1 s2.0 S096014812300407X Main

Renewable Energy 209 (2023) 310–324
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
Power balance control and dimensioning of a hybrid off-grid energy system

for a Nordic climate townhouse
Altti Meriläinen a, *, Jan-Henri Montonen a, Jeremias Hopsu b, Antti Kosonen a, Tuomo Lindh a,
Jero Ahola a
a
Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, P.O. Box 20, FI-53851, Lappeenranta, Finland
b
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044, VTT, Finland
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This paper investigates conversion of a Nordic oil-heated townhouse into carbon-neutral by different energy
Hydrogen energy storage system (HESS) efficiency (EE) improvements and an off-grid system including solar photovoltaics (PV), wind power, and battery
Solar photovoltaics (PV) and hydrogen energy storage systems (BESS and HESS). A heat-pump-based heating system including waste heat
Wind power
recovery (WHR) from the HESS and an off-grid electrical system are dimensioned for the building by applying
Energy efficiency
models developed in MATLAB and Microsoft Excel to study the life cycle costs (LCC). The work uses a measured
Heating system
Optimization electrical load profile, and the heat generation of the new heating system and the power generation are simulated
by commercial software. It is shown that the EE improvements and WHR from the HESS have a positive effect on
the dimensioning of the off-grid system, and the LCC can be reduced by up to €2 million. With the EE im
provements and WHR, the component dimensioning can be reduced by 22%–41% and 13%–51% on average,
respectively. WHR can cover up to 57% of the building’s annual heat demand, and full-power dimensioning of
the heat pump is not reasonable when WHR is applied. Wind power was found to be very relevant in the Nordic
conditions, reducing the LCC by 32%.
emissions in buildings requires improvements in energy efficiency, such

as heat pumps and improved insulation, and renewable forms of energy
1. Introduction generation, such as solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind power. When
constructing new buildings, the use of sustainable building materials
Limiting global warming to 1.5 ◦ C requires major reductions in and methods must also be taken into account [5]. Regarding
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in every energy-consuming sector. cost-efficient energy efficiency improvements in grid-connected build
Globally, buildings and the construction sector are responsible for about ings, it has been observed in Finland that in apartment buildings built in
a third of the final energy consumption and energy-related CO2 emis the 1960s–1970s, a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) can deliver the
sions, and more than 50% of the heating energy in buildings is generated greatest benefit, instead of improving the energy efficiency by additional
by fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), providing a significant potential for building envelope insulation [6,7]. Studies have also shown that
GHG emission reductions [1]. Between 2005 and 2020, GHG emissions renewal of the original ventilation is usually not a cost-effective reno
caused by the energy use in buildings were reduced by 25% in the Eu vation measure, even though the energy efficiency is considerably
ropean Union (46% in Finland), for instance, as a result of the improved improved. In office and educational buildings of almost the same age,
energy efficiency (EE) of buildings and decarbonization of electricity cost-effective renovation methods include not only heat pumps but also
generation [2]. In 2021, GHG emissions from electricity generation had renovation of the original ventilation, and windows in the case of
decreased by 45% from the 1990 level in the European Union (501 g educational buildings [8,9]. In addition to traditional energy efficiency
CO2e/kWh in 1990) and by 60% in Finland (195 g CO2e/kWh in 1990) improvements, solar PV-generated electricity has been found to be a
[3]. Most of the energy consumption of housing in the Nordic conditions cost-effective energy performance measure in various buildings in
is related to heating, and in Finland, heating of spaces, hot water, and Finland [6–10]. The current global energy crisis is putting pressure to
saunas account for about 85% of the energy consumption in the resi increase energy self-sufficiency (SS) to enable independence from
dential sector [4]. Reducing energy consumption and thereby GHG
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Meriläinen).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.03.104
Received 30 August 2022; Received in revised form 10 March 2023; Accepted 23 March 2023
Available online 28 March 2023
0960-1481/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Meriläinen et al. Renewable Energy 209 (2023) 310–324
Nomenclature HRV heat recovery ventilation

LCC life cycle cost
Abbreviations LCCA life cycle cost analysis
AMR automatic meter reading LCOE levelized cost of energy
AWHP air-to-water heat pump LCOH levelized cost of hydrogen
BESS battery energy storage system LHV lower heating value
CAPEX capital expenditure OPEX operational expenditure
CHH combined heat and hydrogen PEM polymer electrolyte membrane
CHP combined heat and power PV photovoltaics
COP coefficient of performance SH space heating
DHW domestic hot water SOC state of charge
EE energy efficiency WHR waste heat recovery
FC fuel cell WT wind turbine
FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle
GHG greenhouse gas Subscripts
GSHP ground source heat pump e electricity
HESS hydrogen energy storage system h heat
HHV higher heating value
external energy price changes. One possible way to increase energy feasibility of operating such a system under highly dynamic solar PV
self-sufficiency in buildings is to generate energy locally, for example, by power generation and a residential load. Their economic analysis
solar photovoltaics. Solar PV is currently practically the simplest and showed that cost reductions are needed for hybrid energy storage sys
least-cost method for local electricity generation in buildings, and the tems to compete with conventional energy storage systems. In Pal and
levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of solar PV is expected to decrease Mukherjee [27], an off-grid system consisting of solar PV and a
further [11,12]. In addition, the European Union aims to make instal hydrogen energy storage was proposed as a renewable energy source for
lation of solar PV systems mandatory in all new and existing public and end-user load demand in northeastern India. The energy system was
commercial buildings with a useful floor area larger than 250 m2 by modeled and simulated by using the HOMER software. Their optimal
2027, and the same obligation will apply to all new residential buildings systems comprised a 10–120 kWp solar PV array, a 10–15 kW fuel cell, a
by 2029 [13]. Along with solar PV, a fully self-sufficient building, usu 30–60 kW electrolyzer, a 40–60 kg hydrogen storage, and a 15 kW
ally referred to as an off-grid building, requires alternative renewable converter between AC and DC busbars. The optimized systems had an
electricity generation and energy storage depending on its geographical LCOE and a net present cost of 0.509–0.689 $/kWh and $3,27,557–4,43,
location. Wind power is currently competing with solar PV for the 004, respectively. Ghenai and Bettayeb [28] studied the operation and
least-cost electricity generation method, depending on location [11]. In cost-effective component dimensioning and system control of a solar PV-
addition, measurements have shown that the average wind speed is and hydrogen-based off-grid system in a university building in the
higher in winter than in summer in Finland, supporting the solar PV United Arab Emirates. They found that the annual electricity demand
power generation in winter, when solar irradiation is low or not avail can be met by a 1 MW solar PV system, a 200 kW fuel cell, and a 100 kW
able [14]. Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are best suited for backup diesel generator, which account for 73%, 24%, and 3% of the
short-term, mainly daily based electricity storage, and lithium-ion bat annual electricity demand, respectively. The LCOE of the system was
teries have been found to follow a similar declining learning curve for calculated to be 92 $/MWh over a 25-year life cycle, while the renew
manufacturing costs to solar PV [15,16]. However, short-term energy able fraction for the proposed system was 66.1%. A study by Gracia et al.
storage, such as a BESS or other energy storage with a high investment [29] analyzed the off-grid component dimensioning and LCOE in load
cost, is not enough for winter in areas where solar irradiation is seasonal. profiles of two telecom antennas and a home in Tenerife and Edinburgh.
Several recent articles have studied, for example, the use of diesel, They compared four different systems: a PV–battery, a PV–battery–hy
biomass, and biogas as a long-term energy storage [17–20]. Although drogen, a PV–diesel generator, and a diesel generator. They found that
liquid fuels, gases, and biomass are suitable and well known for diesel-based systems are almost always the least-cost option for an
long-term energy storage, they are primarily combustion-based energy off-grid system, and a hydrogen-based system competes with a
sources and produce CO2 and other emissions. The sustainable energy battery-based one only in Edinburgh. Nasser et al. [30] investigated
system of the future requires the use of emission-free technologies, and green hydrogen production and storage in Egypt by using solar and wind
green hydrogen is often proposed as a long-term energy storage in the power as energy sources. They reported that hydrogen compression
literature [21–23]. In addition, a hydrogen energy storage system from the ambient to the desired pressure consumes about 3.13%–3.3%
(HESS) is found to be a more cost-effective solution for large-scale of the generated electricity with a five-stage intercooler compressor. The
electricity storage than a BESS [24]. overall efficiency of the systems was shown to be 7.69%–9.37%, and
In Yunez-Cano et al. [25], the feasibility of hydrogen storage as part they can produce hydrogen at a production cost of 4.54–7.48 $/kg.
of a highly dynamic solar PV-based system was evaluated with a mobile Ahmadi et al. [31] performed a techno-economic analysis of the wind
house equipped with solar PV and hydrogen-based energy storage and solar power generation potential for hydrogen production in Hel
equipment. Hydrogen is used as a primary energy storage instead of mand province in Afghanistan. They used the Multi-Criteria Decision-
batteries. The stored hydrogen provides energy for up to three days of Making method to evaluate the most suitable location from technical,
the nominal load of the case house. It was concluded that an electro economic, and environmental perspectives. They observed that on the
lyzer, a fuel cell, and a hydrogen storage can be used as a small and least-cost site for solar PV-based hydrogen production, the production
reliable backup system if dimensioned appropriately. In Maclay et al. cost for solar PV and hydrogen would be 0.066 $/kWh and 2.15 $/kg.
[26], a system consisting of a solar PV array, an electrolyzer, a battery, a The least-cost site for wind-based hydrogen production would provide
fuel cell, and a hydrogen storage was investigated by using an experi the respective production costs of 0.057 $/kWh and 1.45 $/kg.
mental residence simulator. The study demonstrated the technical Typically, fuel cells and electrolyzers are operating at 40%–60%
311
(LHV) and 62%–82% (HHV) system efficiencies, respectively, resulting Type I and II (even below 0.34–0.45 kg/L). The costs of the vessels are
in a high amount of waste heat [32,33]. The typical operating temper roughly as follows: Type 1 is the least expensive, Type II costs about 50%
ature of a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell and an elec more than Type I, the cost of Type III is about twice the cost of Type II,
trolyzer is about 50◦ C–90 ◦ C, making the waste heat suitable for and Type IV is the most expensive. In large-scale applications, hydrogen
domestic hot water heating with the lowest temperature requirement of is typically stored in metallic Type I cylinders at a pressure of 200–300
55 ◦ C [34,35]. Waste heat recovered from an electrolyzer and a fuel cell bar, which requires compression with an electrolyzer operating pressure
is most efficiently used as heat, but heat can also be converted into typically below 30 bar [35,50]. Several different types of compressors
electricity by using, for example, a thermoradiative device and a ther can be used to compress hydrogen, such as reciprocating piston, dia
moelectric generator, among others [36]. Fuel cell waste heat recovery phragm, and liquid piston compressors [51]. The most common type is
has been investigated in fuel cell vehicles, and various micro combined the reciprocating piston compressor, which is ideal for medium-flow and
heat and power (CHP) solutions in different buildings have been re high-pressure applications (up to 250 bar) [51]. Compressing hydrogen
ported in the literature [37–42]. Burrin et al. [43] studied integration of from 10 bar to 200 bar, for example, requires an energy of about 1.1
a combined heat and hydrogen (CHH) plant into a district heating kWh/kg in an ideal process [52]. Taking into account the average effi
network in the United Kingdom. Their system was capable of recovering ciency of 45% of a reciprocating compressor, the specific energy con
312 kW of thermal energy per MW of electricity fed to the electrolyzer sumption of compression can be calculated to be about 2.45 kWh/kg
and could deliver thermal energy as 75 ◦ C or 45 ◦ C water to the existing [51].
or the low-temperature district heating network, respectively. By This paper investigates conversion of a Nordic oil-heated townhouse
recovering and selling the waste heat, the CHH plant can reduce the into a carbon-neutral one by using an off-grid energy system consisting
levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) by about 25%–50% when hydrogen is of a solar PV system, a wind turbine, a BESS, and a HESS. The energy
produced by using renewable electricity overgeneration with negligible system is based on four different energy efficiency (EE) improvement
electricity costs. Möller and Krauter [44] investigated dimensioning of options, the electricity demand of which is aimed to be covered as cost-
off-grid system components together with the utilization of waste heat effectively as possible with an off-grid energy system. A total of six off-
from a fuel cell and an electrolyzer in a household hybrid energy system grid system alternatives are simulated, which differ based on the EE
consisting of a solar PV system, a lithium-ion battery, and a hydrogen improvement option and the power generation method (solar PV and
system. In their Simulink-based analysis in Central Europe, a household wind power). In the EE improvement options, the heating of the building
consumption of 2350 kWh/a of electricity and 4000 kWh/a of heat is based on an air-to-water heat pump (AWHP) or a ground source heat
generated by a heat pump can be covered by a 6.82 kW solar PV system, pump (GSHP). Moreover, the best EE improvement option includes heat
a 16 kWh battery, a 5 kW electrolyzer, a 1.24 kW fuel cell, and 73.52 kg recovery ventilation (HRV) and additional building envelope insulation.
of hydrogen. In the proposed system, the fuel cell and electrolyzer waste The study investigates the effect of GSHP dimensioning on the electricity
heat recovery (WHR) can reduce the heating demand by about 644 kWh peak powers and thus, dimensioning of the fuel cell. There are two
annually. Sun et al. [45] analyzed the operation of a hydrogen-based dimensioning options for the GSHP: about 57% partial-power dimen
building off-grid system with solar PV, solar thermal, and wind power sioning where the GSHP covers >90% of the annual demand for heat
being the primary energy sources in Tehran and Tabriz, Iran. They found energy and peak powers are covered by an electric boiler, and full-power
that solar PV is more suitable for covering the electricity consumption of dimensioning. With the GSHP being a more energy-efficient heating
a building than a small-scale wind turbine. In addition, the fuel cell WHR method than the electric boiler, peak powers caused by heating can be
is found to play a vital role in domestic hot water heating in Tehran. reduced by full-power dimensioning. The waste heat from the electro
Tiedemann et al. [46] investigated the use of fuel cell electric vehicles lyzer and the fuel cell is used as an additional heat source for space and
(FCEVs) as a CHP backup system in neighborhoods in Germany and domestic hot water heating (SH and DHW), which can be used to reduce
found that up to 49% of the heat demand can be covered by the waste the need for heat generation from other heat sources and thus, the
heat of FCEVs. In addition, it was shown that five out of 252 residents electricity demand. In addition, a life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is
should permanently provide an FCEV to supply the neighborhood. performed to calculate the 30-year life cycle costs (LCC) for these six
However, hydrogen consumption was found to be a problem, and 15 simulated off-grid system options to demonstrate the impact of different
times as many vehicles would be needed if the vehicles cannot be sup energy efficiency improvements and the power generation method on
plied with hydrogen in a stationary way. Erdemir and Dincer [47] the LCC of the off-grid system.
studied a solar PV-based energy system including an HESS for a 1500 This study is based on simulations and employs modeling tools
residential unit community in Southern Ontario in Canada. In their developed in MATLAB and Microsoft Excel. The electrical load profile of
study, waste heat from the sewage produced by the community is used to the building is based on automatic meter readings (AMR) from an 18-
improve the operation of air conditioners and heat pumps, but only the apartment townhouse located in the city of Lahti, southern Finland.
waste heat generated by compression of hydrogen is recovered from the The electrical load caused by heat pumps is simulated based on the
HESS. They concluded that to maintain off-grid operation, a 288 000 m2 annual light fuel oil consumption of the building. The solar PV and wind
solar PV array is required in December when solar irradiation is at its power generation is based on simulated power generation data in Lahti,
lowest. In addition, the coefficient of performance (COP) values of the as no measured hourly power generation data are available from that
air conditioner and the heat pump are improved by about 33% with area.
waste heat recovery from the sewage. To the authors’ knowledge, previous studies related to off-grid
Currently, the most mature technology for hydrogen storage is buildings have mainly been based on dimensioning of the system com
compressed hydrogen storage, and there are four main types of ponents, and in some studies, analyses have been performed of the re
hydrogen cylinders: Types I–IV [48]. According to Refs. [48–50], Type I covery of waste heat in more southern climates, but the potential of
and II vessels are typically made from steel (or aluminum in the case of waste heat recovery from an electrolyzer and a fuel cell in a residential
Type I), and in addition, Type II vessels contain a glass fiber composite building in the Nordic climate remains unclear. In addition, the impact
overwrap. Type I and II vessels are suitable for stationary applications of energy efficiency improvements and heat pump dimensioning on the
because of their heavy mass of about 0.82–1.36 kg/L and low pressure dimensioning of a hydrogen-based off-grid system is not fully known,
levels up to 500 bar (no pressure limitation in Type II). Type III vessels and thus, the subject must be investigated in more detail. Energy effi
are made of a metal liner with full composite wrapping, whereas Type IV ciency improvements have been extensively studied in grid-connected
vessels are fully composite, and their pressure tolerances are up to buildings, and the cost-saving potential in these buildings is well
450–1000 bar. Type III and IV can be used in vehicles that require a light known. Nonetheless, there is a lack of knowledge about the life cycle
mass and a small tank volume because of their lower vessel mass than in cost savings brought by various energy efficiency improvements in an
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off-grid environment, especially in the cold Nordic climate. The that the ridges of the roofs of the two buildings are about east–west and
dimensioning of a GSHP in an off-grid environment is not clear, because the remaining two are about north–south. The slope of the roofs is 22◦ .
the waste heat from a fuel cell can replace the need for heat generation Some of the housing cooperative’s neighboring plots include field and
of the GSHP. On the other hand, with a full-power-dimensioned GSHP, park areas, where a potentially ground-mounted solar PV system and a
the peak power demand for heating can be reduced. This results in a wind turbine could be located. The buildings are heated with light fuel
lower dimensioning of the fuel cell, which is a significantly more oil and by an AWHP, and ventilation is provided by a mechanical
expensive component than the GSHP. The aim of this paper is to exhaust air system. Achieving the carbon neutrality target requires en
investigate how a heat-pump-based off-grid heating system including ergy efficiency improvements, which are elaborated on the following
waste heat recovery from a fuel cell and an electrolyzer should be section.
dimensioned to minimize the dimensioning and life cycle cost of the off-
grid system components. This is achieved by comparing several building
2.1. Energy efficiency improvement options
energy efficiency improvement options as well as heat pump types and
dimensioning options, which are of great importance in the Nordic
A calibrated energy simulation model from the current state of the
conditions characterized by cold and dark winters. In the Nordic coun
building was built with the IDA ICE 4.8 building performance simulation
tries, the length of annual solar PV power generation is, in practice, only
software [53]. With the IDA ICE software, a heat balance model can be
about eight months, which creates a great need for seasonal electricity
constructed for the building, and the energy consumption of the building
storage for the winter season. Therefore, in addition to solar PV, an off-
can be studied accurately. The IDA ICE software is validated and certi
grid system including a small-scale wind turbine is also investigated.
fied to meet, for example, the CEN standards EN 15265:2007, EN
Small-scale wind power generation is far more expensive than solar PV-
15255:2007 and EN 13791, which address calculation of the thermal
generated power, and thus, it is often excluded from consideration. With
performance of buildings. Calibration refers to fine-tuning of the
the approach adopted in this paper, the influence of small-scale wind
parameters of the simulation model so that the energy consumption of
power on the dimensioning of expensive seasonal storage can be eval
the simulation model corresponds as closely as possible to the actual
uated in the Nordic conditions. In addition, it can be determined which
measured energy consumption of the building. The measured energy
has more economic value: year-round power generation with expensive
consumption consists of hourly AMR data for electricity (73 MWhe/a)
small-scale wind power or expensive seasonal electricity storage in
and annual light fuel oil consumption for heating (245 MWhoil/a on
hydrogen. Commercial software is used for the simulation of solar PV
average). The energy efficiency improvement options were extensively
power, wind power, and building heat generation, whereas simulation
studied, and their impact on the energy consumption was calculated by
of the off-grid system is carried out by MATLAB programming, which
using the calibrated simulation model. By combining the investment
enables a very detailed hourly level simulation model.
cost of the corresponding improvement with the calculated energy
savings, the options were ranked according to profitability. Four
2. Data and methods
different combinations of different options were formed, from the most
profitable to the most energy efficient one. To generate the heat demand
The case townhouse is located in the city of Lahti, southern Finland,
of these four combinations, both the GSHP and the AWHP were studied.
and has 18 apartments with areas ranging from 48 m2 to 118 m2. An
The GSHP was studied with two different dimensioning principles:
aerial view of the townhouse is shown in Fig. 1. The total heated area is
partial-power and full-power dimensioning. As the GSHP is a more
about 1100 m2. The townhouse consists of a total of four separate
energy-efficient heating method compared with an electric boiler,
buildings, built between 1991 and 1992. The buildings are oriented so
full-power dimensioning of the GSHP aims to reduce the peak power of
Fig. 1. Aerial view of the townhouse; north on the left and south on the right (photo courtesy of Lahden Talot Oy).
313
electricity and thus, the rated power of the fuel cell. From the the load profiles that the annual peak power of the consumer and real
combinations of energy efficiency options, heat pump types, and estate electricity is 25 kW, in which case any load above 25 kW is for
dimensioning, the four most interesting ones were selected for the final heating only.
off-grid system dimensioning and comparison of the whole system life
cycle costs; more detailed information of the energy efficiency options is 2.2. Solar PV and wind power generation
presented in Table 1.
The EE improvement options are presented in an ascending order so The electricity generation of the building in the off-grid system will
that EE0 describes the initial situation without any improvements be based on solar PV and wind power. As there are no measured data on
(except that the AWHP capacity must be increased to fully replace the oil the power generation on the site, the generation is simulated. The solar
heating), and EE3 is the most efficient of the EE options, reducing heat PV power generation of a 1 kWp solar PV system in Lahti is simulated in
and electricity demand by almost 50% and 20% annually compared with the PVsyst software using the Meteonorm 8.0 database [54]. When solar
EE0, respectively. The most significant differences between the EE op PV is a scalable electricity generation method, the generation of the 1
tions are related to the heating method, and in EE3, additional insulation kWp system can be scaled as desired. The orientation of the system is
is incorporated into the building envelope to reduce heat losses. There defined as due south with a tilt angle of 20◦ according to the roof slope of
are two different types of heat pumps in the EE options, an AWHP and a the building. In addition, a 20◦ tilt angle is suitable for ground-mounted
GSHP, and in addition, the GSHP has two different dimensioning solar PV installations, which could be built on an adjacent field. To
methods: partial-power and full-power dimensioning. In partial-power obtain solar PV power generation in a typical snowy winter in Finland,
dimensioning, the annual heat generation of the heat pump corre the generation is simulated by assuming that the solar PV modules are
sponds to about 90% of the annual heat demand of the building, and 80%, 100%, and 80% covered in snow in December, January, and
during peak heat demands, the heat demand is covered by an electric February, respectively. Thus, the simulated specific energy generation of
boiler. In full-power dimensioning, all the heat demand is covered by a the system is 898 kWh/kWp. Wind power generation is simulated in
heat pump, and therefore, an electric boiler is not required. In addition HOMER Legacy 2.68 using the average monthly wind speeds in Lahti at
to the GSHP and the electric boiler, EE3 also contains heat recovery a height of 50 m above the ground, provided by the Finnish Wind Atlas
ventilation (HRV) with electric postheating. The operation of the heat [55,56]. The average wind speeds modeled for the Finnish Wind Atlas
pumps is based on actual performance values in different operating are based on weather measurements at weather stations for a period of
points, and the annual average coefficient of performance (COP) values 72 months from 1989 to 2007. A Fuhrländer 100 (rated power 100 kW)
for the heat pumps, for both SH and DHW, are 3 and 3.3 for the AWHP wind turbine with a hub height of 35 m and a rotor diameter of 21 m is
and the GSHP, respectively. The life cycle costs of the EE options consist used as the wind turbine model in HOMER. The simulated full-load
of the capital (CAPEX) and operational (OPEX) expenditures of the hours of the wind turbine are about 1723 h, which corresponds to a
heating system and other EE improvements. The LCCs for the EE options capacity factor of about 19.7%. The power generation of the simulated
range from €104 000 to €237 000, making the EE3 LCC more than solar PV system and the wind turbine are shown in Fig. 3, which shows
double the EE0 LCC. that there is clearly more wind power generation in the winter months
The monthly distributions of the electricity and heat demand for the supporting the low or nonexistent solar PV power generation.
EE options are shown in Fig. 2. Additional building envelope insulation
and HRV in EE3 can significantly reduce the heat demand outside the 2.3. System description and simulation
summer months, and the annual heat demand is almost halved
compared with the initial level (EE0, EE1, and EE2). This is also reflected The structure of the off-grid system to be simulated is shown in Fig. 4.
in the considerably smaller dimensioning of the heating system, as The primary energy sources are a solar PV system and a wind turbine,
shown in Table 1. The most significant difference in the electricity de which are used to provide electricity directly for electrical loads and
mand can be seen between EE0 and EE3, especially during the cold charging of the BESS and the HESS. The fuel cell acts as a secondary
months. The effect of full-power dimensioning of the GSHP (EE2) on the energy source in winter when solar irradiance is insufficient for solar PV
monthly energy demand is negligible compared with partial-power power generation and there is not enough wind power to meet the power
dimensioning (EE1), but EE2 can reduce peak powers by up to about demand. Fuel cells are not very suitable for following dynamic loads,
35%, as shown in Fig. 2c. In this case, a correspondingly smaller and therefore, the fuel cell is mostly used to charge the BESS [57]. The
dimensioning of the fuel cell is sufficient if the waste heat from the fuel start-up of the fuel cell is controlled according to the state of charge
cell is not recovered. An even greater difference can be seen between the (SOC) of the BESS. When solar irradiance is expected to be low or not
initial (EE0) and the energy efficient options EE2 and EE3, where the available (from October to February), the BESS SOC limit is set to 90%,
peak powers of EE2 and EE3 are up to 60% lower compared with EE0. and for months when irradiance is expected to be high (from March to
The high peak powers of EE0 in the winter months are due to the active September), the BESS SOC limit is set to 50%. Thus, in summer, the BESS
use of the electric boiler for heating when the AWHP cannot provide has enough capacity for solar PV power overgeneration, and the system
enough heat in the coldest times. The peak powers in EE2 are lower than is capable of operating overnight without an unnecessary start-up of the
in the other EE options, and hence, with the full-power dimensioning of fuel cell. In addition, in winter, the fuel cell can operate at a high power
the GSHP, peak powers can be effectively reduced. It is noteworthy in to charge the BESS, and the BESS SOC is high enough to respond to
Table 1
Energy efficiency improvement options for the building.
EE option EE0 EE1 EE2 EE3
Heating system AWHP (45 kW), Electric boiler GSHP (45 kW), Electric boiler GSHP (79 GSHP (15 kW), Electric boiler (16 kW), HRV (15 kW
(78 kW) (33 kW) kW) postheater)
Other EE improvements – – – Additional insulation of the roof, renewal of the windows
and doors
Annual heat demand, MWh 196 196 196 102
Annual electricity demand, 147 136 133 117
MWh
30-year LCC CAPEX, € 54 000 94 500 150 100 192 500
30-year LCC OPEX, € 50 000 45 000 45 000 45 000
314
Fig. 2. Energy demand in different energy efficiency improvement options at the monthly level together with the monthly peak power of electricity. a) Electrical
energy. b) Heat energy. c) Peak power of electricity.
Fig. 3. Simulated power generation of a scaled 100 kWp solar PV system and a 100 kW wind turbine in Lahti, Finland. a) Hourly level. b) Monthly level.
higher power peaks. Thus, when the simulation model operates on an second-order polynomial least-squares fit to the specific energy con
hourly basis, the BESS is assumed to be able to take care of maintaining sumption data for a PEM water electrolyzer [60]:
the power balance within an hour. The operation of the fuel cell requires ( )2
hydrogen, which is produced by an electrolyzer by power over P (t)
η(t) = − 0.1096 • ele + 0.0060 •
Pele (t)
+ 0.8952 (1)
generation. The hydrogen produced by the electrolyzer is then com PNele PNele
pressed for storage from 10 bar to 200 bar, which are assumed to be the
where Pele (t) is the electrolyzer power at a certain point of time t, and
electrolyzer outlet pressure and the hydrogen storage pressure, respec
PNele is the electrolyzer nominal maximum power. Thus, at the
tively. The waste heat generated in the fuel cell and the electrolyzer is
maximum power, the efficiency of the electrolyzer is about 79%. For
intended to be recovered for space and domestic hot water heating. The
simplification, the energy conversion efficiency of the fuel cell and the
fuel cell electrical efficiency is assumed to be 50%, which is a typical
electrolyzer is assumed to be 100%, in which case, at the peak load,
value for PEM fuel cells [58,59]. The electrical efficiency of the elec
waste heat from the fuel cell and the electrolyzer can be recovered at
trolyzer is assumed to depend on the load, and it is calculated from a
315
Fig. 4. Hydrogen-based off-grid system including waste heat recovery from the fuel cell and the electrolyzer.
50% and 21% of the nominal power, while the electrical efficiencies are is based on two different calculation tools developed in MATLAB and
50% and 79%, respectively. Microsoft Excel. The heat generation of the heat sources and the creation
Waste heat recovery from the fuel cell and the electrolyzer reduces of a new load profile are simulated with an Excel tool, and the simula
the need for heat generation by other heat sources, which affects the tion and optimization of the off-grid system are carried out in a MATLAB
electricity consumption when the heating is based on a heat pump. As a tool developed and described in detail in Ref. [61] by applying exactly
result, the load profile of electricity changes, and both the peak powers the same methodology. The simulation flowchart of the waste heat re
and the energy demand of electricity are reduced. The system modeling covery is presented in Fig. 5. The Excel tool consists of the hourly heat
Fig. 5. Simplified simulation flowchart for waste heat recovery and off-grid system dimensioning and optimization.
316
demand simulated using the IDA ICE software and the hourly electricity • EE3-PV;
demand, in addition to which an hourly output can be added for each • EE3-PV-WT1 (a 100 kW wind turbine);
heat source. The purpose of the tool is to cover the heat demand with the • EE3-PV-WT2 (two 100 kW wind turbines).
heat sources fed into it and produce an electrical load profile according
to the loads added to it. In the case of heat pumps, the modeling of the By including a wind turbine in only one EE option, the number of
electricity demand considers average COP values for space heating and cases to be simulated can be greatly reduced. In addition, the effects of
domestic water heating. The primary heat source in the tool is waste wind power on both the dimensioning and life cycle costs of the off-grid
heat, followed by a heat pump and, if necessary, an electric boiler. In the system can already be seen with the two wind turbine cases EE3 PV-WT1
Excel tool, only the rated power of the heat pump can be adjusted, based and EE3 PV-WT2.
on which the hourly heat output of the heat pump also changes. If all the
heat demand cannot be met with waste heat and the heat pump, the tool 3. Results
covers the remaining heat demand with an electric boiler and gives it the
required dimensioning based on the highest hourly output. The tool 3.1. Electrical system dimensioning
prioritizes the use of waste heat from an electrolyzer and a fuel cell for
heating domestic hot water, as the temperature of the waste heat is The simulated component dimensions for each presented off-grid
assumed to be directly suitable for this purpose. The lowest temperature case with and without the HESS waste heat recovery are shown in
requirement for domestic hot water is 55 ◦ C, while the temperature of Table 2. WHR can significantly reduce the component dimensioning in
the waste heat from a PEM electrolyzer and a PEM fuel cell is between solar PV-based systems, and on average, the dimensions of the BESS, the
50 ◦ C and 90 ◦ C [34,35]. Therefore, a heat pump can be used more fuel cell, electrolyzer, and the hydrogen storage are reduced by about
efficiently for space heating, where it also has a better COP because of 20%, 37%, 51%, and 28%, respectively. WHR plays an almost equally
the lower temperature difference. After adding the hourly output of the important role in the component dimensioning reductions in the wind
heat sources to the Excel tool, the tool creates a new electrical load power cases as in the solar PV cases, and the dimensioning of the
profile based on the heat sources. The MATLAB tool is given an electrical components is reduced with the HESS WHR by 13%, 38%, 42%, and
load profile, after which it dimensions an off-grid system consisting of a 30% on average for the BESS, the fuel cell, the electrolyzer, and the
solar PV system, a wind turbine, a BESS, and an HESS consisting of a fuel hydrogen storage, respectively. However, not nearly as much waste heat
cell, an electrolyzer, and a hydrogen storage. The output of the MATLAB is generated compared with solar PV cases, making the effects on elec
simulation is the system dimensioning and the waste heat generated by tricity and heat demand small. In addition, energy efficiency improve
the fuel cell and the electrolyzer on an hourly basis. The waste heat ments in the building will have a significant impact on the dimensioning
generation is fed back into the Excel tool to obtain a new electrical load of the off-grid system. The reductions in component dimensions between
profile, which is then given back to the MATLAB tool. The dimensioning EE0-PV and EE3-PV (both with WHR) are about 33%, 41%, 27%, and
process is iterative so that the amount of waste heat and component 22% for the BESS, the fuel cell, the electrolyzer and the hydrogen stor
dimensioning are neither too large nor too small. In the first iteration age, respectively. It is noteworthy that the dimensioning power of the
cycle, a huge amount of waste heat is generated as the components are fuel cell in EE1-PV, EE2-PV, and EE3-PV is 65–95 kW before WHR and
dimensioned for the original load profile, where no waste heat is 50 kW after WHR. In these cases, the dimensioning of the fuel cell seems
recovered. Thus, in the next iteration cycle, the peak powers and energy to coincide with the annual peak power of the consumer and real estate
consumption of the electric load profile are reduced too much because of electricity, which is about 25 kW (50% fuel cell electrical efficiency), as
the huge amount of waste heat, leaving the dimensioning of the com waste heat reduces the need for electricity used for heating. When
ponents too small, and so on. The iteration is continued until an comparing EE1-PV and EE2-PV, we can see that the components are
acceptable iteration error (<1%) is reached between the annual elec identically dimensioned. The difference between EE1-PV and EE2-PV is
tricity consumption of the current and previous iteration rounds. that in EE1 the GSHP is partial-power dimensioned and in EE2 the GSHP
Off-grid dimensions are simulated for six different cases, which can is full-power dimensioned. Therefore, full-power dimensioning of the
be differentiated based on the power generation method and the EE GSHP does not appear to be beneficial when waste heat is recovered
option. An off-grid system with power generation based on solar PV is from the HESS. In addition, during high peak power demand, the BESS
optimized for all EE options (EE0–EE3). In addition to them, an off-grid supports the fuel cell, resulting in the dimensioning power of the fuel cell
system with power generation based on both a solar PV system and a not having to cover all power demand alone. Wind power can reduce the
small-scale wind turbine is optimized for EE3. There are also two dimensioning of the hydrogen storage substantially, by 72% and 80%, in
different options for dimensioning the wind turbine: 100 kW and 200 the cases of EE3-PV-WT1 and EE3-PV-WT2, respectively, compared with
kW. Thus, six different case-specific identifiers can be created for the off- EE3-PV. The corresponding reductions for the electrolyzer are about
grid systems to be simulated. 80% and 94%. The simulated wind power generation clearly reduces the
peak demand for electricity, as the fuel cell is dimensioned at 40 kW in
• EE0-PV; the cases with the wind turbine. In reality, wind power generation
• EE1-PV; cannot be expected to coincide with the peak load, leading to a higher-
• EE2-PV; than-theoretical fuel cell dimensioning. It was observed that the systems
Table 2
Optimized component dimensioning with and without the fuel cell and electrolyzer waste heat recovery. The dimensioning of the hydrogen storage is based on the
need for hydrogen (without taking into account the possible small overproduction of hydrogen).
EE option EE0-PV EE1-PV EE2-PV EE3-PV EE3-PV-WT1 EE3-PV-WT2
HESS WHR No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes
PV, kWp 325 325 300 300 300 300 265 265 100 100 100 100
WT, kW – – – – – – – – 100 100 200 200
BESS, kWh 350 300 300 250 300 250 300 200 200 200 200 150
FC, kW 150 85 95 50 65 50 75 50 65 40 65 40
Electrolyzer, kW 300 110 220 105 175 105 150 80 15 10 10 5
H2 storage, kg 4700 3200 4200 3000 4000 3000 3400 2500 1100 700 650 500
317
Fig. 6. Monthly peak power of electricity and annual electricity demand before and after the electrolyzer and fuel cell waste heat recovery (WHR). The dashed lines
show the monthly peak power of each initial load profile. Monthly peak powers for the wind power cases are not presented, as in these cases the peak power does not
differ much because of lower waste heat generation. a) Monthly peak power of electricity. b) Annual electricity demand.
EE3-PV-WT1 and EE3-PV-WT2 could operate without a hydrogen stor waste heat from the ventilation exhaust air may not be enough to heat
age with 2.5 MWh and 1.2 MWh BESS capacities, respectively. the supply air to room temperature, and therefore, the supply air must
As shown in Fig. 6, WHR will reduce the annual electricity demand be heated by a postheater. This electric postheating accounts for about
by about 6%–21% depending on the off-grid option. The highest 11% of the annual heat demand of EE3 and remains constant regardless
reduction can be seen in EE0-PV, where the HESS WHR significantly of the other heat sources. In the HRV unit, it would be possible to use a
reduces the heat generation demand of the other heat sources and thus, water-based postheater to recover the waste heat of the electrolyzer and
the annual electricity demand. In EE0-PV, WHR specifically reduces the the fuel cell, which would further reduce the need for electricity. In the
need for heat generation in the electric boiler in winter, and thus, the off-grid system EE3-PV, the proportions of the main heat sources are
reduction in electricity demand is greater than in cases where WHR reversed compared with EE0-PV, and the WHR from the electrolyzer and
replaces the heat generation of the GSHP. This results in the annual the fuel cell can cover about 57% of the annual heat demand. As a result,
electricity demand in EE0-PV being very close to the heat demand of the heat pump accounts for only about 32% of the annual heat demand
EE1-PV and EE2-PV. In the cases of wind power, not as much waste heat and the electric boiler for 0.2%. The results indicate that a considerable
is generated as in the cases of solar PV, because the electrolyzers are amount of heat demand can be covered by electrolyzer and fuel cell
dimensioned quite differently, and the use of the fuel cell is lower. In waste heat in a hybrid off-grid building in a cold climate.
addition to electricity consumption, the peak electric power demand of Fig. 8 illustrates the monthly electricity balances for the off-grid
electricity is also reduced, by up to about 23%–50% in December–Feb systems EE0-PV, EE3-PV, EE3-PV-WT1, and EE3-PV-WT2. Solar PV-
ruary in solar PV cases as a result of waste heat recovery from the fuel based off-grid systems are producing hydrogen in summer with solar
cell and the electrolyzer. PV power overgeneration. In winter, hydrogen is used to generate
electricity and heat in the fuel cell when solar PV power generation is
3.2. Energy balances low or not available. From May to August, the off-grid system is prac
tically powered in full by the solar PV system and the BESS without the
Monthly heat balances for the off-grid options EE0-PV and EE3-PV need to start the fuel cell. Solar PV power overgeneration is still sig
are shown in Fig. 7. With a much higher heat consumption in EE0 nificant from April to August, but the overdimensioned solar PV system
than in EE3, because of the inferior thermal insulation and the absence reduces the dimensioning power of the electrolyzer when there is more
of HRV, the WHR from the fuel cell and the electrolyzer can cover about overgeneration also in spring and autumn and on cloudy days. Thus, the
39% of the annual heat demand. In this case, the corresponding electrolyzer does not need to be dimensioned for solar PV peak gener
coverage for the AWHP is about 58% and for the electric boiler about ation, but the electrolyzer is capable of producing hydrogen at a lower
2%. The fuel cell and electrolyzer WHR can cover significantly more of rated power, thereby reducing its cost. Systems that include wind power
the annual heat demand in EE3-PV with a considerably lower heat de can generate electricity evenly throughout the year, which also allows
mand because of the improved insulation and HRV. In cold weather, the even hydrogen production. There is a considerable amount of electricity
Fig. 7. Monthly heat balances in the off-grid options EE0-PV and EE3-PV. a) EE0-PV. b) EE3-PV.
318
Fig. 8. Monthly electricity balances in the off-grid options EE0-PV, EE3-PV, EE3-PV-WT1, and EE3-PV-WT2. The negative sign indicates power generation and
charging of the storage, and the positive sign shows consumption and discharging. Hydrogen production and HESS discharge are presented in relation to the higher
heating value (HHV) of hydrogen (39.42 kWh/kg). a) EE0-PV. b) EE3-PV. c) EE3-PV-WT1. d) EE3-PV-WT2.
overgeneration, but a high renewable electricity generation capacity can reducing the need for storage, but also for charging the residents’
significantly reduce the need for electricity storage, as observed previ electric vehicle batteries, for example.
ously in the reduced energy storage capacities in Table 2. By comparing
Fig. 8a and Fig. 8b with Fig. 8c and Fig. 8d, it can be seen that the direct
3.3. Energy demand of hydrogen compression
self-consumption of power generation is the largest source of electricity
in the wind power cases, while in the solar PV cases the proportion of
The simulation tool does not take into account the energy demand
energy used from energy storages is the largest. To summarize the re
required for compression and is therefore analyzed separately. For
sults, the annual energy balances of each optimized off-grid system are
simplification, the analysis is performed on a monthly basis to ensure
shown in Table 3. The optimized off-grid systems can achieve about a
that the power generation is also sufficient for the compressor. In reality,
30% and 73%–80% self-sufficiency with power generation alone in solar
a hydrogen production chain may need a temporary low-pressure
PV-based and wind-based off-grid systems, respectively. Correspond
hydrogen storage to enable compression. Power overgeneration is
ingly, with a reasonable BESS capacity, self-sufficiency can be increased
most available and sufficient for compression around midday, when
to about 60% and 94%–97%. To reach the last 3%–40%, a hydrogen
compression can be considered to occur. If, for example, during the last
storage is required. Because the need for electricity is assumed to in
hours of power overgeneration of the day, all the overgeneration is used
crease in the future, power overgeneration is useful not only for
to produce hydrogen, energy will not be available for compression until
Table 3
Annual energy balances of the optimized off-grid systems.
EE0-PV EE1-PV EE2-PV EE3-PV EE3-PV-WT1 EE3-PV-WT2
Electricity demand, MWhe 115.9 110.6 110.6 94.4 107.9 109.9

Electricity generation, MWhe 292.0 269.5 269.5 238.1 262.1 434.4
Direct self-consumption, MWhe 35.1 34.1 34.2 30.7 78.3 87.9
From BESS, MWhe 27.7 27.1 26.9 21.8 18.5 14.4
From HESS, MWhe 53.1 49.4 49.5 41.9 11.1 7.6
To BESS, MWhe 30.2 29.5 29.3 23.7 20.1 15.7
H2 production, MWhe 134.9 125.0 125.0 101.8 29.0 20.1
Surplus electricity, MWhe 58.0 49.6 49.7 55.9 125.5 304.1
Heat demand, MWhh 196.2 196.2 196.2 102.1 102.1 102.1
From heat pump, MWhh 114.7 123.3 123.9 32.4 68.1 72.6
From electric boiler, MWhh 4.6 0.1 – 0.2 2.9 3.5
From HRV, MWhh – – – 11.3 11.3 11.3
From HESS WHR, MWhh 76.9 72.8 72.3 58.2 19.8 14.7
BESS cycles 293 331 332 345 160 159
319
Fig. 9. Monthly solar PV overgeneration (kWhe), compressor energy demand (kWhe), and hydrogen production (kg) in the off-grid options EE0-PV and EE3-PV. The
annual hydrogen overproduction is 241 kg and 75 kg in EE0-PV and EE3-PV, respectively. a) EE0-PV. b) EE3-PV.
the next day at the earliest. An alternative could be to coordinate the years, and 1% of the CAPEX, respectively. In this LCCA, a wind turbine
hydrogen production and the compression so that hydrogen can be lifetime of 30 years is used, which may be feasible if the turbine is
compressed during the same day. This will probably lead to an increase properly maintained. Therefore, 3% is used as the annual OPEX instead
in the electrolyzer or solar PV system capacity. The outlet pressure of the of 1%. According to Ref. [64], the costs of lithium-ion BESSs used in
electrolyzer is assumed to be 10 bar and the pressure level of the electric vehicles have decreased significantly, with the market now
hydrogen storage to be 200 bar (Type I or II vessels), in which case, being much larger than for residential BESSs. Further, the report shows
based on the literature review, the specific energy consumption of the that the investment costs of residential BESSs are around 600 €/kWh,
compressor with the 45% efficiency can be assumed to be about 2.5 and the investment costs of residential BESSs are predicted to decrease
kWh/kg. Fig. 9 shows the solar PV power overgeneration, the to around 300 €/kWh by 2040. For a hydrogen energy storage system
compressor energy demand, and the hydrogen production on a monthly (including an electrolyzer, a fuel cell, a compressor, and a hydrogen
basis for EE0-PV and EE3-PV. The solar PV overgeneration will be suf storage), there is relatively little CAPEX, OPEX, and lifetime data
ficient to cover the energy demand of compression almost entirely until available, and therefore, some of the data are based on values presented
October. Only in November the solar PV overgeneration is clearly in the literature, and some are based on our own assumptions. The prices
insufficient for hydrogen compression, and 19 kg and 15 kg of hydrogen of electrolyzers and fuel cells are expected to decrease considerably as
are left uncompressed in EE0 and EE3, respectively. However, in EE0 the demand for the technology increases and the manufacturing scales
and EE3 there is an excess of hydrogen production of 241 kg and 75 kg, up. The unit cost of the compressor changes significantly as a function of
and thus, compression does not affect the operation of the system. All hydrogen mass flow, and also the peak of the hydrogen mass flow of the
solar PV-based simulated systems (EE0-PV–EE3-PV) are capable of simulated off-grid systems varies considerably according to the
operating without interruption even taking into account the compressor hydrogen demand and the dimensioning of the electrolyzer [65]. In the
energy demand, as the excess hydrogen production is 75–241 kg in all simulated off-grid systems, the hydrogen mass flow peak is about
solar PV-based cases. The off-grid systems with wind power do not 1.6–2.2 kg/h in the solar PV-based systems and about 0.1–0.2 kg/h in
present a similar issue, as power generation is available all year round. the solar PV–wind-based systems. To simplify, the solar PV-based sys
The hydrogen production peak was found to be about 1.6 kg/h in the tems use a compressor capable of compressing hydrogen to 200 bar at a
solar PV cases and 0.1–0.2 kg/h in the wind power cases. hydrogen production rate of 2.5 kg/h, and for the solar PV–wind-based
systems, a corresponding value of 0.5 kg/h is used. To simplify the life
cycle cost calculation, interest rates are not taken into consideration.
3.4. Life cycle cost analysis
The purpose is to determine the magnitude of the life cycle costs of such
a project and to compare different system alternatives, not to make an
A life cycle cost analysis is performed for each simulated system to
accurate calculation. However, the impact of interest rates can be
demonstrate the impact of the EE improvements and power generation
evaluated on top of the calculated life cycle costs and get an idea of the
method on the LCC of the off-grid system. The CAPEX and OPEX of the
total cost of the project with a sufficient accuracy.
components used in the calculation are given in Table 4. Currently, the
Fig. 10 shows the LCC for 30 years for each simulated off-grid system
installation costs of 10–100 kWp rooftop solar PV systems in Finland are
calculated with the component dimensions in Table 2 and the price data
around 800–1050 €/kWp, while for larger equivalent 100–250 kWp
in Table 4. Long-term storage of electricity in hydrogen can be found to
systems the installation costs are around 700–800 €/kWp (VAT 0%)
be particularly expensive, and in solar PV-based systems, the hydrogen
[62]. In Ref. [63], it was demonstrated that the CAPEX, OPEX, and
storage alone accounts for roughly 50% of the LCC, which is between 3.3
lifetime of a small-scale wind turbine would be 3000–6000 $/kW, 25
Table 4
Lifetime, CAPEX, and OPEX for each off-grid system component, including estimated costs for component renewal years. The lifetime of the entire system is set at 30
years.
Component Lifetime, a CAPEX (VAT 0%) OPEX, share of CAPEX/a
Solar PV 30 [66] 800 €/kW [62] 1.5%

Wind turbine 30 3500 €/kW [63] 3%
BESS 10 [64] 600 €/kWh, 450 €/kWh after 10 a, 300 €/kWh after 20 a [64] assumed that power electronics last the whole lifetime of the system
PEM Fuel cell 15 [67] 6500 €/kW, 2500 €/kW after 15 a [67] 1.2% (calculated based on [67])
PEM Electrolyzer 20 [68] 800 €/kW, 500 €/kW after 20 a [67] 2% [67]
Hydrogen storage 30 490 €/kg [69] 1%
Compressor 15 0.5 kg/h: 100 000 €/kg/h, 2.5 kg/h: 35 000 €/kg/h [65] 5% [51]
320
affordable system configuration. At its lowest, the LCOE of the system

was calculated to be around 0.7 €/kWh, which is very high compared
with the price of electricity purchased from the electricity grid (in
Finland, the total price of grid electricity can be around 0.1–0.2 €/kWh,
for example). A similar LCOE has also been observed in previous studies,
where the LCOE of a hydrogen-based energy system has been shown to
be between 0.51 $/kWh and 0.92 $/kWh, depending on the location and
the cost and lifetime of the components [27,28]. The profitability of
energy efficiency improvements differs considerably between on-grid
and off-grid energy systems. As reported in Refs. [6,7], implementa
tion of large energy efficiency improvements is not usually recom
mended from an economic point of view in grid-connected residential
buildings in Finland. However, this study showed that the imple
mentation of large energy efficiency improvements to minimize energy
consumption in an off-grid residential building in the Nordic climate is
vital in terms of system life cycle costs. This indicates that the cost of
energy efficiency improvements to reduce the energy demand is lower
than meeting the energy demand with off-grid electricity generation and
storage.
Fig. 10. Calculated life cycle costs for the simulated off-grid systems based on
With low-temperature waste heat, it is not possible to recover waste
the optimized component capacities and cost information presented in Table 2
heat from the BESS for domestic hot water heating. However, the waste
and Table 4.
heat from the BESS could be used in HRV postheating in cold weather
instead of the electric postheater. Thus, electricity consumption could be
and 4.3 million euros. When the wind turbine generates electricity all
further reduced, which could have a positive effect on the operation and
year round, the hydrogen storage capacity can be greatly reduced, thus
dimensioning of the off-grid system. In reality, the fuel cell and the
reducing the life cycle costs by about 32% between EE3-PV and EE3-PV-
electrolyzer cannot be assumed to operate at 100% efficiency even in the
WT1. Although electricity generated with a small-scale wind turbine is
CHP and CHH (combined heat and hydrogen) use, but a CHP efficiency
known to be more expensive than solar PV-generated electricity, elec
of 85% is typical for a fuel cell, and an electrolyzer has been shown to
tricity generation using a more expensive method is more profitable
operate with up to about 95% efficiency in the CHH use [34,43]. This
than storing electricity. With wind power, the LCC is lower than in any of
results in slightly larger component dimensions and a higher LCC. In
the solar PV-based systems, between 2.3 and 2.7 million euros. In the
addition, the waste heat of an HESS reduces the need for peak heating
case of EE3-PV-WT1, the marginal cost of the wind turbine is about
power, which would make it possible to use a heat pump with a lower
8900 €/kW, and a higher CAPEX would make the wind turbine un
power rating. This would, again, have a lowering effect on the LCC of the
profitable compared with the case EE3-PV. When wind power genera
heating system. However, the cost of the heating system in relation to
tion is highly variable, doubling the capacity will not reduce the
the cost of the entire off-grid system is low, and thus, the effect on the
dimensioning of the hydrogen storage enough, making the proportion of
result would be small.
wind turbines in life cycle costs unnecessarily high. In the Nordic con
The LCC for the 30-year life cycle of the off-grid options considered
ditions, where solar irradiation is seasonal, wind power can significantly
in this study is approximately 2.3–4.3 million euros, depending on the
support solar PV power generation and thus effectively reduce the need
power generation method and the EE option. However, there are a wide
for and costs of seasonal storage. This is also reflected in the system
variety of values in the literature for the unit costs of different compo
LCOE, as the LCOE of the analyzed off-grid options varies between 0.70
nents, and with hydrogen technology being relatively new in building
€/kWh (EE3-PV-WT1) and 1.24 €/kWh (EE0-PV). Assumptions related energy systems, the real costs can be difficult to estimate now and in the
to component life cycles can affect the result, especially for the hydrogen
future. When several thousands of kilograms of hydrogen must be
storage, which is assumed to be in service for 30 years without
stored, the hydrogen storage accounts for about 50% of the total LCC of
replacement, as it constitutes the single largest cost of the entire system.
the solar PV-based off-grid system. Thus, even small changes in the unit
Replacing the hydrogen storage once during the life cycle of the system
cost or life cycle of a hydrogen storage will change the LCC of the entire
would have a million-level impact on the LCC.
system in one direction or another. The same applies to the fuel cell,
which was found to account for the second largest proportion of the LCC
4. Discussion
in solar PV-based systems. Although small-scale wind power is more
expensive than solar PV, energy generation is clearly a more profitable
The results obtained in a Nordic country differ markedly from those
option than its seasonal storage. The cost of wind power could be
obtained elsewhere in the world because of the large seasonal variation
reduced with large-scale wind turbines that could be deployed by
in outdoor temperature and solar irradiation. The large temperature
forming energy communities of multiple buildings.
variation, from − 25 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C, between summer and winter greatly
As hydrogen is a highly flammable gas having a flammability range
affects the demand for heating energy, leading to a significant seasonal
of 4%–74% concentration in air and a very low minimum ignition en
storage of electricity in solar PV-based off-grid systems. In these systems,
ergy, safety considerations must be taken into account [70]. In addition,
when the hydrogen energy storage system is large, large amounts of
hydrogen burns with a clean flame with minimal smoke and soot,
waste heat are generated in the electrolyzer and the fuel cell. Waste heat
making the hydrogen fire almost impossible to detect with the naked eye
recovery from the HESS can significantly reduce the need for heat
[71]. Hydrogen is not toxic, however, but can cause asphyxiation if it is
generation by other heat sources, as has also been observed in previous
released or leaked inside an enclosed space [71]. For these reasons,
studies [44–46]. As a result, the dimensioning of the electrical system
continuous monitoring and sufficient ventilation are essential for
components also decreases considerably as the electricity demand de
ensuring the safe operation of hydrogen systems. Hydrogen has been
creases, resulting in a lower LCC. The phenomenon is similar to the case
used in industry for a long time, and thus, safe hydrogen treatment is
reported in Ref. [43], where recovering and selling the waste heat of
well recognized in industrial environments. Outside industry, such as
hydrogen production reduced the levelized cost of hydrogen. In this
off-grid systems in buildings, hydrogen-powered vehicles, and hydrogen
case, nothing is sold but the savings are achieved through a more
refueling stations, the safety aspects are not necessarily well known, as
321
the technology in these applications is quite new and they may not yet systems, respectively, by recovering the waste heat of the electrolyzer
be available in every country. As the array of hydrogen applications and the fuel cell. In addition, it was found that the full-power dimen
seem to increase substantially in the future, it is important to ensure sioning of a ground-source heat pump is not profitable, as waste heat
their safe use. According to Ref. [72], safe use in practice requires generation significantly reduces the peak heat demand, but a GSHP is
informing and instructing both authorities and users by experts in the much more profitable in an off-grid environment than an air-to-water
field in order to establish consistent safety practices. In Finland, the heat pump. Waste heat generation is almost always at its peak when
competent authority regarding permission and notification procedures the electricity demand is at its highest. Other energy efficiency im
of hydrogen systems is either The Finnish Safety and Chemicals Agency provements, such as heat recovery ventilation and additional envelope
or the local rescue authority, depending on the amount of hydrogen insulation, were found to have a significant impact on the life cycle cost
treated [72]. of the off-grid system, while in a grid-connected system they are not
The data used in the study have been validated, and the operation of necessarily profitable. Minimizing the electricity demand through effi
the components used is based on specifications of a real-world compo cient energy efficiency improvements is very important to minimize the
nents. The PVsyst and IDA ICE software used in the work have been off-grid system LCC. The cost of energy efficiency improvements is
validated by the developers, and their operation has been analyzed in currently markedly lower than the cost of off-grid system components.
several studies [53,54,73,74]. In addition, the HOMER software used in Of the simulated off-grid options, the most profitable one was the
the work has been trusted and employed in several different sources, and combination of solar PV and wind power, with component dimensions of
the HOMER modeling methodology is available from the developer [55, 100 kW, 100 kW, 200 kWh, 40 kW, 10 kW, and 700 kg for the solar PV
75,76]. The off-grid simulation model used in the study was originally system, the wind turbine, the BESS, the fuel cell, the electrolyzer, and
developed in Ref. [61], and in this work, the model has been extended to the hydrogen storage, respectively.
recover waste heat. The results of the simulation model have been
verified at the hourly level both in the aforementioned publication and CRediT authorship contribution statement
by the authors of this paper.
In future studies, the perspective could be expanded and the opera Altti Meriläinen: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation,
tion of several buildings, energy communities, and entire cities as well as Methodology, Software, Visualization, Validation, Writing – original
their impact on the energy system could be analyzed. On a larger scale, a draft. Jan-Henri Montonen: Project administration, Methodology,
centralized hydrogen energy storage system could be used, which could Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Jeremias Hopsu:
reduce the life cycle costs of seasonal energy storage. Alternatively, it Investigation, Writing – original draft. Antti Kosonen: Conceptualiza
could be possible to avoid expensive hydrogen storage by using tion, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review
hydrogen products that are inexpensive to store, such as synthetic & editing. Tuomo Lindh: Conceptualization, Methodology, Funding
methane or methanol. This study did not consider the optimal control of acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Jero Ahola:
the off-grid system, which can be used to enhance the system operation Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review
and thus reduce costs. Intelligent control requires, for example, the use & editing.
of power generation forecasts and consumption data, and this should be
addressed in future studies. The recovery of waste heat from hydrogen Declaration of competing interest
production has a huge potential, as was also observed in this study. On a
large scale, this requires efficient sector integration, enabling the energy The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
system of the future to operate as resource-, energy-, and cost-efficiently interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
as possible. the work reported in this paper.
5. Conclusions Acknowledgments
This study investigated the effects of several energy efficiency This work was supported by the European Regional Development
improvement options and heat pump types and their dimensioning on Fund (ERDF) grant no. A77928.
the dimensioning of a hybrid off-grid energy system and its life cycle
costs in a townhouse in the Nordic climate. Solar PV and wind power References
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Power balance control and dimensioning of a hybrid off-grid energy system

emissions in buildings requires improvements in energy efficiency, such

Nomenclature HRV heat recovery ventilation

HESS WHR No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes

Electricity demand, MWhe 115.9 110.6 110.6 94.4 107.9 109.9

Solar PV 30 [66] 800 €/kW [62] 1.5%

affordable system configuration. At its lowest, the LCOE of the system

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