Earth interior

and its
EvidEncEs…
GEOMORPHOLOGY……..
Topic – 1 = Earth’s LayErs

❑Crust
❑Mantle
❑Core
❑Seismic Discontinuities
The internal structure of the
earth
1.The Crust
2.Lithosphere
3.The Mantle
4.Asthenosphere
5.The Outer Core
6.The Inner Core
7.Seismic Discontinuities
Earth’s LayErs
❑The interior of the earth – made up – the layers The CRUST , MANTLE, CORE
( outer and inner core )
❑All these – play significant role due to its unique physical and chemical
properties .
❑The Crust – Silicate solid
❑The Mantle – Viscous ( sticky )
❑The Core – Outer core – Viscous Liquid
- Inner core – Dense Solid
Continues…..
❑Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided
into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric
mantle (part of the Earth’s mantle below
the lithosphere and the asthenosphere), outer core,
and inner core.
❑Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper
mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.
The Crust
❑Outermost layer = making up 0.5- 1.0 % of
the earth’s volume and less than 1% of the
earth’s mass.
❑Density increase with depth
❑Average density = about 2.7 g/cm3 (average
density of the earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
Continues….
❑The thickness of the crust varies in the range of range of 5-30
km in case of the oceanic crust and as 50-70 km in case of the
continental crust.
❑Why it is so=

Continental crust = can be 70km – due to

areas of major mountain system
Can be 70 – 100 km in Himalyan region
Continues…..
❑The temperature of the crust increases with
depth, reaching values typically in the range from
about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with the
underlying mantle.
❑The temperature increases by as much as 30
°C for every kilometer in the upper part of the
crust.
Continues…..
❑The outer covering of the crust is
of sedimentary material and below that lie
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks
which are acidic in nature.
❑The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic
and ultra-basic rocks.
Continues…..
❑The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica +
aluminum (also called SIAL) while the oceans have the heavier
silicates — silica + magnesium (also called SIMA) [Suess,1831–
1914 ― this classification is now obsolete (out of date)].
❑The continental crust is composed of lighter (felsic) sodium
potassium aluminum silicate rocks, like granite.
❑The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense
(mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt.
 felsic
❑ In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that
are relatively rich in elements that
form feldspar and quartz.
❑ It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are
relatively richer in magnesium and iron.
❑ Felsic refers to rocks which are enriched in
the lighter elements such
as silicon, oxygen, aluminum, sodium,
and potassium.
 Most abundant ELEMEnts of thE Earth’s
crust……..
Approximate % by
Element weight
1 Oxygen (O) 46.6

2 Silicon (Si) 27.7

3 Aluminium (Al) 8.1

4 Iron (Fe) 5.0

5 Calcium (Ca) 3.6

6 Sodium (Na) 2.8

7 Potassium (K) 2.6

8 Magnesium (Mg) 1.5

LithosphErE…..
❑The lithosphere is the rigid outer part
of the earth with thickness varying
between 10-200 km.
❑It is includes the crust and the upper
part of the mantle.
Continues…..
❑The lithosphere is broken into tectonic
plates (lithospheric plates), and the
movement of these tectonic plates cause
large-scale changes in the earth’s
geological structure (folding, faulting).
Continues….
❑The source of heat that drives plate
tectonics is the primordial heat left over
from the planet’s formation as well as
the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium,
and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.
thE MantLE…...
❑It forms about 83 per cent of the earth’s volume and holds 67% of
the earth’s mass.
❑It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
❑The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm3 and 3.3
g/cm3.
❑The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in a solid
state.
❑The density ranges from 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
Continues…..
❑The mantle is composed of silicate rocks
that are rich in iron and magnesium relative
to the overlying crust.
❑Regarding its constituent elements, the
mantle is made up of 45% oxygen, 21%
silicon, and 23% magnesium (OSM).
Continues…..
❑In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C
at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately 4,000 °C
at the core-mantle boundary.
❑Because of the temperature difference, there is a convective
material circulation in the mantle (although solid, the high
temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be
sufficiently ductile).
Continues…..
❑Convection of the mantle is expressed at the
surface through the motions of tectonic plates.
❑High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit
seismicity in the mantle. However, in
subduction zones, earthquakes are observed
down to 670 km (420 mi).
Asthenosphere…..
❑The upper portion of the mantle is called as
asthenosphere (astheno means weak).
❑It lies just below the lithosphere extending up
to 80-200 km.
❑It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and
ductile and its density is higher than that of the crust.
Continues….
❑These properties of the asthenosphere aid in
plate tectonic movement and isostatic
adjustments (the elevated part at one part of the
crust area is counterbalanced by a depressed
part at another).
❑It is the main source of magma that finds its
way to the surface during volcanic eruptions
The Outer Core….
❑The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between
2900 km and 5100 km below the earth’s surface.
❑The outer core is composed of iron mixed with
nickel (nife) and trace amounts of lighter elements.
❑The outer core is not under enough pressure to be
solid, so it is liquid even though it has a composition
similar to the inner core.
Continues….
❑The density of the outer core ranges from 9.9
g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3.
❑The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C
in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the inner core.
❑Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer
core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise
to Earth’s magnetic field.
The Inner Core…..
❑The inner core extends from the centre of the earth to 5100
km below the earth’s surface.
❑The inner core is generally believed to be composed primarily
of iron (80%) and some nickel (Nife).
❑Since this layer can transmit shear waves
(transverse seismic waves), it is solid. (When P-waves strike
the outer core – inner core boundary, they give rise to S-
waves)
Continues….
❑Earth’s inner core rotates slightly
faster relative to the rotation of the surface.
❑The solid inner core is too hot to hold a
permanent magnetic field.
❑The density of the inner core ranges from 12.6
g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.
Continues….
❑The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just
about 16 per cent of the earth’s volume but 33% of earth’s
mass.
❑Scientists have determined the temperature near the Earth’s
centre to be 6000 ֯C, 1000 ֯C hotter than previously thought.
❑At 6000°C, this iron core is as hot as the Sun’s surface, but
the crushing pressure caused by gravity prevents it from
becoming liquid.
Seismic Discontinuities….
Seismic discontinuities are the regions in
the earth where seismic waves behave a
lot different compared to the surrounding
regions due to a marked change in
physical or chemical properties.
Continues….
❑Conrad Discontinuity: Transition zone
between upper and lower Crust.
❑Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho):
separates the crust from the mantle.
❑Repiti Discontinuity: Transition zone between
Outer mantle and Inner mantle
Continues…..
❑Gutenberg Discontinuity: lies
between the mantle and the outer core.
❑Lehman Discontinuity : lies between
the Outer core and Inner core.
The study of the Earth’s
interior is essential ….
1. To understand the earth’s surface
2. To understand the geophysical phenomenon like Volcanism,
earthquake etc.
3. To understand the earth 'magnetic field
4. To understand the evolution and present composition of the
atmosphere
5. For mineral exploration
Earth’s surface…
a. Many different geological processes shape the earth’s surface
b. The forces that causes these processes come from both above
and below of the earth’s surface
c. ENDOGENOUS processes = ( endo = In ) means – processes
that are caused by forces from within the earth
d. EXOGENOUS processes = ( exo = out ) means – come from
forces on or above the earth’s surface
Geophysical phenomenon like
Volcanism, Earthquakes…..
a. The forces that cause catastrophic events like Earthquakes ,
Volcanic eruptions come from deep below the earth’s surface
b. Like Earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plate
and the energy required for this movement is supplied by the
CONVENTIONAL CURRENTS in the MANTLE,
c. Similarly , Volcanic eruption through the vents and fissures
created by the tectonic movements too.
Earth’s Magnetic field…
a. Earth’s magnetic field is a result of CONVENTION
CURRENT in the outer core of the earth
b. Life on earth would not have been possible if not the earth’s
magnetic field which is protect the earth’s Atmosphere from
the harmful SOLAR WIND.
The Internal structure of
various Solar system objects ….
The entire solar system was formed from a single
NEBULAR CLOUD and the processes of the
formation of every solar system object is believed
to be similar to that of the earth
Evolution and present composition
of the atmosphere ….
a. For life to flourish on the surface of the earth, the atmosphere
needs to have essential components like oxygen for respiration ,
CO2 and other greenhouse gases to maintain the temperature
on the surface , ozone to protect life from ultraviolet radiation and
the right atmospheric pressure
b. All these components of the earth’s atmosphere owe their
existence to the Volcanic eruptions that unlock them from the
earth’s interior.
Mineral Exploration….
a. Understanding volcanic activity and the nature of rocks is
essential for the mineral exploration.
b. Most of the minerals like DIAMONDS that occur on the
earth's surface are formed deep below the earth’s surface.
They are brought to the surface by Volcanic activities .
Sources of the information
about interior ….

TWO TYPES …

DIRECT Sources … like deep

earth mining and drilling e.g.
1.Mponeng gold mine INDIRECT sources
2. Tau Tona gold mine
Both in South Africa …
Drilling- by Soviet union in 1970s
, about 12 km deep over KOLA
Peninsula
Indirect Sources of information
about the interior…..
▪Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help in estimating
pressure deep inside.
▪Volcanic eruption and existence of hot springs , geysers
etc .( point to an interior which is very hot )
Gravitation….
▪The gravitation force differs according to the mass of the
material. The uneven distribution of mass of material within the
earth influences this value. Such a difference is called
GRAVITY ANOMALY

Gravity Anomalies give us information

about the Distribution of Mass in the
crust of the earth.
Magnetic Field….
oThe geodynamo effect helps scientists understand what’s
happening inside the earth’s core . Shifts in the magnetic field
also provide cluses to the inaccessible iron core .

GEODYNAMO EFFECT ; caused by electric

currents which are generated in the same way as with
a self-excited dynamo: by the movement of an
electrical conductor in a magnetic field
Meteorites…..
oMeteorites and Earth are born from the same NEBULAR
CLOUD = they are likely to have a similar internal structure .
oWhen meteoroids they fall to earth, their outer layer is burnt
during their fall due to extreme friction and the inner core is
exposed.
oThe heavy material composition of their cores confirms the
similar composition of the inner core of the earth .
Sources of the Earth’s Heat…..
1. Radioactive Decay
2. Primordial Heat
3. Tidal Friction
Radioactive Decay …..
o High temperature below the crust = attributed = the disintegration of the Radioactive
substances
oThe Nuclear decay happens primarily in the crust and the mantle .
oScientists believe that URANIUM could become sufficiently concentrated at the base of
the earth’s mantle to ignite self – sustained nuclear fission, as in human made reactor.
oThe new measurements suggest radioactive decay provides more than half of earth’s
total heat .
oNUCLEAR FUSION does not occur inside the earth. ( there must be far more pressure
and temperature inside the earth . The earth is not massive enough to cause such
conditions.
Primordial Heat ….
•The rest is the heat left over from earth’s formation known as
the Primordial heat .
•Primordial heat = Kinetic Energy transferred to earth by
external impacts of comets and meteorites and the subsequent
effects ( Friction caused by sinking of heavy elements like Fe,
rising light elements like Si) and Latent heat of crystallisation
released as the core solidified.
Tidal Friction…..
• The ocean tides are not the only effect of forces ( gravitational
influence of the moon and the sun on earth). The solid body of
the earth also bulges slightly in this way.
•The daily flexing of the earth cause loss of energy of the
earth’s rotation , due to friction .
•The energy goes into heat , leading to miniscule increase in
the earth’s internal temperature.
•The loss of rotational energy means that the Earth is slowing in
its rotation rate , currently by about 0.002 seconds per century
.
Seismic Waves ……
oThey are the most important source available to understand the
layered structure of the earth .
oThe velocity of seismic waves – changes = travel through materials
with different ELASTICITY and DENSITY.
oMore Elastic and denser the material = the higher = the Velocity
oThey also undergo REFECTION and REFRACTION = when they
come across martials with different densities .
Continues…..
•Earth’s internal structure can be understood by
analysing the patterns of reflection, refraction
and change in velocity of the seismic waves
when they travel through it .
•Also known as EARTHQUAKE waves.
Seismic waves….
❑Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of
the earth and its crust.
❑Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel
through the Earth’s layers and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement,
large landslides and large human-made explosions.
continuEs…..
❑The refraction or reflection of seismic
waves is used for research into the
structure of the Earth’s interior.
❑The terms seismic waves and earthquake
waves are often used interchangeably.
How are earthquake waves
produced.?
❑The abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp
break in the crustal layer) causes earthquake waves.
❑Rock layers along a fault tend to move in opposite
directions due to the force excreted on them but are
held in place by counteracting frictional force exerted
by the overlying rock strata.
continuEs…..
❑The pressure on the rock layers builds up over a period and overcomes
the frictional force resulting in a sudden movement generating
shockwaves (seismic waves) that travel in all directions.
❑The point where the energy is released is called the focus or
the hypocenter of an earthquake.
❑The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicenter.
❑An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the
surface.
Types of Seismic waves or
earthquake waves…..
The seismic waves or earthquake waves are basically of two
types —
A. Body waves
B. Surface waves

The Refraction and Reflection of seismic waves is used for research into
the structure of the Earth ‘s interior.
body WavEs …..
❑Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus
and move in all directions travelling through the interior of the earth.
Hence, the name body waves.
❑There are two types of body waves:
❑the P-waves or primary waves (longitudinal in nature ― wave
propagation is similar to sound waves), and
❑the S-waves or secondary waves (transverse in nature ― wave
propagation is similar to ripples on the surface of the water).
Primary Waves( P- Waves )
❑Primary waves are called so because they are
the fastest among the seismic waves and hence
are recorded first on the seismograph.
❑P-waves are also called as the
❑longitudinal waves because the displacement of the
medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite
direction to, (parallel to) the direction of propagation of the
wave.
continuEs…..
❑compressional waves because they produce compression
and rarefaction when travelling through a medium; or
❑pressure waves because they produce increases and
decreases in pressure in the medium.
❑P-waves creates density differences in the material leading to
stretching (rarefaction) and squeezing (compression) of the
material.
continuEs….
❑ P- waves are of relatively High frequency and are Least
Destructive among the earthquake waves.
❑The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these
waves is in the UP – DOWN DIRECTION ( vertical ).
❑They can travel in all medium and their velocity depends on
the SHEAR STRENGTH ( elasticity )of the medium.
Continues….
❑So = velocity of the P – waves = Solid > Liquids > Gases .
❑These waves take the form of SOUND WAVES when they
enter the Atmosphere.
❑Velocity in earthquake is in the range of 5 to 8 km/s.
❑The precise speed varies according to the region of the earth’s interior , from less than 6
km/s in the earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle and 11 km/s through the inner core .
Note that …..
we usually say that the speed of sound
waves depends on density. But there are
few exceptions – Mercury is denser than
Iron, but it is less elastic- the speed of the
sound in Iron is greater than that in
Mercury .
Why do P-waves travel faster than S-
waves?
❑P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.
❑P-waves are compression waves that apply a force in the
direction of propagation and hence transmit their energy quite
easily through the medium and thus travel quickly.
❑On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear
waves (motion of the medium is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave) and are hence less easily
transmitted through the medium.
P-waves as an earthquake warning…
❑Advance earthquake warning is possible by detecting the
non-destructive primary waves that travel more quickly
through the Earth’s crust than do the destructive secondary
and surface waves.
❑Depending on the depth of focus of the earthquake, the
delay between the arrival of the P-wave and other
destructive waves could be up to about 60 to 90 seconds
(depends of the depth of the focus).
Secondary Waves (S-waves)…..
❑Secondary waves (secondary they are recorded second on the
seismograph) or S-waves are also called as transverse waves or
shear waves or distortional waves.
❑They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.
❑Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of
vibrations of the particles in the medium is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they
create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass
(they distort the medium).
Continues…..
❑S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-
waves.
❑These waves are of high frequency and
possess slightly higher destructive
power compared to P-waves.
Continues….
❑The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to
these waves is from side to side (horizontal).
❑S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and
gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses.
❑They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear
strength) through the solid part of the Earth
Surface waves (L-Waves)…..
❑The body waves interact with the surface rocks and
generate new set of waves called surface waves (long
or L-waves). These waves move only along the surface.
❑Surface Waves are also called long period waves
because of their long wavelength.
❑They are low–frequency transverse waves (shear
waves).
Continues…..
❑They develop in the immediate neighborhood of the
epicenter and affect only the surface of the earth and die
out at smaller depth.
❑They lose energy more slowly with distance than the
body waves because they travel only across the surface
unlike the body waves which travel in all directions.
Continues….
❑Particle motion of surface waves
(amplitude) is larger than that of body waves,
so surface waves are the most
destructive among the earthquake waves.
❑They are slowest among the earthquake
waves and are recorded last on the
seismograph.
Love waves……

It’s the fastest surface

wave and moves the ground
from side-to-side.
Rayleigh waves…..
❑A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a
wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
❑Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down
and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is
moving.
❑Most of the shaking and damage from an
earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave.
How do seismic waves help in
understanding the earth’s interior?
❑Seismic waves get recorded in seismographs
located at far off locations.
❑Differences in arrival times, waves taking
different paths than expected (due to refraction)
and absence of the seismic waves in certain
regions called as shadow zones, allow mapping
of the Earth’s interior.
Continues…..
❑Discontinuities in velocity as a function of depth are
indicative of changes in composition and density.
❑That’s is, by observing the changes in velocity, the
density and composition of the earth’s interior can be
estimated (change in densities greatly varies the
wave velocity).
Continues….
❑Discontinuities in wave motion as a function of
depth are indicative of changes in phase.
❑That is, by observing the changes in the
direction of the waves, the emergence of
shadow zones, different layers can be
identified.
The emergence of Shadow Zone of P-
waves and S-waves
❑S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated).
❑The entire zone beyond 103° does not receive S-waves, and
hence this zone is identified as the shadow zone of S-waves.
This observation led to the discovery of the liquid outer core.
❑The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the
earth between 103° and 142° away from the epicenter.
Continues….
❑This is because P-waves are refracted when they pass through the transition
between the semisolid mantle and the liquid outer core.
❑However, the seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicenter, record
the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. This gives clues about
the solid inner core.
❑Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from epicenter was identified as
the shadow zone for both the types of waves.
❑the seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the epicenter,
recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
Why do sound waves travel faster in a denser
medium whereas light travels slower?
❑The sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and
rarefaction of the medium.
❑A higher density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence
the ease by which compression and rarefaction can take place. This
way the velocity of sound increases with an increase in density.
❑Light, on the other hand, is a transverse electromagnetic wave.
❑An increase in the density increases effective path length, and
hence it leads to higher refractive index and lower velocity.