for identification process:

a. Determine whether it is temporary or permanent set;

b. Number of teeth present;
c. Number of teeth lost, including evidence of length of time lost;
d. Nature of the teeth present, whether reverse, crooked, mal-
aligned or straight;
e. Condition of those present, whether carious, colored,
presence of cavities, erosion, filling and
cleanliness;
f. Presence of supernumenary teeth;
g. Odontoid gum; and
h. Extraction, dental fitting, permanenet bridge work, fitting of
crown and filling cavities.
 50

= the most convenient way of identifying a person by means of

the teeth is the use of dental diagram or chart.

5- Tattoo marks

Importance of Tattoo marks

2. It may help in the identification of the person

b. It may indicate memorable events in his life

c. It may indicate the coial stratum to which the person belongs

d. It implies previous commitment in prison or membership in a

gang

Methods of Tattoo Removal

A. Excision = involves an injection of a local anesthetic to numb

the area after which the tattoo is removed surgically. The edges
are then brought together and sutured.
B. Dermabrasion = a small portion of the tattoo is sprayed with a
solution that freezes the area. The tattoo is then “sanded” with
rotary abrasive instrument causing the skin to peel. Because
some bleeding is likely to occur, a dressing is immediately
applied to the area.
C. Laser = Laser surgery is considered to be one of the best
methods of tattoo removal. The Q-switched Nd: Yag, Q-switched
Alexandrite and the Q-switched Ruby are among the most
frequenctly used lasers. If necessary, a cream to numb the skin
can be a[[lied pior to the treatment. Pulse of light from the laser
are directed unto the tattoo breaking up the tattoo pigment. Over
the next several weeks the body’s scavenger cells remove the
treated pigmented areas. More than one treatment is usually
necessary to remove all of the tattoo.
D. Salabrasion = a centuries old procedure using local anesthetic
applied around the tattoo area after which a solution of ordinary
tap water dipped in table salt is applied and an abrading
apparatus such as the one used in dermabrasion or even a
simplier device is used such as a wooden block wrapped in
gauze.
6- Deformities

7- Birth marks

8- Injuries leaving permanent result

9- Moles

10-Scars = They are composed of fibrous tissues which take the place
of the original tissues which have been injured or destroyed. They
are devoid of specialized tissue so they do not contain pigment
layers, sweat or sebaceous glands.

a. Recent scars of two to three weeks old are vascular with red or pink
color.
b. Contracted bloodless scars with white and glistering surfaces are
usually more than six months old;
c. Scars resulting from superficial wounds and from wounds healing by
first intention develop earlier.
SOME SCARS MAY SHOW CHARACTERISTICS APPEARANCE SUCH AS:
 51

A. Surgical Operation = regular form and location with stitch

marks.
B. Burns and sealds = scars are large, irregular in shape and
may be keloid.
C. Gunshot wounds = disc like with depressed center. They
may be adherent to the underlying tissues.
D. Tuberculous sinus = irregular in shape, furrowed, with
edges hardened and uneven.
E. Gumma = depressed scar following loss of tissue
F. Venesection = located at bend of elbow, dorsum of feet, or at
the temporal region.
G. Lupus = bluish –white scar
H. Wetcupping = short parallel scars on the lower part of the
back and loin.
11- Tribal marks

A common practice of some tribes in Africa is to place some

marks on the exposed parts of the body.

12- Sexual organs

Circumcision may help in identification. The uterous

and breast may indicate previous pregnancy. The best evidence of
sexuality is the presence of Testes in Male and Ovaries in the
Female.

13- Blood examination ( ABO grouping and MN typing)

Extrinsic Factors in Identification:

c) Identification of ornamental wearing apparel

d) Personal Belongings
e) Clothing’s
f) Dust
g) Identification by close friend
h) Criminal Records
i) Photograph
Methods of Identification

1. Portrait Parle (Personal description) “speaking likeness”

Is a verbal, accurate and picturesque description of the person identified.

2. Photography
3. Anthropometry (Bertillion System)
A system of identification based on the measurements of the various bony
structure of the human body came to be known when it was introduced in the police
department in Paris, France in 1882 by Alphonse Bertillon.

Bases of the Bertillions method of identification

a. Human skeleton does not change after 20 years.

b. It is impossible for two human beings to have bones alike.
c. Measurement easily taken with the aid of simple instrument.
West case:

In 1903, Will West arrived at the US Petretentiary at the Leavenworth, kaneas.

While West was being processed in through identification, a staff member said
that there was already a photograph and Bertillon measurement for him on the
file. But a comparison on fingerprints showed that despite identical appearances
 52

and nearly identical Bertillon measurements, the identification card on file

belonged to a Willian West, who had been in Leavenworth since 1901.
4. Fingerprint Identification
5. Handwriting Identification
6. Blood Grouping and Blood Typing
7. DNA Testing (Deoxyribonucleic acid) (A-adenine, C- cytosine, T- thymine, and
G- guamine Sequence)
LIGHT AS A FACTOR IN IDENTIFICATION

1. Clearest moonlight or starlight

= experiments have shown that the best known person cannot be
recognized under the clearest moonlight at a distance greater than 16 to 17
yards and by Starlight any further than 10 to 13 yards.

2. Broad Daylight
= a person can hardly recognized another person at a distance
further than 100 yards if the person has never been seen before; but person
who are almost stranger may be recognized at a distance of 25 yards.

3. Flash of Firearm
= Although by experiment by experiment letters of two inches high can
be read with the aid of the flash of a caliber.22 firearm at a distance of two (2)
feet it is hardly possible for a witness to see the assailant in case of a holdup or a
murder because:

a. Usually the assailant is hidden

b. The assault is unexpected and the intention of the person or witness is
at its minimum.
4. The flash of Lighting

= produces sufficient light from the identification of individual

provided that the person’s eye is focused towards the individual he wishes to
identify during the flash.

5. In case of artificial light. The identification is relative to the kind and intensity
of the light.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SKELETON

Following points can be determined

Whether the remains are of human origin or not.

- oval or round shape of the skull
- less prominent lower jaw and nasal bone
Whether the remains come from a single individual or not
- complete layout of the bones on a table in their exact locations in
the human body is necessary.
- Any pluarality denotes that the remains belong to more than one
(1) person.
l) Height
m) Determination of the Sex of the skeleton
- the following bones must be studied
a. pelvis
b. skull
c. sternum
d. femur
e. humerous
DETERMINATION OF AGE
Legal Importance of Age Determination
 53

1. For Identification
2. To Determine Criminal Liability
3. For Right of Suffarage or in the exercise of other political rights
4. For the exercise of civil rights
5. Determination of the capacity to contract marriage
6. Age is a factor by which the crime of rape is committed
7. The crime of infanticide can only be committed when the child killed is less
than three days old.
8. Seduction is committed on a woman over twelve and under eighteen
years of age
Determination of Age of the Fetus:
1. For fetus less than 25 cm. Long
Find the square root of the length in centimeters and the result is the age
of the fetus in month.
2. For fetus 25 cm. Long or more
Divide the length of the fetus in centimeters by 5, and the result will be the
age in months.
(Age as referred in this rule is lunar month, not calendar month.
One lunar month is equivalent to 28 days)
Nature of the Intra-uterine product of conception corresponding to the age in
months:
1 month - The Ovum is about 1.0 cm with limb buds only present.
2 months - The ovum has a length of 2.5cm with an embryo about 1.0cm long
with head, ears and hands well formed.
3 months - The length is 9.0 cm. With nails beginning to appear and the
plancenta can be differentiated.
4 months - The length is 16.0 cm. And the sex can be differentiated, with the
fingers beginning to open and hair beginning to appear on the
head.
5 months - Fetus processes hair on the head and Lanugo over body surfaces.
Nails are distinct. Skin shows sebaceous secretion. Dental gum
appears at the mandible.
6 months - Fetus weighs 2.5 kg. Lanugo and vernix present in the skin are
dark and wrinkled. Meconium is present in the small intestine
and at the beginning of the large intestine. Brain shows
convolutions. The testis is found in the abdominal cavity. Hair of
eyebrow and eye-lashes begin to appear.
7 months - The body is dark red and plump, with hair on the scalp. The testis
begins to descend towards the scrotum.
8 months - Fetus has rosy skin, and nails reach the end of the finger-tips.
Convolutions of the brain are more distinct. Second piece of
sternum ossified Papillary membrane disappears.
9 months - Brain convolutions reach the gray matter. The scrotum is occupied
by the testis. The body surface is now pale. Sebaceous
secretion is formed at the flexures of joints. Nails fully formed
and developed.
Medico-Legal Aspects of Death
Life – is the sum total of all vital processes by which the physical integrity of
the body is maintained.
Death- is the state of complete persistent cessation of the vital function of the body
such as the function of the heart, the lings and the brain.

A. Importance of Death Determination

1. The civil personality of a natural person is extinguished by death;

The civil personality is extinguished by death. The effect of death upon the
rights and obligations of the deceased is determined by law, by contract and
by will.
 54

2. The property of a person is transmitted to his heirs at the time of death.

3. The death of a partner is one of the causes of dissolution of partnership
agreement.
4. The death of either the principal or agent is a mode of extinguishments of
agency
5. The criminal liability of a person is extinguished by death.
6. The civil case for claims which does not survive is dismissed upon death of
the defendant.
B. Kinds of Death

1. Clinical Death or Somatic Death

Is a type of death usually declare by members of the immediate family of the
diseased or by the physician. Immediate signs of the in a person are; Sudden
cessation of the upward and downward movement of the chest in the process
of respiration (10-15 minutes), sudden pale color of the faces and lips, pulse
and heart beat stops, the jaw or head drops down and flaccidity of muscles
occur; presence of dilated pupil as well as loss of corneal and light reflexes.
Clinical types of death can either be: Sociologic, Psychic, Biologic or
Physiologic.

2. Molecular or Cellular Death

Is the type of death characterized by death of individual cells ( one at a
time ) after the somatic death. The nerve cells and brain cells die earlier at about 5
minutes due to loss of food and oxygen while the muscles live longer until the onset
of the rigor mortis which about two to three hours after death.

3. Apparent Death/ State of Suspended Animation

A transient loss of consciousness of temporary cessation of the vital
function of the body on account of disease, external stimulus other forms of
influence.

C. Signs of Death

A. Cessation of Respiration
Cessation of respiration in order to be considered as a sign of death must
be continuous and persistent. A person can hold his breath for a period of not
longer than 3 – ½ minutes. In case of electrical shock, respiration may cease for
sometime but maybe restored by continuous artificial respiration.

Irregular Types of Respiration

A.Cheyne-Strokes respiration – interval is about fifteen to thirty

seconds

d. In drowning and electric shock

e. In new born infants
f. In the voluntary act of respiratory suspension.
Methods of Detecting Cessation of Respiration:

a. Expose the chest and abdomen and observe the movement during
inspiration and expiration.
b. Examine the person with the aid of stethoscope which is placed at the
base of the anterior aspects of the neck and hear sound of the current
of air passing through the trachea during each phase of respiration.
c. Examination with a Mirror
d. Examination with a Feather or Cotton Fibers
e. Examination with a glass of water
f. Winslow’s test
 55

B. Cessation of Heart and Circulation

There must be an entire and continuous cessation of the heart action and
flow of blood in the whole vascular system,. A temporary suspension of the heart action
is still compatible with life. The length of time the heart may cease to function and life is
still maintained depends upon the length of time it is readily reestablished and upon the
oxygenation of blood at the time of the suspension. As a general rule, if there is no heart
action for a period of five minutes death is regarded as certain.

Methods of Detecting the Cessation of heart Action and circulation:

A. Examination of the heart:

-Palpation of the pulse and heart beat.

- Auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the

region of the heart.

- Observation of the point of maximum impulse.

- Electrocardiography or ECG.

- Flouroscopic Examination
B. Examination of the Peripheral Circulation:

- Magnus’ Test
- Opening of Small Artery
- Icard’s test
- Pressure on the fingernails
- Diaphanous Test
- Application of heat on the Skin
- Palpation of the radial pulse
- Dropping of Melted Wax
C. Cooling of the body (ALGOR MORTIS)

After death the metabolic process inside the body ceases. No more heat is
produced but the body loses slowly its temperature by evaporation or by
conduction to the surrounding atmosphere. The progressive fall of the body
temperature is one of the most prominent signs of death.
Gradual decreasing of the body temperature until such time it assumes
the temperature of the environment which is faster during the first two (2)
hours after death and slower during the next 6 to 9 hours and equal to the
environmental temperature beyond 12 hours.
The fall of temperature of 15 to 20 degrees Farenheit is considered s a
certain sign of death.
Post Mortem Caloricity is the rise of temperature of the body after death
due to rapid and early putrefactive changes or some internal changes. It is
usually observed in the first two hours of death. Occur in the following
condition:
a. Cholera b.Tetanus c. Small pox d. Peritonitis
D. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to move.
No kind of stimulus is capable to letting the body have voluntary movement.
E. Changes in the Eyes

a. Loss of Corneal and light reflexes

b. Haziness of the cornea

 56

c. Flaccidity of the eyeball

d. Finding inside the eye.
(Opthalmoscopic finding)

F. Changes in skin

A. Change of color
B. Loss of the elasticity of the skin
C. Opacity of the skin
D. Absence of reaction to injury
CHANGES OF THE BODY AFTER DEATH
1. Primary Flaccidity ( period of the muscle irritability )
-muscles are relaxed and capable of contracting when stimulated

- pupil are dilated, incontinence of urination and defection.

- Lasts 3- 6 hours after death.
2. Stage of Post Mortem Rigidity (Rigor Mortis)
- 3-6 hours after death and may last 24 to 36 hours
- body becomes rigid due to contraction of the muscles

Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis

1. Heat Stiffening
- body is exposed to temperature above 77 degree
Celsius
- Pugilistic attitude
- More or less permanent
2. Cold Stiffening

due to solidification of fat when the body is exposed to

-
freezing temperature.
3. Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous rigor.
- ridigity of the muscles which occurs at the moment of
death due to nervous tension, exhaustion and injury to
the nervous system.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN RIGOR MORTIS AND CADAVERIC SPASM

Rigor Mortis Cadaveric spasm

Time of 3- 6 hours after Immediately after

Appearance death death

Occurance Natural May or may not

appear

Medico-legal Time of death Cause of death

significance

Muscle Involved All the muscles Certain muscle,

asymmetric

4. Stages of Secondary Flaccidity or secondary relaxation

- due to the dissolution of the muscles protein
- onset of putrefaction
- the body become limp again and the muscles are no
longer capable of responding to mechanical or electrical
stimulus.
- Noted about 48 hours after death
 57

CHANGES IN THE BLOOD

a. Coagulation of the blood

The stasis of the blood due to the cessation of circulation enhances the
coagulation of blood inside the blood vessel. Blood clothing is accelerated in cases
of death by infectious fevers and delayed in cases of asphyxia, poisoning by
opium, hydraocyanic acid or carbon monoxide poisoning.

Blood may remain fluid inside the blood vessel after death for 6 to 8 hours.

Distinction Between Ante-Mortem from Post-Mortem Clot:

Ante-Mortem Clot Post-mortem Clot

1. Firm in consistency 1. Soft in consistency.

2. Surface of the blood vessel 2. Surface of the blood vessels
raw after the clots are smooth and healty after the
removed. clots are removed.
3. Clots homogenous in 3. Clots can be stripped off in
construction so it cannot be layers.
stripped into layers. 4. Clot with distinct layer.
4. Clot with uniform color.

b. MOST MORTEM LIVIDITY

It is the discoloration of the body after death when the blood tens to pool in
the blood vessels for the most dependent portion to the pool in the blood
vessels for the most dependent portion of the body. The blood remains fluid in
the body after for 6-8 hours and gradually clot until it is fully developed at about
12 hrs, The appearance of Post Mortem lividity usually stars about 20-30
minutes after death, thus, it can also be a means in approximating the time of
death of the person. But is more useful in determining the position of the body
after death. The discoloration of the bloody may varies in color. Usually it is
dull-red or Reddish-purple with some bluish-black petichiae due to rupture of
small engored capillaries. In carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning as well
as exposure to cold temperature, the color is pink while lead color asphyxia.
Although the color will become darker and permanent as it completes.

Stages of Lividity or Livor Mortis

1. Hypostactic Lividity

It is the lividity when the discoloration is due to the blood pooled in

the most dependent areas of the body.

2. Diffusion Lividity

It is a fixed or permanent discoloration when the blood clotted, inside

the blood vessels or has diffused to different parts of the body.

Importance of Cadaveric Lividity

 It is one of the signs of death

 58

 It may determine the position of the body after death or whether it

was changes after its appearance in the body.
 The color of the lividity may indicate the cause of death
e.g. Asphyxia – dark

CO poisoning – bright pink

2. It gives us an idea as to the time of death.

Points to be considered which may infer the position of the body at the
time of death:

1. Posture of the body when found

The body may become rigid in the position in which he died. Post-
mortem lividity may develop in the assumed position.

2. Post-mortem hypostasis
Hypostatic lividity will be found in areas of the body in contact with the
surface where the body lies.

3. Cadaveric Spasm
In violent death, the attitude of the body may infer position on account of the
spasm of the muscles. e.g. In drowning the victim may be holding the
seaweeds.

POST- MORTEM DECOMPOSITION

1.) Autolysis or autodigestive changes after death

= after death, proteolytic glycolytic and lipolytic ferments of glandular

tissues continue to act which lead to the autodigestion of organs. This is facilitated by
weak acid and higher temperature.

= This is also seen in the maceration of the dead fetus inside the uterus.
The stomach may be perforated, glandular tissues become soft after death due to auto
digestion and the action of autolytic enzymes.

=decomposition by enzymes

2.) Putrefaction

- It is the breaking down of the complex protein into simpler components

associated with the evolution of foul smelling gases and accompanied by the
change of color of the body.

-decomposition by bacteria

- noted after 48 hours after death

- first appeas as a greenish discoloration
- generalized swelling and reddish discoloration along the lines of the
superficial veins occur: called Marbling.
Principal changes undergone by the soft tissues of the body during
putrefaction:

a. Changes in the Color of the Tissue

A few hours after death, there is hemolysis of the blood within the
blood vessel and as a result of which hemoglobin is liberated. The hemoglobin
diffuses through the walls of the blood vessels and stains the surrounding
tissues thereby imparting a reddish-brown color.
 59

Tissue color gradually changed to greenish-yellow, greenish brown

or greenish black color due to chemical changes in hemoglobin.

b. Evolution of gases in the Tissues

Carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen, sulphurated hydrogen,

phosphoretted hydrogen, and methane gases are formed. The offensive odor
is due to these gases and also due to a small quantity of mercaptans.

The formation of gases causes the distention of the abdomen and

bloating of the whole body. Gases formed in the subcutaneous tissues and in
the face and neck cause swelling of the whole body. Small gas bubbles are
found in solid visceral organs and give rise to the “foamy” appearance of the
organs.

Effects of the pressure of gases of Putrefaction:

1. Displacement of the Blood

2. Bloating of the Body

3. Fluid Coming Out of Both Nostrils and Mouth

4. Extrusion of the Fetus in a Gravid Uterus

5. Floating of the Body

c. Liquefication of the Soft Tissues

As decomposition progresses, the soft tissues of the body undergo

softening and liquefication. The eyeballs, brain, stomach, intestine, liver and
spleen putrefy rapidly while highly muscular organs and tissues relatively
putrefy late.

Factors Affecting rate of Purification

I. Internal Factors

n) Age
o) Cause of Death
p) Condition of the body
II. External Factors

q) Air and Moisture

r) Condition and type of Soil
s) Presence of Water
t) Effect of Clothing
u) Effect of Coffin
v) Depth of Burial
w) Mass Grave
 60

F. Special forms of Putrefaction

1. Mummification- a condition at which the body fluids is removed before
decomposition sets in resulting to shrunkening and preservation of the dead
body. Mummification can be either natural of artificial (embalming). Natural
for the forces of nature such as sunlight, warm climate and hot dry soil
influence the dead body. Artificial when the preservation is done with the
introduction of some chemical like formalin, alcohol, phenol, mercury,
arsenic and glycerine and covering the skin with the Vaseling or plaster of
paris before decomposition sets in.
2. Saponification (Adipocere formation)- is the formation of a soft, friable
and brownish- white greasy substance in the soft fatty tissues of the body
after death. This substance is called adipocere that is formed by
hydrogenation of the body fats. It can be possibly be seen in the buttocks,
trunk, limbs, breast and cheeks. It prevents or delays the putrefaction of the
body.
3. Maceration- It is a condition of the dead body, usually the foetus,
characterized by the softening and discoloration of the tissues as well as
formation of blisters in the skin due to the action of autolytic or proteolytic
enzymes in the absence of utero is important in the consideration of legal
live-birth which shows evidence of maceration by the following
manifestations: 1) Reddish green to reddish-brown discoloration of skin; 2)
Softness and limpness of the body; and 3) Blebs formation and separation
of the epidermis from the underlying tissues.
G. Classification of Death
I. Medico-legal classification of Death:

1. Natural Death- Due to disease or ailment.

2. Violent Death- Due to injuries of some outside force.
a) Accident Death- Art 12, Par 4, RPC
b) Neligent Death
c) Infanticidal Death
d) Parricidal Death- Art 247, RPC
e) Homicidal Death- Art. 249, RPC’
f) Murder- Art 248, RPC
g) Euthanasia ( mercy Killing )
h) Suicidal Death- Art. 253, RPC
 61

II. Pathological Classification

1. Death of Syncope (loos of consciousness, fall of blood pressure,
Cardiac Standstill, cerebral metabolism, hyperventilation, cardiac
disease, Tussive Syncope Hysterical syncope
2. Death of Asphyxia (Respiratory Obstruction and Circulatory Arrest,
Inhalation of obnoxious gases fumes, drowning and electric shock,
Compression of the neck and strangulation, Compression of the chest
and asphyxia in brain injury)
3. Death of Coma (Is a profound stupor in sickness or after severe injury)
DEATH BY ASPHYXIA

- a condition resulting from a lack of oxygen in the air or from an obstructing

mechanism to respiration.

- the general term applied to all forms of violent death which results primary from
the interference with the process of respiration or the condition in which the
supply of oxygen to the blood or to the tissues or both has been reduced below
normal level.

TYPES OF ASPHYXIA

1) ANOXIC DEATH associated with the failure of the arterial blood to become
normally saturated with oxygen.

2) ANEMIC ANOXIC DEATH due to a deceased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen

3) STAGNANT ANOXIC DEATH brought about by the failure of circulation.

4) HISTOTOXIC ANOXIC DEATH due to the failure of the cellular oxidative process,
although the oxygen is delivered to the tissues, it cannot be utilized properly.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL ASPHYXIA

1) STRANGULATION (THROTTLING) may be with the use of hands or a ligature (such

as rope)

2) SMOTHERING OR SUFFOCATION occurs when entrance of air through the nose

and mouth is blocked or severely restricted.

3) HANGING the neck is tied while the body is suspended common from suicide
 62

4) CHOKING there is blocking of the internal airway by a foreign object inside or outside
of the victim’s body.

5.) CRUSH OR TRAUMATIC ASPHYXIA brought about by the mechanical

compression of the chest by some heavy object

6) DROWNING

Death as Punishment

1. Death by Lethal Injection

2. Death by Electrocution (used of about 2,00 to 5,000 voltages)
3. Death by Gas chamber
4. Death by hanging
5. Death by Musketry
AUTOPSY

- a comprehensive study of a dead body performed by trained physician using

recognized dissection procedures and techniques, primary to determine the true cause
of death
- indicates that, in addition to an external examination, the body is opened and internal
examination is conducted.
POST MORTEM EXAMINATION

- refers to an external examination of a dead body without incision being made,

although blood and other fluids may be collected for examination.
KINDS OF AUTOPSIES

1) HOSPITAL OR NON-OFFICIAL done on a human body with the consent

of the deceased person’s relatives for the purpose of:

a) determining the cause of death

b) providing correlation of clinical diagnosis and clinical symptoms
c) determining the effectiveness of therapy
d) studying the natural course of disease process
e) educating students and physicians.
2) MEDICO LEGAL OR OFFICIAL an examination performed on a dead
body purpose of:

a) determining the cause, manner or mode and time of death

b) recovering, identifying and preserving evidentiary material
c) providing correlation of facts and circumstances related to death
d) providing a factual, objective medical report for law enforcement,
prosecution and defense agencies
e) separating death due to disease from death due to external cause for
protection of the innocent.
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NEGATIVE AUTOPSY

- an autopsy which failed to establish cause of death after all efforts have been
exhausted
- an autopsy which after a meticulous examination with the aid of other examination
does not yield any definite cause of death.
NEGLIGENT AUTOPSY
- an autopsy wherein no cause of death is found on account of imprudence, negligence,
lack of skill and lack of foresight of the examiner.
Method of Disposal of the Dead Body
1. Embalming- Artificial Mummification
2. Burial- Inhumation or Interment
Is a method of placing the dead body in the grave.

Funeral- it is the procession of the dead body followed by grieving

relatives, friends and other persons to the place of burial in
accordance with the religion, custom and traditions.

Persons in-charge; The Spouse(if married), The descendant of the

nearest degree and brother and sisters.

3. Cremation- Is the burning of the dead body into ashes or pulverization

of the body into ashes by the application of heat or flames.
Requirement: permit for cremation, Exact identification of the deceased
and exact cause of death has been ascertained.
4. Disposal of the dead body to the Sea.
5. Use of the Dead body for Scientific Purpose.
Exhumation- It is the raising or disinterring of the Dead body or
remains from the grave.

EXHUMANTION (DESINTERRING)

- refers to the taking out of a body from its tomb or gravesite

- can be done only upon a lawful order, with permission from the Department of Health.

- remains of persons who died of non- dangerous, non-communicate diseases may be

disinterred after three (3) years.

- remains of persons who died of dangerous communicable diseases may be

disinterred after five (5) years.

Physical Injury

Injury- Is the scientific impairment of the body structure or function caused

by outside force or agent.
 64

Physical Injury- is an injury of the body caused by physical agents which is

the application of stimulus to the body producing damage or injury to the
tissue.

Wound- is a break or solution in the continuity of the skin or tissues of the

body.

Inflammation- Is a specific tissue response to injury by the living or

inanimate agents, or to electrical, chemical etc., characterized by vascular
dilatation, fluid exudation and accumulation of leukocytes in the tissues.

Classification of Wound or Physical injury

A. As to Severity

1. Mortal Wound
2. Non-Mortal Wound
B. As to Kind Instrument used
1. Blunt instrument – lacerated
2. Sharp-edge instrument – incised
3. Sharp-pointed instrument – punctured
4. Sharp-Edge and Sharp-Pointed – stab
5. Rough object – abrasion
C. As to Manner of Infliction

D. As to the depth of the Wound

E. As to the relation of the site of application of force and injury

a) Coup Injury- Injury at the side of application.

b) Contre coup- injury found opposite the side of application.
c) Coup Contre Coup- injury both at the side and opposite side of
application.
d) Locus Minoris Resistencia- Injury is found on some area offering
the least resistance to the force applied.
e) Extensive Injury- involves a greater area of damage.

F. Medico-legal Classification

A. Mutilation
B. Slight Physical Injury (1-9 days)
C. Less Serious Physical Injury (10-30days)
D. Serious Physical Injury (more than 30 days)
E. Administration of injurious substance or beverages.
G. As to the type of the Wound
 65

1. Closed Wound: superficial Closed wound and deep

closed wound, petechiae, contusion or bruise,
hematoma or blood cyst, sprain, fracture,
discoloration, Concussion, and Internal Hemorrage
2. Open Wound: Incised, Lacerated, Punctured, Stab
Wound, Avulsion, and Gunshot and shotgun
Wound.
Petechiae- Are minute, pin point, circumscribed extravasation of blood in
the subcutaneous tissues or underneath the mucous membrane.

Contusion (Bruise)- Wound in the substance of the true skin and in the
subcutaneous cellular tissues characterized by swelling and discoloration of
tissue due to extravasation of blood.

Hematoma- large extravation of blood in a newly formed cavity secondary

to trauma characterized by swelling, discoloration and effusion of blood
underneath the tissues.

Sprain- The straining or tearing of the articular tendons, ligaments and

muscles characterized by swelling, discoloration of tissues involve and
extreme pain.

Fracture- It is a break or solution in the continuity of the bone tissues

resulting from violence. (it can be either simple, compund or comminuted).

Dislocation- Is the displacement of the articular surfaces of the bones

forming the joints usually secondary to trauma. (simple or compound)

Cerebral Concussion- Condition of the brain resulting from a sudden

jarring or stunning of the brain which follows a blow on the head
characterized by headache or dazziness, unconciousness or semi-
unconciousness, relaxed and flaccid muscles, slow and shallow respiration
and rapid but weak pulse

Internal Hemorrhage- It is the bleeding usually in the cavity or organs

inside the body. (intra-cranial, Rupture of organ and Laceration of Organ).

SEXUAL OFFENSES AND DEVIATION

Virginity = a condition of a female who has not experienced sexual intercourse and
whose genital organs have not been altered by carnal correction.
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Kinds of Virginity

1. MORAL VIRGINITY = state of not knowing the nature of sexual life and not having
experienced sexual relation.

2. PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = a condition whereby a woman is conscious of the nature of

the sexual life but not experienced sexual intercourse. Applies to women who have
reached sexual maturity but not experienced sexual intercourse.

TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

= a condition wherein the hymen is intact, with the edges distinct and
regular, and the opening is small to barely admit the tip of the smallest finger of
the examiner even if the thighs are separated.

FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

= A condition wherein the hymen is unruptured but the orifice is wide and elastic
to admit two or more fingers of the examiner with a lesser degree of resistance.
3. DEMI-VIRGINITY

= a condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as long as

they abstain from rupturing the hymen by sexual act.

4. VIRGO INTACTA

= applied to women who have had previous sexual act but not yet given birth.

DEFLORATION = the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual

intercourse.

SEXUAL DEVIATIONS

HOMOSEXUALITY = sexual desire towards the same sex.

INFANTOSEXUALITY = sexual desire towards an immature person. Also known as

PEDOPHILIA.

BESTOSEXUAL = sexual desire towards animals; also known as bestiality.

AUTOSEXUALITY = self –gratification ; also known as masturbation.

GERONTOPHILIA= sexual desire towards an older person.

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NECROPHILIA = a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual

intercourse with a corpse.

INCEST = sexual relations between person who, by reason of blood relationship cannot
legally marry.

SATYRIASIS = excessive sexual urge of men.

NYMPHOMANIA = excessive sexual urge of women.

FELATTIO = the female agent receives the penis of a man into her mouth and by
friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act of sucking initiates orgasm.

CUNNILINGUS = sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the external

female genitalia.

ANILINGUS = a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives sexual excitement

by licking the anus of another person of either sex.

SADISM =(Active Algolagnia) = A form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of

pain on another is necessary for sexual enjoyment

MASOCHISM (passive algolagnia) = A form of sexual perversion in which the infliction

of pain by another is necessary for sexual enjoyment.

FETISHISM = a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasied presence of an

object or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and gratification.

PYGMALIONISM = a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statutes.

FROTTAGE = a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive desire of a

person to rub his sex organ against some part of the body of another.

VOYEURISM = a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep to

see persons undress or perform other personal activities.