Chapter -5

5.1 Water Harvesting

Water harvesting, also known as rainwater harvesting, is the process of collecting and storing
rainwater for various purposes. It involves capturing rainfall from roofs, land surfaces, or other
surfaces, and directing it to storage tanks, reservoirs, or underground storage facilities for later
use. Water harvesting can be implemented at various scales, from individual households to
large-scale community projects.

Rainwater as well as groundwater can be harvested. Innovative techniques in water utilization

are:

• Rainwater

-Catchment

-Depression harvesting

-Harvesting below ground level

-Harvesting below bed level

• Groundwater

-Harvesting by ponds

Kunds

Kunds are means for rainwater catchment in Rajasthan. The efficiency increases by locating
them in inter dunal depressions, where surface flow is significant. Such practice brings
economy because of low porosity in depressions due to accumulation of clay content over ages
and hence less expenditure in making the platform waterproof. In the low-lying lands of
Rajasthan Kunds are used for storing water for drinking purposes. It would be a good practice
to replicate this methodology in the low rainfall areas of other regions in the country

Depression Harvesting
In harvesting, natural clayey depression should be preferred for catching good quantities
without significant expenditure. In some places quantities of the order of hundreds of cubic
meters are comfortably harvested within Rs. 10,000 expenditure. Such an economy can be
effected by selecting natural neck, which serves the dual purpose of dam as well as weir for
stream flows. It can be easily achieved because the storage space increases exponentially.

Harvesting Below Ground Level

Many designs of water harvesting ponds invite outlays exceeding hundreds of thousands of
rupees. They are good as they store huge quantities. But they are beyond the reach of the
common farmer. To reduce the cost of the structures to around Rs. 10 000 and yet to harvest
each time about 500-1000 cubic meters of water, several designs are worked out.

In the same type of ponds, two walls can be raised for making a bridge for carting. Apron and
wall packing are essential downstream for protecting the strucutre's stability from scouring.
Whole of the structure should be cemented for storing water. If flood waters are very
destructive, subsurface harvesting can be done at any convenient point nearer to the stream
course and the water fed into it through a channel.

Harvesting Below Stream Bed Level

In this type of harvesting just a pond is developed below the bed level with dimensions suiting
the requirements. These are the best for our conditions as they are very economical. No wall
construction is needed except constructing a weir at bed level, and almost all of the excavation
is below the bed level. The only disadvantage is that they have to be desilted frequently.

Groundwater Harvesting

In water logged and shallow water table areas, small pits and ponds, respectively, can be
constructed for harvesting groundwater. Centrifugal pumps can cater to baling water. It is
already in practice along the Eastern Coastal tracts. The practice could be replicated in all
suitable areas.

Brazilian method of utilizing water from shallow aquifers or water-logged areas is making
waterways alternating with land strips, in enlarged version of sugarcane fields, for growing
plantations or crops on land strips and practicing pisciculture along water channels. This is a
good method for reclaiming waterlogged areas.
Rainwater harvesting

It can be defined as the system of collection and concentration of rain water and its run off and
its productive use for:-

a) Irrigation of annual crops pastures and trees.

b) Domestic and livestock consumption.

c) Groundwater recharge.

Rainwater harvesting, in its broadest sense, is a technology used for collecting and storing
rainwater for human use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments using simple
techniques such as jars and pots as well as engineered techniques. Rainwater harvesting has
been practiced for more than 4,000 years, owing to the temporal and spatial variability of
rainfall. It is an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but lacking any
kind of conventional, centralized supply system. It is also a good option in areas where good
quality fresh surface water or ground water is lacking. Water harvesting enables efficient
collection and storage of rainwater, makes it accessible and substitute for poor quality water.
There are a number of ways by which water harvesting can benefit a community.

• Improvement in the quality of ground water,

• Rise in the water levels in wells and bore wells that are drying up,
• Mitigation of the effects of drought and attainment of drought proofing,
• An ideal solution in areas having inadequate water resources,
• Reduction in the soil erosion as the surface runoff is reduced,
• Decrease in the choking of storm water drains and flooding of roads and
• Saving of energy to lift ground water.

Types of Water Harvesting

1. Rainwater Harvesting:

Rainwater harvesting is defined as the method for inducing, collecting, storing and conserving
local surface runoff for agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions. Three types of water
harvesting are covered by rainwater harvesting.
 • Water collected from roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated surfaces is
used for domestic purpose or garden crops.
• Micro-catchment water harvesting is a method of collecting surface runoff from a small
catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin. The basin
is planted with a tree, a bush or with annual crops.
• Macro-catchment water harvesting, also called harvesting from external catchments is
the case where runoff from hill-slope catchments is conveyed to the cropping area
located at foothill on flat terrain.

2. Flood Water Harvesting:

Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection and storage of creek flow for irrigation
use. Flood water harvesting, also known as ‘large catchment water harvesting’ or ‘Spate
Irrigation’, may be classified into following two forms:

• In case of ‘flood water harvesting within stream bed’, the water flow is dammed and as
a result, inundates the valley bottom of the flood plain. The water is forced to infiltrate
and the wetted area can be used for agriculture or pasture improvement.
• In case of ‘flood water diversion’, the wadi water is forced to leave its natural course
and conveyed to nearby cropping fields.
3. Groundwater Harvesting:

Groundwater harvesting is a rather new term and employed to cover traditional as well as
unconventional ways of ground water extraction. Qanat systems, underground dams and
special types of wells are a few examples of the groundwater harvesting techniques.
Groundwater dams like ‘Subsurface Dams’ and ‘Sand Storage Dams’ are other fine examples
of groundwater harvesting. They obstruct the flow of ephemeral streams in a river bed; the
water is stored in the sediment below ground surface and can be used for aquifer recharge.

5.2 Rainwater Management:

Overland flow, stream head flow, and river flow are the erosive components of rainfall.
Overland flow is taken care of by contour techniques, and the measures for arresting the
headcutting and bank cutting are discussed herein. Flow irrigation, entirely a man made
component, is also covered hereunder.

Stream Head Cutting

Stream head-cut control is achieved by surface packing with porous material for avoiding
excessive pressures and structural costs, and inverted filtering mechanism for allowing free
flow of water. Plastic sheets with different porosity also serve the purpose. Site preparation is
minimized with wire mesh rock walls. Vegetative cover is an economical and effective means,
which is the only option for the developing context. In cover management by trees
supplemented by grass growing, two approaches are of great significance.

* Planting suitable trees to contain the erosion

* Bunding & compartmentalizing the gully head for raising vegetation

River Bank Management

Rivers are the main agents of erosion. Minimizing river erosion and stream sedimentation is a
major conservation measure. Some important aspects are:

* Manage banks with green cover

* Control landslides with deep root carpeting

* Keep away roads, tracks & log ramps from streams

* Maintain low grades of roads & tracks

* Ensure adequate drainage of roads

* Plan distribution channels along drainage divides

Waterways

These are channels for distributing water from overland flows as well as runoff. They bear
either parabolic, trapezoidal, rectangular or triangular shape in cross-section. They are grassed,
ballasted, stepped or lined with prefabricated sections for arresting the erosive action of the
water they carry. Hydraulic parameters like land slope, water velocity, channel shape, runoff
quality and coefficient etc. are of importance in designing the waterways.

Flow Irrigation

There are several systems of irrigating the lands. Diversion of river water for flood irrigation
is the oldest of all. It is difficult to trace its origin. Groundwater exploited through different
structures is also used all the time for irrigation. The modern methodology is storing of water
in reservoirs by damming huge quantities of rainwater for flow irrigation of the lands through
a network of canals. In flow irrigation of crops, erosion is caused in the following ways:

* Breaching of the channel banks

* Cutting of soil in fields

* Pooling of water, stagnation of water in low lying fields & damage to crops due to improper
drainage facilities

* Erosion from waterways

Soil erosion by flow irrigation of fields is a major problem caused by defective distribution of
water in fields, A few of the common irrigation systems together with important measures in
containing the erosive force by using cement pipes in distributing water from main channels
into irrigation waterways and siphoning into the field with plastic pipes.

In the developing context, another avoidable problem is posed. Dam waters are distributed
without developing a proper distribution system, thereby causing water pooling in vast fields
lying in low lands. Unfortunately, such inundation of lands is mistaken for water logging, which
is caused only by a rise in water table. A classic example is Tawa command area, M.P., where
thousands of hectares are rendered useless. These lands could be brought under cultivation by
Brazilian method of building raised platforms for cultivation by cutting alternate channels for
practicing pisciculture. The same method could be used for all low lying areas inundated with
water, including those along coastal stretches.

5.5 Harvesting Structures:

Farm ponds are the common structure in rainwater harvesting. These are very important in
utilizing rainwater for drinking as well as irrigational purposes. There are various types of
structures with different designs and dimensions. They are constructed mostly, at proper sites
with good storage, along stream courses or in low lying fields.

One of the best designs for farm pond is a natural depression fed by a rivulet or valley neck
along the stream course. The best dimensions are 10-30 m length, 5-20 m width and 2 m depth.
Deepening is mainly below the river bed level. The weir is made water tight with an Agri film.
It is better to avoid bunding above the bed level such that the structure becomes economical as
load on the dam structure is minimal. Such a practice proves to be the best in any area because:

• Water is harvested & velocity is reduced

• Low cost of construction & maintenance

• No scouring action

The harvesting capacity of these ponds is 100-500 cu.m. The efficiency could be enhanced
several times by utilizing the harvested waters in between rains. If the bed of these structures
is highly permeable, nothing is lost as they serve as means of groundwater recharge. The cot
of these dams could be limited to about Rs. 15,000. In sandy tracts agrifilm is used all along
the surface of the pond for avoiding losses through leakage. Evaporation losses in large ponds
could be reduced by using retardants.

5.6 ROOF TOP WATER HARVESTING:

Water is essential for life and place a major role in earth’s climate. By modifying land use, the
proportion of the different pathways, evaporation, percolation and run off change. The never-
ending exchange of water from the atmosphere to the oceans and back again is known
Hydrological Cycle.

In the present-day world, rapid urbanization coupled with industrialization has become the
order of the day. Added to urbanization, scanty and erratic rainfall is often resulting in reduction
in water levels indicating depletion in storage in the surface reservoirs. Dependence on ground
water is increasing rapidly over the past two decades. The demand is so high that indiscriminate
use of groundwater resulting in steep fall of the ground water levels and there is also reduction
in yields.

Apart from this, sealing of permeable soil zone is gradually increasing due to construction
activities thereby resulting in reduced percolation of rainwater into the sub‐surface and
increased surface run‐off.

Therefore an urgent need to take up rain / roof water harvesting / conservation methods in urban
and rural areas on a large scale, which subsequently help to recharge and maintain ground water
balance, in order to make it on a sustainable source

RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

Concept of rainwater harvesting lies in:

– Tapping the rainwater from where it falls

 – Techniques of rainwater harvesting involve

Catch the rainwater from localized catchment surfaces such as roof of a house, plain and
sloping ground surfaces etc. It is easy process to collect Rainwater and diverted into ponds,
vessels or underground tanks to store for longer periods and to recharge by construction of
RWH Structures in a suitable site.

Rainwater harvesting is in two ways

1. Direct Use: The process of collecting and storing the rainwater by construction of sump

through filters for future productive use and

2. Artificial recharge to groundwater: Recharge the rainwater in a scientifically planned way

by

construction of rain / roof top water harvesting structures to augment the groundwater.

Direct Use:

Rainwater can be used directly in water scarce period by construction of sump and collect the

roof top rainwater through filter media.

Guidelines for construction of Rain / Roof top water harvesting Structures:

1. Recharge structures should be designed and constructed in favorable geological conditions

i.e., permeable soils followed by murram etc. The structures should not be taken up in
impervious clayey soils, rock and steep sloped areas.

2. Recharge structures should be preferred for recharging to depleted aquifers with deep water
table. They should not be taken up in the shallow water table areas. The depth to water level
should be not less than 5 to 6 meters in post‐monsoon period.

3. Recharge structures should be taken up with unpolluted surface water only. Adequate
precautions should be taken to prevent entry of polluted urban surface runoff water, sewerage
water into recharge structures.

4. Recharge structures should be planned and taken up in over exploited and critical areas
experiencing intensive ground water development for various uses.
5. All existing kuntas and tanks in and around the urban agglomeration areas are to be protected
against encroachments and should be converted as percolation ponds and tanks. The polluted
drainage and other industrial pollutants should not be allowed to let into these tanks.

6. Ground water recharge through shafts is preferable in steep slope areas.

5.7 Check Dams:

Gully erosion is controlled through structures known as check dams. These dams check the
velocity of water, effect the deposition of flood load, decrease the erosive force of water,
increase the contact time of water with land surface, thus increase the recharge of rainwater
into the ground. The check dams may be classified as pervious and impervious depending on
the design of the structure to allow water to pass or pond. The check dams should be constructed
commencing from upper reaches of the streams.

Pervious Check Dams

1. Brushwood
2. Rockfill
a. Loose rock
b. Wire bound
c. Single fence
d. Double fence
3. Gabion

Impervious check dams

1. Thin sheet
2. Thick sheet prefabricated
3. Concrete gravity
4. Concrete arch

Brushwood

In this, two rows of wooden stakes are driven into the gully bed and tied with brushwood.
Wooden logs are also used for packing between stakes. Further, long logs or trees are laid
lengthwise of the gully, ends facing the downstream. In another practice, the logs are piked into
the ground. It is an effective method for 6 m wide and 2.5 in deep gullies. As wood is scarce in
the country, logs can be used only in forests, while exclusive brushwood design is feasible at
other places.

Rockfill Dam:

Loose rock is packed for arresting the flood flow. Loose rock dams are constructed across
gullies with a depth of 4.5 m. They have a firm foundation for good anchorage, and the corewall
should have a smooth surface for reducing the friction. The stone packing should be firmly
riveted into the banks. Whatever is the depth of the gully, each time the dam height should be
only one meter such that the gradient of the gully bed is around one per cent. Higher gradients
breach the structure. The central portion should be low or a rectangular freeboard is to he
provided to take care of the peak flows.

Gabion

It consists of prefabricated wire gauges filled with loose rock. The cages are shaped together
vertically in sections. This type is very esthetic but more. In badlands with minor gullies or in
clayey lands, perforated thin, fabricated GI sheets are also suggested.

Impervious Check dams

In impervious dams, some water is stored for utilization. Naturally, impervious nature of the
structure is obtained through using GI sheet, prefabricated sheets or concrete.

Thin sheet dams are suggested for clayey and badland terrains where the gullies are shallow
and underlain by loose soils. A GI sheet can be cut suiting to the site conditions. It can be
positioned at the site applying uniform pressure with sand bags and gentle hammering with
wooden tools. The placement should be carried out after the first few rains when the ground is
wet.

In prefabricated designs, 20-40 cm thick clay or concrete brick sections are used for raising the
structure. These are suggested for lower levels of gullies in clayey and badland terrains.

Concrete gravity and arch dams are miniature versions of the modern engineering structures.
They should be constructed only where the water is in great demand in view of the costs
involved.
5.8 Remote sensing and GIS in Watershed Management

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a powerful tool used to capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. In watershed management, GIS plays
a vital role in several key aspects:

1. Spatial Data Integration: GIS allows the integration of diverse spatial datasets such as
topography, land use/land cover, soil types, hydrological features, and infrastructure within a
watershed. This integrated spatial data forms the foundation for understanding the complex
interactions and relationships within the watershed.

2. Data Visualization: GIS enables the visualization of spatial data through maps, charts, and
graphs. By visually representing watershed characteristics and features, GIS helps stakeholders
and decision-makers better comprehend the spatial distribution of resources, land use patterns,
and environmental conditions.

3.Spatial Analysis: GIS provides powerful analytical capabilities for performing spatial
analysis within a watershed. This includes overlay analysis to identify areas of overlap or
proximity between different spatial datasets, spatial statistics to analyze patterns and
relationships, and suitability analysis to assess the suitability of land for various uses within
the watershed.

4. Hydrological Modelling: GIS-based hydrological modeling utilizes spatial data to simulate

the movement of water within a watershed. By integrating topographic, land use, soil, and
precipitation data, GIS helps in predicting runoff, erosion, infiltration, and streamflow patterns,
which are essential for watershed management planning and decision-making.

5. Land Use Planning: GIS facilitates land use planning by providing tools for assessing the
suitability of land for various purposes within the watershed. By analyzing factors such as
slope, soil type, land cover, and proximity to water bodies, GIS helps in identifying suitable
locations for agriculture, urban development, conservation, and other land uses.

6. Environmental Impact Assessment: GIS can be used to assess the environmental impacts
of proposed land use changes, infrastructure development projects, or pollution sources within
the watershed. By overlaying spatial data on sensitive ecosystems, habitats, and water bodies,
GIS helps in evaluating potential environmental risks and identifying mitigation measures.

7. Decision Support Systems (DSS): GIS-based decision support systems integrate spatial
data with analytical tools to assist stakeholders and decision-makers in making informed
decisions about watershed management. DSS provide a platform for scenario modeling, risk
assessment, and policy evaluation, helping to optimize resource allocation and management
strategies.

In summary, GIS plays a crucial role in watershed management by providing tools for spatial
data integration, visualization, analysis, modeling, land use planning, environmental
assessment, and decision support. By harnessing the power of GIS, watershed managers can
effectively understand, monitor, and sustainably manage water resources and ecosystems
within a watershed.

Remote sensing

Remote sensing refers to the collection of information about objects or phenomena from a
distance, typically using sensors mounted on aircraft or satellites. These sensors capture data
in various wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as visible light, infrared, and
microwave radiation. In watershed management, remote sensing plays a crucial role in several
key areas:
1. Land Cover and Land Use Mapping: Remote sensing data, especially satellite imagery, is
used to classify and map land cover and land use within a watershed. This information provides
valuable insights into the spatial distribution of vegetation, urban areas, agricultural lands,
water bodies, and other land cover types, which is essential for understanding the landscape
dynamics and planning management interventions.

2. Change Detection: Remote sensing enables the detection and monitoring of changes in land
cover and land use over time. By comparing multi-temporal satellite images, changes such as
deforestation, urban expansion, agricultural encroachment, and wetland loss can be identified
and quantified, facilitating the assessment of environmental impacts and the implementation of
appropriate management strategies.

3. Vegetation Monitoring: Remote sensing data is used to monitor vegetation dynamics within
a watershed, including vegetation health, biomass estimation, canopy cover, and species
distribution. This information is valuable for assessing ecosystem health, habitat quality,
carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation efforts.

4. Hydrological Monitoring: Remote sensing techniques provide valuable information for

monitoring hydrological processes within a watershed, such as rainfall estimation, snow cover
mapping, soil moisture assessment, and surface water mapping. This data is essential for
understanding water availability, runoff generation, flood forecasting, and drought monitoring.

5. Erosion and Sedimentation Assessment: Remote sensing data is used to assess erosion and
sedimentation processes within a watershed. By analyzing satellite imagery, changes in soil
erosion patterns, sediment transport, and sediment deposition can be identified, helping to
prioritize erosion control measures and sediment management strategies.

6. Water Quality Monitoring: Remote sensing techniques, such as hyperspectral imaging and
water quality remote sensing algorithms, are used to monitor water quality parameters within
a watershed, including chlorophyll-a concentration, turbidity, suspended solids, and nutrient
levels. This information helps in assessing water quality dynamics, identifying pollution
sources, and guiding water quality management efforts.

7. Flood and Disaster Management: Remote sensing data is crucial for assessing and
mitigating flood risks within a watershed. Satellite imagery and radar data can be used to map
flood extent, monitor flood dynamics in real-time, assess flood damage, and support emergency
response and disaster management efforts.

In summary, remote sensing plays a critical role in watershed management by providing

valuable data and insights for land cover mapping, change detection, vegetation monitoring,
hydrological monitoring, erosion assessment, water quality monitoring, flood management,
and disaster response. By leveraging remote sensing technology, watershed managers can make
informed decisions to sustainably manage and protect water resources and ecosystems within
a watershed.

Key Differences between GIS and Remote Sensing

1. Purpose:
o GIS: Focuses on analyzing and visualizing spatial data to solve geographic
problems and make decisions.
o Remote Sensing: Primarily concerned with collecting and interpreting data
from a distance.
2. Data Usage:
o GIS: Uses data from multiple sources including remote sensing, surveys, and
existing maps.
o Remote Sensing: Generates primary data from sensors and satellites which can
be integrated into a GIS.
3. Technological Focus:
o GIS: Software-driven, emphasizing data manipulation and spatial analysis.
o Remote Sensing: Hardware and sensor-driven, focusing on data acquisition and
initial processing.

Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing

GIS and Remote Sensing are often used together. Remote sensing provides the raw spatial data
that GIS tools can then analyze and visualize. For instance, satellite imagery from remote
sensing can be imported into a GIS to analyze land use changes, monitor environmental
changes, and support decision-making processes.
In summary, GIS is a comprehensive system for managing and analyzing spatial data, while
remote sensing is a method of collecting data about the Earth's surface from a distance. Both
are essential in the field of geospatial analysis, offering complementary capabilities.