BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

Emberga T.T. a, Uhiara F.E. b, Nwigwe C. c, Amadi R.O d

a, b. c. d
Physics and Electronics Department, Federal Polytechnic Nekede-Owerri, Nigeria.
a
Corresponding author: [email protected]

©Ontario International Development Agency ISSN: 1923-6654 (print)

ISSN 1923-6662 (online). Available at http://www.ssrn.com/link/OIDA-Intl-Journal-Sustainable-Dev.html

Abstract: The dominant biomass conversion turbine (or Rankine cycle) to generate shaft power.
technology consists of the combustion of biomass as Other prime movers include the Brayton cycle of gas
fuel wood, and forest residues, or as process residues, turbines, Stirling engines, as well as thermoelectric
such as biogases and black liquor. Many of the and thermo voltaic possibilities. Shaft power from
combustion processes in use today have poor these cycles can be used directly to drive a mill or
environmental characteristics and low efficiency e.g other machine, or to power an alternator to produce
cook stoves in developing countries; they are a major electricity. In combined heat and power, the most
cause of respiratory disease and also contribute to common variant is when the electricity is generated
greenhouse gas production.. Environmental first and the heat is taken from the exhaust of the
technologies, especially those based on anaerobic electricity cycle (Horlock, J.H. )
digestion, are moving into commercialization
As with fossil fuels, the key biomass combustion
following the large scale success of using landfill gas
issues today are efficiency and environmental
for power generation. Charcoal and ethanol (which
performance. Since many furnaces and boiler systems
are the leading biofuels), advances in the production
can be operated at relatively high efficiency, even
of liquid fuels from lignocellulosics, and high
quite close to their theoretical efficiencies, the most
efficiency integrated gasification combined cycles for
important development issue is the environmental
electricity production are described.
performance. Nevertheless, biomass has one clear
Keywords: Biomass, Combustion, Conversion, advantage over fossil fuels in that the emissions of
Environment, Efficiency carbon dioxide derived from biomass combustion to
the atmosphere are essentially in equilibrium with the
INTRODUCTION
uptake of carbon dioxide by the biosphere through
Biomass Conversion Technique photosynthesis.
Heat, Power and Combined Heat and Power INDUSTRIAL-SCALE BIOMASS COMBUSTION
(CHP) TECHNOLOGIES

B
iomass combustion, such as burning fuel Industrial boilers range from 100 to around 300 MW
wood to provide heat, power, or combined output. Smaller scale versions are used in district
heat and power (CHP), is a link in the energy heating and small processes down to as low as 10
chain from producing renewable biomass resources to MW, usually without the same level of emissions
providing sustainable services in the form of heat (or control. The major types of boilers installed are: pile
refrigeration), shaft power, and electricity. The heat burners, grate boilers, suspension fired boilers,
produced in a combustor or furnace can be used fluidized beds, and circulating fluid beds.
directly in a manufacturing process, or to raise steam
The pile burner is the original, circa. 1700, industrial
in a boiler, which can then expanded through a steam
process-scale biomass burner and can be viewed as a
20 Emberga et al. / OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development 04: 05 (2012)

sort of enclosed fire. Pile burners have poor load- dolomite, to control SOx emissions without the need
following characteristics and typically have low for back-end sulfur removal equipment. Circulating
efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60%. Stoker grate fluid bed temperatures are maintained at about 870°
combustors improve the operation of the pile burners C, which helps to optimize the limestone-sulfur
by providing a moving grate, which permits reactions. A number of CFB power plants have been
continuous ash collection, thus eliminating the cyclic built in the 25 MW size range, primarily in California
operation characteristic of traditional pile burners. In [Morris, G.(1997)]. The alkali content of the fuels has
-1
addition, the fuel is spread more evenly (in a thin bed,
to be maintained below 340 g GJ input, as high
5 to 15 cm deep), normally by a pneumatic stoker.
alkaline content fuels cause particles in the bed to
The thinner layer in the combustion zone produces a
agglomerate and defluidize, eventually plugging the
more efficient combustion. More modern designs
system [Baxter, L.L,(1996)].
include the Kabliz grate, a sloping reciprocating
water-cooled grate. Reciprocating grates are Economics of Power Boilers and Electricity
attractive because of simplicity and low fly ash Generation
carryover. Furnace exit temperatures are about 980°
The economics of power generation are dependent on
C; staged combustion processes have been developed
the capital cost, the operating cost, and the fuel cost,
to minimize nitrogen oxide emissions and keep the
in almost equal measure over the generating plant’s
furnace temperature below the ash deformation
life cycle [McIlveen-Wright, D.R., B.C. Williams,
temperature of most biomass fuels. Stoker-fired
and J.T. McMullany,(2001)]. Scale and efficiency are
moving grates range in size from 20 to 300 MW.
linked and are illustrated in Figure 1, which compares
Since suspension burners require finely divided 1 mm
the levelized costs of electricity for biomass-fired
particle size materials with very low moisture
systems based on stoker firing and gasification
contents, they are relatively rare as the fuel
combined cycles, using data from the EPRI - NREL
preparation from green biomass is very energy
technology assessment.
intensive.
Gaseous Biofuels
Fluidized bed combustors are becoming the systems
of choice for biomass fuels. One reason for this is Gaseous biofuels include biogas from anaerobic
that the fluid bed medium (silica sand, alumina, or digestion (AD), and low and medium heating value
olivine) provides a thermal “flywheel” that gases from thermal processes. Biogas from AD has
compensates for variation in moisture content and approximately equal amounts of carbon dioxide and
maintains constant heat output and flue gas quality. methane, with typically 0.1% to 1% hydrogen sulfide.
The medium also gives the advantage of extremely Thermal processes produce varying compositions of
good mixing and high heat transfer, resulting in very dry gas containing hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and
uniform bed conditions. Despite the relatively low methane, as the fuel gases, in combination with
temperature of combustion, the three T rule nitrogen and carbon dioxide, as the major
(temperature, time, and turbulence) of high quality constituents. Thermal gases and biogas can be used
combustion is well met, with 99% to 100% carbon directly as fuel in gas burners, or in prime movers
burnout being typical [Nauze, R.D.L, 1986]. such as internal combustion engines and gas turbines.
Fluidized beds are either bubbling beds (FB) or Thermally produced gases, after purification and
circulating (CFB). In the former, the material stays in possibly water gas shift to adjust the H2:CO ratio,
a fixed zone of the combustor, while in the latter, the can be described as a syngas (a mixture of H2 and
flue gas velocity is such that the bed material is CO), which can be used to manufacture methanol,
suspended and circulates through a return loop to the ammonia, Fischer Tropsch liquids, or hydrogen for
combustor, by means of a mass or cyclonic separator. use in fuel cells. While thermal gasification is in the
In both FB and CFB units, the ash removal is by early stages of commercial deployment, anaerobic
means of complete ash carryover, necessitating the digestion processes are already commercial and
addition of cyclones and bag houses for particulate widely deployed, either in designed processes for
control to New Source Performance Standards specific environmental problems or in landfills,
(NSPS). It is the emissions performance that is which are managed to capture the methane that is
making these units more attractive. In fluidized beds, naturally produced. Presently, the United States has a
the uniform, low combustion temperature gives low landfill gas electricity generation capacity of about 1
NOx emissions, while in the CFB, it is easy to GW, using gas engines and gas turbines [McCarty,
introduce a sorbent solid, such as limestone or P.L.,(1981)].
 Emberga et al. / OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development 04: 05 (2012) 21

Figure 1: Levelized cost of traditional direct-fired steam cycle power generation and biomass
IGCC

Anaerobic digestion has been used for many years in organic loading is measured by means of a chemical
the treatment of sewage and animal manures to reaction in the laboratory and reported as the
mineralize the carbon in order to reduce the volume chemical oxygen demand (COD). This can be
of waste sludge for disposal. The carbon is converted converted into a methane potential of between 0.33–
3 -1
into methane and carbon dioxide in about a 60:40
0.35 m kg of COD. In a well operating anaerobic
ratio by volume, with a heating value of about 55%–
process, it is normal to have a COD reduction of
60% that of natural gas. The biomass of the bacteria
between 60% and 80% of the input level.
that carry out the process and the non-digested
material remains as a sludge, which can be returned Thermal Gasification
to the soil if there are no heavy metals from the
Gasifiers at an industrial scale are generally based on
residue stream. A wide range of agricultural,
fluidized bed technology. In direct thermal
industrial, and urban activities generate residue
applications, the gas is cleansed of most particulates
streams with high organic loadings that are suitable
and passed without any cooling, directly into the
for anaerobic treatment. They include: intensive
process kiln or boiler for combustion. A typical
animal husbandry (excreta, and bedding materials);
example of this application is the use of a CFB
food processing (sugar production and vegetable
gasifier, fueled with a refuse-derived fuel, wood
preparation); breweries and distilleries; and materials
chips, and peat, to supply a low-heating value gas to
production (such as pulp and paper, pharmaceutical
an existing large-scale natural gas and coal utility
manufacture, and sewage treatment). Absent any
boiler, at the Kymijärvi 167 MW and 240 MW fossil
treatment, these industries pollute water courses and
fired plant close to the Finnish city of Lahti
groundwater with high loadings of biological and
[Niemenen, J.,(1999)]. This project builds on many
chemical oxygen demand, along with large
years of successful operation of biomass CFB
concentrations of nitrates, microbial contaminants,
gasifiers in thermal applications, and substitutes
and even pathogens. Progress in the development of
biomass for about 15% of the total fuel used in the
high rate AD technologies has increased the
boiler. Though the possibility of using biomass
reliability, or the effective time-on-stream of the
gasification to produce a syngas for the manufacture
applications, and has also improved the conversion
of transportation fuels such FT liquids or methanol is
efficiency or reduction in organic loading. The
feasible, most development effort has been put into
22 Emberga et al. / OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development 04: 05 (2012)

demonstrating IGCC (Integrated Gasification amount is used as a chemical reductant in metallurgy,

Combined Cycle). In IGCC the thermal gas from for example, to produce pig iron in Brazil [Rosillo-
biomass is used to fire a gas turbine, and the steam Calle, F,(1996)]. The co-products of carbonization
generated in a heat recovery boiler on the turbine are the tars and fuel gases. Together these represent
exhaust is used to generate more electricity in a steam as much as 40% of the energy of the wood. In simple
(Rankine cycle) turbine. The extensive developments charcoal-making these are often not utilized, creating
for coal-based IGCC have resulted in a number of pollution of the soil, water, and air. In the larger
turbines that have already been adapted to low- industrial systems the recovery of byproducts may
heating-value gas operation, in the size ranges of not be economic; however, the fuel value of both the
interest to biomass developers. A higher quality gas, gas and the tars (sometimes called pyroligneous
requiring fewer turbine modifications, can be liquids) may be utilized in the carbonization process
produced in indirect or oxygen-blown gasification to reduce energy loss, increase the efficiency, and
cycles, with heating values in the range of 15–20 MJ eliminate pollution. Before there was extensive
-3
chemical synthesis of methanol and acetic acid from
Nm . Current biomass IGCC projects and
demonstrations, which illustrate the development of fossil fuels, these were both byproducts of charcoal
manufacture. In fact, methanol (CH3OH) is referred
biomass IGCC, clearly show the diversity of the
to as wood alcohol in the vernacular.
possible technological approaches. The first complete
biomass-fueled IGCC, constructed by Sydkraft A.B., Liquid fuels from biomass
is part of the district heating system of the city of
Värnarmo in Sweden and is fueled with about 18 There are two biomass-based liquid fuels in the
MW equivalent of wood residues. The facility market place today, ethanol and biodiesel. Some 20
3 -1
produces about 6 MW (4 MW from the gas turbine, 2 Mm y of ethanol is produced with an energy
MW from the steam cycle) and 9 MWth for the content of 425 PJ, making this the second most
heating system, and has demonstrated more than important biofuel. A much smaller amount of
1500 hours of IGCC operation. The gasifier is a biodiesel (usually an ester of plant lipids such as
pressurized air circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and soybean or rape seed oils) is used in the USA and
–3
produces a gas of about 5–6 MJ Nm . Several Europe. Space does not permit a discussion of all of
atmospheric pressure gasification power systems are the biofuel options, so the major one described is the
also under development. The ARBRE project in the ethanol option. Ethanol is produced by means of
3
UK is an atmospheric pressure CFB IGCC, fermentation of sugar cane in Brazil (11 Mm ), and
generating 10 MW, using SRC (willow in Short 3
from starches in the United States (6 Mm ) and
Rotation Coppice) on 1000 hectare as the major
Europe. Typically a tonne of cane produces between
feedstock. This is the first large-scale power
generation project that uses the TPS-CFB system; 125 and 140 kg of raw sugar, or between 70 and 80
although, the proposed WPB/SIGAME project in litres of ethanol, while a tonne of maize, with about
70% to 75% starch content, will produce between
Brazil (that will use eucalyptus to generate 32 MW, -1
using a GE LM 2500 gas turbine and a steam cycle), 440 and 460 L t with wet and dry corn milling,
has been in the planning stages for several years. The respectively. Most is used in blends in gasoline,
Future Energy Resources Company (FERCO) unit, typically at 22% to 24% in Brazil, and 10% in the
located in Burlington, Vermont, USA, is a 40 MWth USA. However, there are some motor fleets with
indirect gasification process operating in a co-firing flexible fuel vehicles that operate on E-85, a blend of
-3
85% anhydrous alcohol and 15% gasoline, which
mode, which supplies a 15–20 MJ Nm gas to the
consume about 0.3% of the U.S. ethanol. In the USA,
McNeil Generating Station of Burlington Electric.
the production cost of ethanol is higher than gasoline
Charcoal by between 50% and 100%, depending on oil prices
and the commodity markets for feed corn.
Charcoal is the world’s most significant biofuel, with
over 3 EJ of wood feedstocks being converted into Brazilian fermentation plants range in size from 150
between 0.7 and 1 EJ of charcoal (despite its kL d-1 to 2.6 ML d-1, using sugar cane as feedstock.
production in many instances at low efficiency). Its In the United States, which mainly uses corn as
energy density is such that it can be transported long feedstock, there were 33 producing plants with the
distances and, with much reduced emissions in smallest at 6 kL d-1; however, in 1998, over 80% of
cookstoves, it is a fuel that is better suited to the production capacity was in just seven plants,
developing country urban use than fuelwood. ranging from 460 kL d-1 to 5.85 ML d-1. There are
Charcoal is produced from fuelwood and other very significant economies of scale in ethanol
biomass resources by carbonization in kilns or retorts. production and, thus, large scale plants are favored.
In addition to its use as a cooking fuel, a significant Investment costs per daily litre range from over 100 $
 Emberga et al. / OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development 04: 05 (2012) 23

L-1 d-1 at smaller throughput plants in Brazil to less hydrogen production or for the synthesis of liquid
than 60 $ L-1 d-1 for the larger plants. Starch to fuels such as ethanol and Fischer Tropsch
ethanol plants are about 30% more expensive than hydrocarbons. The largest liquid fuel contribution
cane sugar based units of similar throughput, today comes from the application of biotechnology in
primarily because there are more process steps, each the production of ethanol
of which has a small reduction in efficiency. This is
from sugar and starches, and innovative research is
mitigated, in part, by greater capacity factors on an
opening the way to utilize the large lignocellulosic
annual basis, as corn-based production can operate
resource in the same way. The data points are for an
for the majority of the year on commodity corn, while
investor-owned utility operation of stoker-fired and
sugar cane harvest seasons rarely extend beyond six
IGCC units. The data are taken from the renewable
months in most production areas. In addition, the
energy technology characterizations performed by
corn process produces saleable co-products in the
EPRI, USDOE, and NREL. The years shown on
form of animal feeds such as dried distiller’s grains.
Figure 1 are the study’s expectation of when the
The major research and development area is in the
performance and scale shown would be achieved.
production of ethanol from lignocellulosics (such as
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