Core NW

TX Module Concept of Optical Fiber Communication
Fundamental of Transmission
INDEX
NO. TOPIC PAGES
1. Concept of Optical Fiber Communication 2
2. Optical Fiber Splicing 21
3. Fault Localization in OF Network using OTDR, Power 38

Meter
4. OFC laying and Installation practices (Sec-I) 56
OFC laying and Installation practices (Sec-II)
5. FTTH Technology 92
6. SDH and NGSDH 103
7. DWDM Technology-an overview 121
8. CPAN and OTN Technology overview 130
9. Terrestrial Radio Links 147
10. MLLN 161
11. Transmission media equipment planning and Installation 170
12. FSO & Li-Fi Communication 193
SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 1 of 194
For Restricted Circulation

1 CONCEPT OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

1.1 Objective
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Fiber-Optic Applications
 Basic optical fiber communication system:
 The Structure of an Optical Fiber
 Principle of Operation – Theory
1.2 Introduction
The use of light for transmitting information from one place to another place is a
very old technique. In 800 BC., the Greeks used fire and smoke signals for sending
information like victory in a war, alerting against enemy, call for help, etc. Mostly only
one type of signal was conveyed. During the second century B.C. optical signals were
encoded using signaling lamps so that any message could be sent. There was no
development in optical communication till the end of the 18th century. The speed of the
optical communication link was limited due to the requirement of line of sight
transmission paths, the human eye as the receiver and unreliable nature of transmission
paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods
to illuminate body cavities. Alexander Graham Bell invented a 'Photophone' to transmit
voice signals over an optical beam. By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was
identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB
of light loss per kilometer standard. Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of
glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970 Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or
"optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of carrying 65,000 times more information
than copper wire, through which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be
decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away. Corning Glass developed fiber with
loss of 17 dB/ km at 633 nm by doping titanium into the fiber core. By June of 1972,
multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss of 4 dB per kilometer and
much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber.
In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's
first live telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach,
California. They were soon followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone
communication system installed in the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of
1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice
channels. Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic
is carried over optical-fiber cables.
An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or

"light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Optical fibers are widely
used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances

and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used
instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also
immune to electromagnetic interference.
With increase in population struggle for survival increased Its impacts on

appearing in human life in many ways. There have been shortage of utilizes resources.
The resources consist of materials, technology, money, human recourse, information,
interconnectivity etc.
Due to consistent pressure there has been different ways of innovations in almost
every stream of life. In the field of telecommunication also development are happening in
the fields of client terminals access technique, aggregation technique, multiplexing
technique, transport technique. There has been different access technique and different
type of client terminals as per respective access technique. The basic contents were
limitations of transmission media and low order multiplexing and switching. The initial
transmission started with attaching information leaflet with visions. The same concept
was utilized on building semaphore. That came the evolution telegraphs lines after the
invention of more score in which use of guided media has got important. In this era use of
open wire communications having overhead line with minimal multiplexing was the latest
things. However has the requirement of reliable telecommunication has increased need
was well to have proper voice communications and switching like manual, electro
mechanical, fully digital involving automatic increasing order of multiplexing were
implemented. In this era the main access network comprised of cable network made up of
copper and transmission network was predominately of over head lines. Later on seeing
the limitations of over head lines like deterioration weather due to electro magnetite
interference less carrying capacity ete. were found. Use of optical fibre as a transmission
media got thrust due to less cost, improve technology in multiplexing, virtually infants
capacity and immunity to electro-magnetic interference. Requirement of bandwidth which
was around 20Kbps have reached to around 1Gbps. The accesses network is also
converging with the development of IP & MPLS technologies of dada communication.
Multiplexing is also migrating in TDM, FDM to packet base statistical multiplexing.
Client terminals are also converging having all capabilities of voice, video, text, web and
multimedia. The network is converging to one by using architecture of Next Generation
network. Applications which were accesses network depended are also becoming
universally accessible and a accesses network agnostic. The human interface is also
improve presentably because of manufacturing line terminal incorporating signals of
sensory organs like touch, vision, mind etc.. Today client terminals have improve GUI
based web interface having faster processing multimedia capacity and capability to
communicate to multiple secessions over multiple windows having full mobility as well
as portability.
Due to competitions and rapid growth of innovation, the world are become faster
and expectations of prominent service delivery are also been increased. Delay in
providing services has also been reduced and overall connectivity in becoming P-P i.e.
pair to pair.
1.3 Fiber-Optic Applications

The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber
applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from

global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or
video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few
standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
 Long distance communication backbones
 Inter-exchange junctions
 Video transmission
 Broadband services
 Computer data communication (LAN, WAN etc.)
 High EMI areas
 Non-communication applications (sensors etc…)
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Fiber Optics has the following advantages:
 Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is

directly proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The
optical carrier frequency is in the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave
frequency is about 106 Hz and the microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus
the optical fiber yields greater transmission bandwidth than the conventional
communication systems and the data rate or number of bits per second is
increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber communication system. Further
the wavelength division multiplexing operation by the data rate or information
carrying capacity of optical fibers is enhanced to many orders of magnitude.
 Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra low loss fibers and the
erbium doped silica fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless
transmission. In the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers
having a transmission loss of 0.2dB/km are used. Further, using erbium doped
silica fibers over a short length in the transmission path at selective points;
appropriate optical amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing is
more than 100 km. Since the amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the
distortion produced during the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.
 Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical
insulator. Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high
current lightning. It is also suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical
fibers are not affected by any interference originating from power cables, railway
power lines and radio waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers even
though there are so many fibers in a cable because of the absence of optical
interference between the fibers.
 Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate.
Further the signal cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore

optical fiber communication provides hundred per cent signal security.
 Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and
they are flexible, compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted
without damage. Further, the optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables
in terms of storage, handling, installation and transportation, maintaining
comparable strength and durability.
1.5 Fiber Optics Basics: Principles of Optical communication

Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission
sequence give below:
(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.
(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.
- Inexpensive light sources available.
- Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss
fibres are used at high data rates.
Fig : 1 Fiber Optic System
1.5.1 Principle of Operation - Theory

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such as
space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light travelling
from one material to another changes speed, which results in changing its direction of

travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction. The amount that a ray of light passing
from a lower refractive index to a higher one, is bent towards the normal, but light going
from a higher index to a lower one, refracting away from the normal, as shown in the
figures.
The basics of light propagation can be discussed with the use of geometric optics.
The basic law of light guidance is Snell‘s law (Fig. 3a). Consider two dielectric media with
different refractive indices and with n1 >n2 and that are in perfect contact, as shown in
Figure. At the interface between the two dielectrics, the incident and refracted rays satisfy
Snell‘s law of refraction—that is,
n1sin1= n2sin2
In addition to the refracted ray there is a small amount of reflected light in the
medium with refractive index n1. Because n1 n2 then always 2 1. As the angle of the
incident ray increases there is an angle at which the refracted ray emerges parallel to the
interface between the two dielectrics Figure 2. This angle is referred to as the critical angle,
crit, and from Snell‘s law is given by
Sincrit = n2/n1
Fig : 2 Snell’s law
If the angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is totally
reflected back into the first material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle
of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total Internal Reflection.
1.5.2 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The
inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference
refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. 4. The
index of the cladding is approximately 1% lower than that of the core. Typical values for
example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fiber
manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired optical fiber characteristics. Most
fibers have an additional coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is a shock
absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of light within the fiber.
Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fiber. Light injected into the fiber and
striking core to cladding interface at greater than the critical angle, reflects back into core,

since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be
reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fiber. Light striking the
interface at less than the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost over
distance. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding
becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through fiber is governed by the indices of
the core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical
fiber. This analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass through the fiber axis
each time, they are reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down the fiber without
passing through the axis. The path of a skew ray is typically helical wrapping around and
around the central axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fiber optics analysis.
Jacket Jacket
Cladding
Core
Cladding (n2) Cladding
Core (n2) Jacket

Light at less than
Angle of Angle of
critical angle is
incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection
Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

Fig : 3 Propagation of light through fiber
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depends on many

factors, including
- The size of the fiber.
- The composition of the fiber.
The light injected into the fiber
1.5.3 Geometry of Fiber

The optical fibers used in communications have a very simple structure. A hair-thin
fiber consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the cladding,
which are enclosed by a protective sheath as shown in Fig. 2. Core and cladding have
different refractive indices, with the core having a refractive index, n1, which is slightly
higher than that of the cladding, n2. It is this difference in refractive indices that enables the
fiber to guide the light. Because of this guiding property, the fiber is also referred to as an
―optical waveguide.‖ As a minimum there is also a further layer known as the secondary
cladding that does not participate in the propagation but gives the fiber a minimum level of
protection, this second layer is referred to as a coating. Light rays modulated into digital

pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves along the core without penetrating the
cladding.
Fig : 4 (a) Cross section and (b) longitudinal cross section of a typical optical fiber
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index—a
measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the
development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks
to carry trillions of bits of data per second.
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive
index—a measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the
development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks
to carry trillions of bits of data per second.
The diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.
Core (m) Cladding ( m)
8 125
50 125
62.5 125
100 140
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the cladding size.
Thus 50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter of 125m.
125 8 125 50 125 62.5 125 100
Core Cladding
FigTypical Core and Cladding Diameters

: 5 Typical Core and Cladding Diameter
1.6 Characteristics of Optical Fiber

Like any communication system there are some important factors affecting

performance of optical fibers as a transmission medium.
1.6.1 ATTENUATION
Attenuation in optical fiber is caused by intrinsic factors, primarily scattering and
absorption, and by extrinsic factors, including stress from the manufacturing process, the
environment, and physical bending.
BANDS IN OPTICAL FIBER
1.6.2 Windows in Fiber Optic

A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best
operates. Typical windows are given below:
Window Operational Wavelength
800nm - 900nm 850nm
1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm

Fig : 6 Operating Bands
1.6.3 Loss characteristics

Attenuation in optical fiber is caused by intrinsic factors, primarily scattering and
absorption, and by extrinsic factors, including stress from the manufacturing process, the
environment, and physical bending.
1. INTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to inherent or within the fiber. Intrinsic attenuation may occur as
(I) Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.
(II) Scattering - Light rays travelling in the core reflect from small
imperfections into a new pathway that may be lost through the cladding.
The most common form of scattering, Rayleigh scattering, is caused by small

variations in the density of glass as it cools. These variations are smaller than the
wavelengths used and therefore act as scattering objects (see Figure 2).
Fig : 7 Rayleigh scattering
Scattering affects short wavelengths more than long wavelengths and limits the
use of wavelengths below 800 nm.
Attenuation due to absorption is caused by the intrinsic properties of the material

itself, the impurities in the glass, and any atomic defects in the glass. These impurities
absorb the optical energy, causing the light to become dimmer. While Rayleigh scattering

is important at shorter wavelengths, intrinsic absorption is an issue at longer wavelengths
and increases dramatically above 1700 nm. However, absorption due to water peaks
introduced in the fiber manufacturing process are being eliminated in some new fiber
types.
Fig : 8 Absorption
The primary factors affecting attenuation in optical fibers are the length of the
fiber and the wavelength of the light. Figure shows the loss in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km) by wavelength from Rayleigh scattering, intrinsic absorption, and total
attenuation.
Fig : 9 Attenuation Vs. Wavelength characteristic
2. EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as –
(I) Macro bending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling
down the fibre cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
(II) Micro bending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by

crushing contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison between the

transmitted and received power in a system.

Micro bend
Micro bend
Fig : 10 Micro bends
Micro bend
Fig. Loss and Bends
Fig : 11 Macro bend
1.6.4 DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of
an optical fibre as shown in figure. The varying delay in arrival time between
different components of a signal "smears out" the signal in time. This causes
energy overlapping and limits information capacity of the fiber.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a

fibre. The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and
therefore the greater dispersion can be tolerated.
Dispersion of optical energy within an optical fiber falls into following

categories:
 Intermodal Delay or Modal Delay
 Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion
 Material Dispersion
 Waveguide Dispersion

 Polarization –Mode Dispersion
Fig : 12 Dispersion
1.6.5 BANDWIDTH-LENGTH PRODUCT

Bandwidth is a length dependent. Longer fibre results in more pulse spreading and
leads to lower BW. As a result, the fibre BW is often given in terms of the BW times
kilometer product. A 1000 MHz x km fibre can usually operate with 100 MHz BW if a 10
km fibre is used or with a 1000 MHz BW if a 1 km fibre is used.
ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL BANDWIDTH
A distinction must be made between electrical and optical BW. Electrical

bandwidth (BWel) is defined drops to 0.707. The optical bandwidth (BWopt) is defined as
the frequency at which the ratio, PLo/PLi dropped to 1/2. (The ratio Iout/Iin and PLo/PLi have
maximum values of 1). Because PLi and PLo are directly proportional to Iin and Iout
respectively (and not to Iin2 and Iout2 as in an all electrical system), the half power point is
equivalent to the half current point. That is the point where Iout/Iin drops to 0.50, not to
0.707. This results in a BWopt that is larger than the BWel.
BWel = 0.707 x BWopt
It is important to realize that these two parameters represent two ways of

describing the same system. For example, a system can be said to have an optical BW of
10 MHz, which implies that its electrical BW is 7.07 MHz.

Fig : 13 ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL BANDWIDTH
1.7 Fiber Types

An optical fiber is a flexible filament of very clear glass capable of carrying
information in the form of light. Optical fibers are hair-thin structures created by forming
pre-forms, which are glass rods drawn into fine threads of glass protected by a plastic
coating.
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core
and cladding. Two main relationships exist:
(I) Step Index
(II) Graded Index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows
a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a
non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it
matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and
the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibres :
(I) Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre)
(II) Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre)
(III) Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre)
1.7.1 STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER

Step Index multimode Fiber has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a
result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route,
whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause
the different groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a
receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing
its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping
limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this
type of fiber is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for

instance.
Fig : 14 STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
1.7.2 GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER

It contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the
center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the
light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding.
Fig : 15 GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically
because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the
higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as
the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less
dispersion.
1.7.3 SINGLE-MODE FIBER

It has a narrow core (nine microns or less), and the index of refraction between the
core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels
parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television
networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.
Fig : 16 SINGLE-MODE FIBER
1.8 CABLE CONSTRUCTION

There are two basic cable designs are:
1. Tight Buffer Tube Cable
2. Loose Buffer Tube Cable
Loose-tube cable is used in the majority of outside-plant installations and tight-

buffered cable, primarily used inside buildings.
1. TIGHT BUFFER TUBE CABLE
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with
the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to
terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network. Single-
fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate
loose-tube cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and
passive components. Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used
primarily for alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings. The
tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during
handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load
away from the fiber.
Fig : 17 Tight Buffer Tube Cable
The structure of a 250um coated fiber (bare fiber)
 Core (9um for standard single mode fibers, 50um or 62.5um for
multimode fibers)
 Cladding (125um)
 Coating (soft plastic, 250um is the most popular, sometimes 400um is

also used)
2. LOOSE-TUBE CABLE
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or even
more than 400 fibers per cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally
armored. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of
fibers in the system.
In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect
optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length

(relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and
environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central
member, which serves as an anti-buckling element.
The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength
member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required,
a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket
extruded over the armor. Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant
installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried applications.
Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures and high moisture
conditions. The fibers are loosely packaged in gel filled buffer tubes to repel water.
Recommended for use between buildings that are unprotected from outside elements.
Loose tube cable is restricted from inside building use.
Fig : 18 Loose Tube Cable
Elements in a loose tube fiber optic cable:
1. Multiple 250um coated bare fibers (in loose tube)
2. One or more loose tubes holding 250um bare fibers. Loose tubes strand
around the central strength member.
3. Moisture blocking gel in each loose tube for water blocking and protection
of 250um fibers
4. Central strength member (in the center of the cable and is stranded around
by loose tubes)
5. Aramid Yarn as strength member
6. Ripcord (for easy removal of inner jacket)
7. Outer jacket (Polyethylene is most common for outdoor cables because of

its moisture resistant, abrasion resistant and stable over wide temperature
range characteristics.)
1.9 ITU-T COMPLIANT FIBERS

1.9.1 ITU-T G.651 compliant Multimode fibers and OM1

Multimode fibers can be classified further into two as Multimode 50/125 and
Multimode 62.5/125. The classification is based on the core diameter of multimode
fibers. 50/125 have a core diameter of 50 micrometers, whereas for 62.5/125 have a
core diameter of 62.5 micrometers.
Recent classification of multimode fibers divides them as OM1, OM2, OM3 etc.
OM1 multimode fibers are 62.5/125 multimode fibers. OM2 and OM3 fibers are
compliant with ITU-T G.651 recommendations.
G.651 multimode fibers are used mainly in Local Area Networks (LAN).
Multimode fibers are not suitable for Long haul applications. Cheaper transmission
devices like lasers etc. make Multimode fibers attractive for short distance
transmission within the 300 to 500 meters reach.
For a 10GBASE-SR system demanding 2000 MHz*km, OM2 multimode fiber

can be used for a distance of up to 82 meters and OM3 fibers can be used for 300
meters. An OM2 fiber having a bandwidth of 500 MHz*km can be used for 550 meters
on a 10BASE-SX/LX networks.
ITU-T does not have any specification for 62.5/125 multimode fibers. OM1 Fibers
also known as 62.5/125 Multimode fibers are popular in United States. OM2 and OM3
multimode fibers are also known as ITU-T G.651 fibers.
The core of MMF 50/125 has a graded index refractive index profile, which is
gradually changing from the center of the core to the cladding that enables multiple
modes with near equal velocity to travel inside the fiber.
1.9.2 ITU-T G.652 Compliant Single Mode fibers

This is the most common single mode fiber in the world. It is designed to have
minimum dispersion at around 1310nm, which is supposed to be transmission window for
single mode fibers. Conventional single mode fibers can be used at 1550nm with the use
of dispersion compensation modules.
G.652A is the first single mode fibers ITU-T classified. G.652B fibers are also
known as conventional type single mode fibers and many installers intend to use 652B
fiber by mentioning simply G.652. The major difference is in attenuation at both 1310nm
and 1550nm and polarization mode dispersion. 652B fibers have a PMD as low as 0.2
ps/sqrt.km where as for 652A fibers have a PMD of 0.5 ps/sqrt.km. Attenuation is low for
G.652B fibers.
Similarly G.652C and G.652D fibers differ in PMD value. PMD for G.652C fiber
is 0.5 ps/sqrt.km, where as for G.652D fibers have a PMD of less than or equal to 0.2
ps/sqrt.km. Both these optical fibers are known as low water peak fiber having low
attenuation at 1360nm through 1480nm, the wavelength range which is not yet used
commonly for transmission.
1.9.3 ITU-T G.653 Compliant Dispersion shifted fiber

These fibers are designed to utilize the low attenuation window of 1550nm by
minimizing the dispersion value at around 1550nm. The purpose was good, but it
generated Non-linear effects in the transmission which caused more troubles.
1.9.4 ITU-T G.654 Compliant Cut-off Shifted fiber

This fiber is also known as low attenuation fiber. Some manufacturers have
extremely low attenuation at 1550nm for this fiber. The application area demands low
attenuation like those in Submarine optical fiber cables and terrestrial ultra long haul
optical networks. Low attenuation at 1550nm range makes this fiber suitable for
400km span without repeaters. The low attenuation ranges from 0.15 – 0.16 dB/km.
1.9.5 ITU-T G.655 Compliant Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber

NZDSF was introduced in the mid 1990s for WDM applications. NZDSF is the
short of Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber. These are wide band transmission The non-
linear effects are successfully solved in G.655 fibers. The non-linear effects due to zero
dispersion at 1550nm in G.653 fibers are solved by G.655 fibers which are having a
non-zero value for dispersion at this wavelength range. ITU-T specifies up to G.655E
fibers (latest) from G.655A fibers which are not currently in use. G.655 fibers are most
suitable for DWDM applications.
It has a positive nonzero dispersion value over the entire C-band, which is the
spectral operating region for eribium doped optical fiber amplifiers.
Version G.655b was introduced to extend WDM application into the S-band.
Version G.655c specifies a lower PMD value of 0.2 ps√km than the 0.5 ps/√km
value of G.655a/b
1.9.6 ITU-T G.656 Compliant Low Slope Dispersion Non-zero

Dispersion shifted fiber
This is another type non-zero dispersion shifted fiber which has more stricter and
low dispersion slope which enables to guarantee the DWDM performance in wide
wavelength range.
It has a positive chromatic dispersion value ranging from 2 to 14 ps/(nm-km) in

the 1460 to 1625 nm wavelength band. Here dispersion slop is significantly lower than
in G.655 fibers
It means that the chromatic dispersion changes slower with the wavelength so that
dispersion compensation is simpler or not needed. This allows the use of CWDM
without chromatic dispersion compensation.
1.9.7 G. ITU-T G.657 Compliant Bend Insensitive fiber

G.657 fibers are the new comers in the market, but became a super hit in the FTTH
market. More and more installers are looking for G.657 fibers. As the name indicates, the
bend insensitive fibers are suitable for applications where multiple bends will be present.
Insensitivity to bends makes them suitable for installation at home and office

environment. G.657A is intended to compatible with G.652 D fibers. Interconnectivity
with the existing G.652 fibers are guaranteed for the G.657 A fibers. ITU-T G.657B
fibers are free from all backward compatibility requirements and do not require
complying with conventional single mode fibers. The difference between 657A and B
fibers is in the bending radius. G.657B can be bend at 7.5mm radius and less for some
manufacturers. Single mode optical fibers complying with ITU-T G.657A was developed
with the purpose of using at FTTH sites. G.657A category fibers are therefore compliant
with G.652 category fibers also. This back compatibility makes the G.657A category
fibers suitable for access networks used for FTTH. The other category, G.657.B does not
need to be compliant with G.652 fibers. Therefore G.657.B category fibers are mostly
used in indoor fiber optic cables that are installed with field installable optical connectors.
1.10 ADSS (All-Dielectric Self Supporting cables)

All Dielectric Self-Supporting cable or more commonly referred to as ADSS cable
is a type of fiber optic cable that is used in aerial applications. This type of cable does not
need a messenger to support it, so it can be installed in a single pass. This cable
construction does not contain any metallic elements so it is also non-conductive. The
cable inside multi-loose tube filled with a water-resistant filling compound or design for
wate rblocked with water blocking material in side cable. The cable high tensile by
aramid yarns and FRP(fibre-reinforced polymer) strength member rod inside.
Fig : 19 Cross-sectional view of ADSS
All-dielectric, self-supporting aerial cables(ADSS) are designed to support themselves

when strung between structures such as utility poles. All dielectric cables are suitable for
applications which are adjacent to aerial power transmission standards lines.
1.11 CONCLUSION
Fiber optic technology is a revolutionary technological departure from the
traditional copper wires twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable. The usage of optical fiber in
the telecommunications industry has grown a few decades ago. Today, many industries
particularly telecommunications industry chooses optical fiber over copper wire because
of its ability to transmit large amount of information at a time.
Optical fiber classification depends on more than the number of modes that a fiber
can propagate. The optical fiber's refractive index profile and core size further distinguish
different types of single mode and multimode fibers.

TX Module SPLICING OF OPTICAL FIBER
2 SPLICING OF OPTICAL FIBER

2.1 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
1. Understand the Different types of splicing methods
2. Preparing cable for splicing
3. Carrying out splicing operations
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Splicing often is required to create a continuous optical path for transmission of
optical pulses from one fiber length to another. The three basic fiber interconnection
methods are: de-matable fiber-optic connectors, mechanical splices and fusion splices.
De-matable connectors are used in applications where periodic mating and de-mating is
required for maintenance, testing, repairs or reconfiguration of a system. The penalty for
this flexibility is the larger physical size and higher cost, as well as higher losses of
optical power (typically 0.2 to 1 dB) at the connector interface.
Mechanical splices are available for both multimode and single-mode fiber types
and can be either temporary or permanent. Typical mechanical splices for multimode
fiber are easy to install and require few specialized installation tools. Insertion loss,
defined as the loss in optical power at a joint between identical fibers, typically is 0.2 dB
for mechanical multimode splices.
Since single-mode fibers have small optical cores and hence small mode-field
diameters (MFD), they are less tolerant of misalignment at a joint. Consequently,
mechanical splices capable of achieving acceptable performance within a single-mode
system loss budget are somewhat more expensive to purchase, more time consuming to
install, and may require capital equipment outlays on par with fusion splicing. Typical
insertion losses for single-mode mechanical splices range from 0.05 to 0.2 dB.
2.3 SPLICING
Splices are permanent connection between two fibers. The splicing involves
cutting of the edges of the two fibers to be spliced. This cut has to be carefully made to
have a smooth surface and is generally achieved by a special cutting tool. The two ends,
thus, prepared are then brought together and made to butt against each other. The fibers
are then fixed permanently and reinforced. The fixing process can be achieved in a
number of ways. It could be mechanically fixed permanently through uses of epoxies or
through fusion.
Mechanical splicing doesn‘t physically fuse two optical fibers together, rather two
fibers are held butt-to-butt inside a sleeve with some mechanical mechanism. You will get
worse insertion loss and back reflection in mechanical splices than in fusion splices (the
second type we are introducing below).Mechanical splicing is mostly used for emergency

repairs and fiber testing. You can check out some mechanical splice products here.
Fig : 20 Mechanical splice
The second type splicing is called fusion splicing. In fusion splicing, two fibers
are literally welded (fused) together by an electric arc. Fusion splicing is the most widely
used method of splicing as it provides for the lowest insertion loss and virtually no back
reflection. Fusion splicing provides the most reliable joint between two fibers. Fusion
splicing is done by an automatic machine called fusion splicer (fusion splicing machines).
Fig : 21 Fusion Splice
SPLICE LOSSES
Splice losses can be divided into two categories as shown in Table.
 Extrinsic and
 intrinsic splice loss factors

Table: Extrinsic and intrinsic splice loss factors
Extrinsic, or splice process-related, factors are those induced by the splicing

methods and procedures. Splice process factors include lateral and angular misalignment
(separation and transverse offset between the fiber cores, axial tilt), fiber end quality,
contamination and core deformation. They can be controlled or minimized by the skill of
the individual doing the splicing, and by the automated fiber alignment and fusing cycles
on newer equipment. Additional splice process factors exist for mechanical (butt-spliced)
joints, including fiber-end separation, fiber-end angle and fresnel reflection.
Fig : 22 Fiber misalignment
The second category of losses is related to the properties of the fibers spliced
and is referred to as intrinsic splice loss. Intrinsic parameters include variations in fiber
diameter (both core and cladding), index profile, Numerical aperture, Mode Field
Diameter (MFD) and non-circularity of the fiber cores.

Fig : 23 Intrinsic splice loss due to core diameter and NA mismatch
For single-mode dispersion non-shifted fibers, the dominant fiber-related factor

is MFD mismatch. The intrinsic loss contribution due to MFD mismatch may be
estimated from Figure.
Fig : 24 Single-mode intrinsic splice loss due to MFD mismatch
As shown in Figure, the actual splice loss (bi-directional average) is practically

non-directional, (e.g., similar fiber-related loss will be seen across the joint regardless of
the direction of optical propagation). Also, the intrinsic loss is relatively low for MFD
mismatches expected within typical manufacturer‘s tolerances. For example, the worst-
case, fiber-related bi-directional loss for fibers having a 9.3 ± 0.5 micron MFD
specification would be approximately 0.04 dB.

2.4 SPLICING METHODS

The following three types are widely used:
1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
2. Mechanical splicing.
3. Fusion splicing.
1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing
This is the oldest splicing technique used in fiber splicing. After fiber end
preparation, it is axially aligned in a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or other kind of
reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment of fiber end, a small
amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is set between
and around the fiber ends. A two component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as
the bonding agent. The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices.
But fusion splicing technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely
used.
2. Mechanical Splicing
This splicing is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency

repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibers
for taking various measurements.
The mechanical splices consists of 4 basic components :
(i) An alignment surface for mating fiber ends.
(ii) A retainer.
(iii) An index matching material.
(i) A protective housing.
A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibers can have an optical performance
good as fusion spliced fiber or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fiber, this type of
splice cannot have stability of loss.
3. Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving
low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas
flame. The process involves cutting of the fibers and fixing them in micro–positioners the
fusion splicing machine. The fibers are then aligned either manually or automatically core
aligning (in case of S.M. fiber) process. Afterwards, the operation that takes place involve
withdrawal of the fibers to a specified distance, preheating the fiber ends through electric
arc and bringing together of the fiber ends in a position and splicing through high
temperature fusion. If proper care is taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule,

then the splicing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the
splicing joint should be provided with a proper protector to have following protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b) Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy resins
protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the joint. Now–a–days
the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are fixed on the joints by the fusion
tools.
2.5 PRINCIPLE OF FUSION SPLICING TECHNIQUE:

It is most widely used method for splicing optical fiber. There are a number of
fusion welding machines manufactured by different companies, some of them are fully
automatic and controlled by a microprocessor and some are partly automatic and
manually controlled. In some cases, the fiber ends & the fusion process can be seen on a
TV-monitor screen.
The process can be sub-divided into the following three steps :
(a) Axial alignment.
(b) Perfusion &
(c) Actual fusion welding.
In case of the old machines the axial alignment is done manually by manipulating
a number of knobs and is observed with the help of a high power microscope. This is
normally followed in case of multimode fiber. In case of modern machines, prealigned,
V-grooves are provided a finer adjustment is done, if necessary. For single mode fiber,
other techniques are followed. The best one is fully automatic core alignment method
which is now days used.
After alignment is done, the ends of the fibers are fire polished by an electric arc
and this method is called pre-fusion. During this process, the fiber ends are kept separated
at a distance, after this they are brought closer and the process is called as fiber end
feedings. This feeding process is continued during actual fusion by electric arc to prevent
a reduced section at the point of welding.
The process of perfusion, fiber ends feed and actual fusion is critical to a good
weld and is frequently automatically controlled by the fusion machine. The fusion time of
single mode fiber is less than that the multimode fiber. The Introduction of single mode
fiber for use in long haul network, brought with it different fiber construction and cable
design, from that of multimode cables. The design of the cable, the brittleness of the
fibers and the requirement of accurately aligning the single mode fiber cores, required
splicing techniques different to those used for multimode fibers, where aligning of the
cladding is done. Due to this sophisticated splicing machines were developed.

The main functions of the above are:
(1) Auto active alignment of the core.
(2) Auto arc fusion.
(3) Video display of the entire process.
(4) Indication of the estimated loss at the slice.
In this core profile alignment system (CPA), the two fibers ends to be spliced are
cleaved and then clamped in accurately machined V- grooves. A video image proceeding
technique is used to detect the boundary between the core and cladding glasses in the
fibers on each side of the splice point. The core boundaries in the fibers and aligned in the
horizontal and vertical plane by microprocessor controlled micropositioners. When the
optimum alignment is achieved, the fibers are automatically fused under the micro-
processor control. The machine then measures the radial and angular offsets of the fibers
and uses these figures to calculate a splice loss estimated, which is used only as a
guidance. The operator of the machine observes the alignment and fusion processes on a
video screen showing horizontal and vertical projection of the fibers and then decides the
quality of the splice.
The manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibers. For cleaning
the fibers the following material are used.
(i) Hexane - jelly cleaning.
(ii) Di-chlorine methyl of Acetone or Alcohol - to remove primary coating.
(iii) Freon gas - to clean the bits of scrapper or stripper.
With the special fiber cleaver or cutter, the cleaned fiber is cut. The cut has to be
so precise that it produces an end angle of less than 0.5 deg on a prepared fiber. If the cut
is bad, the splicing losses will increase. The shape of the cut can be monitored on the
video screen. Some of the defects noted while cleaving are as below:
(1) Broken ends.
(2) Ripped ends.
(3) Slanting cuts.
It is desirable to limit the average splice loss to less than 0.1 dB. The completed
splice should be inspected & if not satisfactory, redone.
The Splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as the final
value, as it is only an estimated loss and so after splicing is over the splice loss
measurement is to be taken by an OTDR. This makes use of the relative level of back
scattered light at 2 points one before and one after the splice point to determine the
apparent splice loss.

-fusing the ends of two clean, cleaved fibers with an electric arc.
Requirement of a good splice
Following are the requirements of a good splice.
(i) Low loss.
(ii) Stability of loss
(iii) Reliability.
(iv) Ease of reopening.
(v) Low cost.
Considering all the above facts, suitable methods of splicing should be selected.
The Following are the common steps in every splicing method.
(A) Fiber and preparation:
(I) Fiber stripping.
(II) Fiber cleaning.
(III) Fiber cutting.
(B) Axial alignment.
(C) Actual splicing of two fiber ends.
Fig : 25 Fusion Splice

2.6 MATERIALS REQUIRED CABLE END PREPARATION

FOR SPLICING
Cable end preparation and splicing must be performed by personnel trained and
familiar with handling of optical fiber cable, components, and splicing accessories.
Mishandling of fiber cable can cause damage to the fiber and result in cable length cuts or
system degradation.
 Tape measure
 Marker (or equivalent) for marking cable jacket
 Splicing Machine
 Outer Jacket remover
 Sheath remover
 Diagonal cutters
 Buffer remover
 Fiber stripper
 Gel cleaner
 Sleeves etc.
2.7 FIBER OPTIC CABLE SPLICING PROCEDURE

Ensure all required materials are on hand. It is recommended that the processes of
cable end preparation, fiber splicing, and splice closure assembly be performed from
beginning to end with minimal interruption. If for any reason actions are interrupted,
ensure fiber cable end and fibers are adequately protected. Determine end location of
cable where the splice point is to be located.
1. Strip fiber cable jacket.
Strip back about 1 meters of fiber cable jacket to expose the fiber loose tubes or
tight buffered fibers. Use cable rip cord to cut through the fiber jacket. Then carefully
peel back the jacket and expose the insides. Cut off the excess jacket. Clean off all cable
gel with cable gel remover. Separate the fiber loose tubes and buffers by carefully
cutting away any yarn or sheath. Leave enough of the strength member to properly
secure the cable in the splice enclose.

Fig : 26 Strip fiber cable jacket
2. Strip fiber tubes.
For a loose tube fiber cable, strip away about 0.9 meters of fiber tube using
a buffer tube stripper and expose the individual fibers.
3. Clean cable gel.
Carefully clean all fibers in the loose tube of any filling gel with cable gel
remover.
Fig : 27 Cleaning of gel
4. Preparation of Cable Joint Closure for Splicing
The type of preparation work performed on the cable prior to splicing differs on
the type of joint closure and fiber organizer used. However, the following steps shall be
usually common for different types of joint closure.
(a) The strength member of each cable shall be joined to each other and/or the central
frame of the joint closure.
(b) The joint closure shall be assembled around the cable.
(c) The sealing compound or heat shrink sleeve shall be applied to the cables and
closure, or prepared for application after splicing is complete.
(d) Tags which identify the fibers number shall be attached at suitable location on the

fibers.
(e) Splice protectors shall be slipped over each fiber in readiness for placing over the
bare fiber after splicing.
Follow the splice closure assembly instructions to build the closure unit, attach the
cable ends, and fabricate the end seal around the cables to be spliced. Repeat the
above steps for all cables that are planned to enter the closure so that closure end plate
seal and fabrication is complete.
Fig : 28 Splice closure preparation
Strip first splicing fiber.
Hold the first splicing fiber and remove the 250um fiber coating to expose 5cm of
125um bare fiber cladding with fiber coating stripper tool. For tight buffered fibers,
remove 5cm of 900um tight buffer first with a buffer stripping tool, and then remove the
5cm of 250um coating.
5. Place the fusion splice protection sleeve.
Put a fusion splice protection sleeve onto the fiber being spliced.
6. Clean the bare fiber.
Carefully clean the stripped bare fiber with lint-free wipes soaked in isopropyl
alcohol. After cleaning, prevent the fiber from touching anything.
7. Fiber cleaving.
With a high precision fiber cleaver, cleave the fiber to a specified length according
to your fusion splicer‘s manual.

Fig : 29 Fiber cleaving
8. Prepare second fiber being spliced.
Strip, clean and cleave the other fiber to be spliced.
9. Fusion splicing.
Place both fibers in the fusion splicer and do the fusion splice according to its
manual.
Fig : 30 Fusion splicing
10. Heat shrinks the fusion splice protection sleeve.
Slide the fusion splice protection sleeve on the joint and put it into the heat shrink
oven, and press the heat button.

Fig : 31 Heat shrinks the fusion splice protection sleeve.
11. Place splice into splice tray.
Carefully place the finished splice into the splice tray and loop excess fiber around
its guides. Ensure that the fiber‘s minimum bending radius is not compromised.
Fig : 32 Splice trey

Fig : 33 Splice trey
12. Close the splice tray.
After all fibers have been spliced, carefully close the splice tray and place it into
the splice enclosure.
13. Mount the splice enclosure.
Close and mount the splice enclosure if all splices meet the specifications.
Fig : 34 Splice closure
14. Placing of completed joint in pit-
Joint shall be taken out from the vehicle and placed on the tarpaulin provided near
the pit. The joint closure shall be fixed to the bracket on the pit wall and pit closed.
Fig : 35 Placing of completed joint in pit
2.8 WARNING
 Do not use a voltage other than the allowable power voltage indicated. Doing so
may cause a fire or electric shock.

 To reduce the risk of fire, electric shock or malfunction, do not get liquid or
metallic objects inside the splicer. Check for condensation before operating. If
necessary, allow the condensation to evaporate before using the splicer.
 Do not make mechanical or electrical modifications to the splicer, this may expose
you to dangerous voltages or other hazards.
 If liquid, a metallic object or other foreign substance gets inside the splicer,
immediately turn off the power and disconnect the power source. Contact
qualified service personnel.
 This fusion splicer performs an arc discharge. Avoid the use of the splicer in a
hazardous location in which flammable gas can generate or only electrical
 Do not touch the electrodes. Doing so may cause personal injury or electric shock.
If an abnormal condition such as unusual noise, smoke or unusual odor occurs,
immediately turn off the power and disconnect the power source. Next, contact the
maintenance service center.
 Do not let water come in contact with the battery. Safety and protective devices to
prevent danger are built in the battery, but if these devices are damaged, excessive
current flow may cause abnormal chemical reaction in the battery fluid, heat
generation, bursting and fire may result.
 Do not use or leave the battery exposed to high temperature conditions, such as a
fire.
 Only use the specified battery charger. Not doing so can cause the battery to be
overcharged or excessive current flow may cause abnormal chemical reaction in
battery fluid, heat generation, bursting and fire could result.
 Make sure the polarities are correctly connected. Reversed connections may cause
abnormal chemical reaction in battery fluid, heat generation, bursting and fire
could result.
 Do not attach the battery to a power supply plug or directly to a car's cigarette
lighter. Excessive current flow may cause heat generation.
 Use the battery only for the application for which it was designed. Not doing so
will result in a loss of performance and a shortened life expectancy. Also
excessive current flow may cause loss of control during charging or discharging of
the battery, heat generation, bursting and fire.
 Do not disassemble or modify the battery. Safety and protective devices to prevent
danger are built in the battery. If these devices are damaged, excessive current
flow may cause loss of control during charging or discharging of the battery, heat
generation, bursting and fire.
 Do not place the battery close to heat sources or leave exposed directly to the sun
for long periods of time. Safety and protective devices to prevent danger are built

in the battery. If these devices are damaged, excessive current flow may cause loss
of control during charging or discharging of the battery, heat generation, bursting
and fire.
2.9 CAUTION
 Avoid places with too much dust or dirt. Dirt or dust that can accumulate in the
fusion splicer causing short circuits or insufficient cooling, which may lead to
splicer malfunction or deterioration, resulting in fire or electric shock.
 Always use and store the splicer in the locations defined in this manual. Not doing
so may cause splicer malfunction or deterioration, resulting in fire or electric
shock.
 To reduce the risk of electric shock, do not plug/unplug the power cord or remove
the battery with wet hands.
 Disconnect the power cord by grasping the plug, not the cord.
 The battery's optimum charging temperature range is 0 to 45°C. Whenever

possible, place the charger in a location that is within this temperature range. Do
not charge the battery at extremely low temperature (below 0°C). Doing so may
lead to deterioration in performance and battery leakage.
 If you are not going to use the splicer for a while, remove the battery before
storing it. Not doing so will shorten a battery life.
 Only use 99% pure alcohol to clean the splicer. To prevent malfunction and
damage, do not use any other kind of chemicals.
 The heating plate of the heat shrink oven may be hot during and after heating. Do
not touch it directly.
 Do not operate the splicer in rain. Doing so may cause the battery or AC power
supply to be short-circuited.
2.10 CONCLUSION
The most important task in the design of fiber optic link is to determine the
maximum range of the optical transmission path, being in fact the balance of optical
power in the link. Balance of power is a comparison of the power at the input of the
optical link with the losses in fiber optic cables and other path components. This help to
find the optimal parameters of transmitting and receiving devices to ensure proper signal
transmission. Fiber optic cable fusion splicing provides the lowest loss connection. High
precision fusion splicers are generally bulky and expensive. With proper training, a fiber
splicing technician can routinely achieve less than 0.1 dB insertion loss for single mode
fiber.
Splices are critical points in the optical fiber network, as they strongly affect not
only the quality of the links, but also their lifetime. In fact, the splice shall ensure high

quality and stability of performance with time. High quality in splicing is usually defined
as low splice loss and tensile strength near that of the fiber proof test level. Splices shall
be stable over the design life of the system under its expected environmental conditions.
At present, two technologies, fusion and mechanical, can be used for splicing
glass optical fibers and the choice between them depends upon the expected functional
performance and considerations of installation and maintenance. These splices are
designed to provide permanent connections. The most basic fiber optic measurement is
optical power from the end of a fiber. This measurement is the basis for loss
measurements as well as the power from a source or presented at a receiver. Fiber optic
power meter is a test instrument used for absolute optical fiber power measurement as
well as fiber optic loss related measurement.

TX Module FAULT LOCALIZATION IN OF N/W USING OTDR, POWER METER
3 FAULT LOCALIZATION IN OF NETWPRK USING

OTDR, POWER METER
3.1 OBJECTIVE
 Working principle of OTDR
 Operation of OTDR
 Use of OTDR in fault localization
 Power Meter
3.2 INTRODUCTION
An optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) is a fiber optic tester for the
characterization of fiber and optical networks. The purpose of an OTDR is to detect,
locate, and measure events at any location on the fiber link.
One of the main benefits of an OTDR is that it operates as a one-dimensional

radar system, allowing for complete fiber characterization from only one end of the fiber.
An OTDR generates geographic information regarding localized loss and reflective
events, providing technicians with a pictorial and permanent record of the fiber‘s
characteristics, which may be used as the fiber‘s performance baseline.
3.3 OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER

An OTDR sends short pulses of light into a fiber. Light scattering occurs in the
fiber due to discontinuities such as connectors, splices, bends, and faults. An OTDR then
detects and analyzes the backscattered signals. The signal strength is measured for
specific intervals of time and is used to characterize events.
An OTDR uses the effects of Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel reflection to

measure the fiber's condition, but the Fresnel reflection is tens of thousands of times
greater in power level than the backscatter.
Rayleigh scattering occurs when a pulse travels down the fiber and small
variations in the material, such as variations and discontinuities in the index of refraction,
cause light to be scattered in all directions. However, the phenomenon of small amounts
of light being reflected directly back toward the transmitter is called backscattering.
Fresnel reflections occur when the light traveling down the fiber encounters
abrupt changes in material density that may occur at connections or breaks where an air
gap exists. A very large quantity of light is reflected, as compared with the Rayleigh
scattering. The strength of the reflection depends on the degree of change in the index of
refraction.

The OTDR technique consists of sending impulses to the fiber and measuring the
time delay and intensity of the backscattered signal. The backscatter effect occurs because
of the same reasons that we have attenuation on optical fiber, scattering. What happens is
that some of the light gets reflected back due to changes in the molecular density of the
glass. Measuring this light is equivalent to measuring fiber attenuation.
The structure of an OTDR is basically a light source to emit signal pulses and an
optical receiver connected to a data processing unit. The emitted signal is sent directly
into the fiber and the incoming reflection directed to the receiver by a beamsplitter. The
light source is synchronized with the receiver so that time delay between outgoing and
incoming signals can be measured.
3.3.1 A Use for Rayleigh Scatter

As light travels along the fiber, a small proportion of it is lost by Rayleigh
scattering. As the light is scattered in all directions, some of it just happens to return back
along the fiber towards the light source. This returned light is called backscatter as shown
below.
Fig : 36 Rayleigh Scattering Principle
The backscatter power is a fixed proportion of the incoming power and as the losses
take their toll on the incoming power, the returned power also diminishes as shown in the
following figure.
Fig : 37 Backscatter Power

The OTDR can continuously measure the returned power level and hence deduce
the losses encountered on the fiber. Any additional losses such as connectors and fusion
splices have the effect of suddenly reducing the transmitted power on the fiber and hence
causing a corresponding change in backscatter power. The position and degree of the
losses can be ascertained.
3.3.2 Measuring Distances

The OTDR uses a system rather like a radar set. It sends out a pulse of light and
‗listens‘ for echoes from the fiber.
If it knows the speed of light and can measure the time taken for the light to travel
along the fiber, it is an easy job to calculate the length of the fiber.
Fig : 38 Measuring Distances
3.3.3 To Find the Speed of the Light

Assuming the refractive index of the core is 1.5, the infrared light travels at a speed of
This means that it will take
This is a useful figure to remember, 5 nanoseconds per meter (5 nsm-1).
If the OTDR measures a time delay of 1.4us, then the distance travelled by the light is
The 280 meters is the total distance traveled by the light and is the ‗there and
back‘ distance. The length of the fiber is therefore only 140m. This adjustment is
performed automatically by the OTDR – it just displays the final result of 140m.

3.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF OTDR
Fig : 39 OTDR BLOCK DIAGRAM
A. Timer
The timer produces a voltage pulse which is used to start the timing process in the
display at the same moment as the laser is activated.
B. Pulsed Laser
The laser is switched on for a brief moment. The ‗on‘ time being between 1ns and
10us. We will look at the significance of the choice of ‗on‘ time or pulsewidth a little bit
later. The wavelength of the laser can be switched to suit the system to be investigated.
C. Directive Coupler
The directive coupler allows the laser light to pass straight through into the fiber
under test. The backscatter from the whole length of the fiber approaches the directive
coupler from the opposite direction. In this case the mirror surface reflects the light into
the avalanche photodiode (APD). The light has now been converted into an electrical
signal.
D. Amplifying and Averaging
The electrical signal from the APD is very weak and requires amplification before
it can be displayed. The averaging feature is quite interesting and we will look at it
separately towards the end of this tutorial.
E. Display
The amplified signals are passed on to the display. The display is either a CRT
like an oscilloscope, or a LCD as in laptop computers. They display the returned signals
on a simple XY plot with the range across the bottom and the power level in dB up the
side.

The following figure shows a typical display. The current parameter settings are
shown over the grid. They can be changed to suit the measurements being undertaken.
The range scale displayed shows a 50km length of fiber. In this case it is from 0 to 50km
but it could be any other 50km slice, for example, from 20km to 70km. It can also be
expanded to give a detailed view of a shorter length of fiber such as 0-5m, or 25-30m.
Fig : 40 An OTDR display-no signal
The range can be read from the horizontal scale but for more precision, a variable
range marker is used. This is a movable line which can be switched on and positioned
anywhere on the trace. Its range is shown on the screen together with the power level of
the received signal at that point. To find the length of the fiber, the marker is simply
positioned at the end of the fiber and the distance is read off the screen. It is usual to
provide up to five markers so that several points can be measured simultaneously.
F. Data Handling
An internal memory or floppy disk can store the data for later analysis. The output
is also available via RS232 link for downloading to a computer. In addition, many
OTDRs have an onboard printer to provide hard copies of the information on the screen.
This provides useful ‗before and after‘ images for fault repair as well as a record of the
initial installation.
3.4.1 A Simple Measurement

If we were to connect a length of fiber, say 300m, to the OTDR the result would

look as shown in the following figure.
Fig : 41 Measurement through OTDR
Whenever the light passes through a cleaved end of a piece of fiber, a Fresnel
reflection occurs. This is seen at the far end of the fiber and also at the launch connector.
Indeed, it is quite usual to obtain a Fresnel reflection from the end of the fiber without
actually cleaving it. Just breaking the fiber is usually enough.
The Fresnel at the launch connector occurs at the front panel of the OTDR and,
since the laser power is high at this point, the reflection is also high. The result of this is a
relatively high pulse of energy passing through the receiver amplifier. The amplifier
output voltage swings above and below the real level, in an effect called ringing. This is a
normal amplifier response to a sudden change of input level. The receiver takes a few
nanoseconds to recover from this sudden change of signal level.
3.4.2 Dead Zones

The Fresnel reflection and the subsequent amplifier recovery time results in a
short period during which the amplifier cannot respond to any further input signals. This
period of time is called a dead zone. It occurs to some extent whenever a sudden change
of signal amplitude occurs. The one at the start of the fiber where the signal is being
launched is called the launch dead zone and others are called event dead zones or
just dead zones.

Fig : 42 Dead Zone
3.4.2.1 Why is there a Dead Zone?
An OTDR is designed to detect the backscattered level all along the fiber link by
measuring backscattered signals, which are much smaller than the signal that was injected
into the fiber. The photodiode, the component receiving the signal, is designed to receive
a given level range. When a strong reflection occurs, the power received by the
photodiode can be more than 4,000 times higher than the backscattered power, saturating
the photodiode. The photodiode requires time to recover from its saturated condition.
During this time, it will not detect the backscattered signal accurately. The length of fiber
that is not fully characterized during this period (pulse width + recovery time) is termed
the dead zone.
Fig : 43 The OTDR dead zone
3.4.2.2 Overcoming the Launch Dead Zone
As the launch dead zone occupies a distance of up to 20 meters or so, this means
that, given the job of checking a 300m fiber, we may only be able to check 280m of it.
The customer would not be delighted.
To overcome this problem, we add our own patch cord at the beginning of the
system. If we make this patch cord about 100m in length, we can guarantee that all launch
dead zone problems have finished before the customers‘ fiber is reached.

Fig : 44 A patchcord overcomes dead Zone problems
The patch cord is joined to the main system by a connector which will show up on
the OTDR readout as a small Fresnel reflection and a power loss. The power loss is
indicated by the sudden drop in the power level on the OTDR trace.
3.4.3 Length and Attenuation

The end of the fiber appears to be at 400m on the horizontal scale but we must
deduct 100m to account for our patch cord. This gives an actual length of 300m for the
fiber being tested.
Immediately after the patch cord Fresnel reflection the power level shown on the
vertical scale is about –10.8dB and at the end of the 300m run, the power has fallen to
about –11.3 dB. A reduction in power level of 0.5 dB in 300 meters indicates a fiber
attenuation of:
Most OTDRs provide a loss measuring system using two markers. The two
makers are switched on and positioned on a length of fiber which does not include any
other events like connectors or whatever as shown in the following figure.

Fig : 45 Using two markers for loss measurement
The OTDR then reads the difference in power level at the two positions and the
distance between them, performs the above calculation for us and displays the loss per
kilometer for the fiber. This provides a more accurate result than trying to read off the
decibel and range values from the scales on the display and having to do our own
calculations.
3.5 AN OTDR DISPLAY OF A TYPICAL SYSTEM

The OTDR can ‗see‘ Fresnel reflections and losses. With this information, we can
deduce the appearance of various events on an OTDR trace as seen on next page.
A. Connectors
A pair of connectors will give rise to a power loss and also a Fresnel reflection
due to the polished end of the fiber.
B. Fusion Splice
Fusion splices do not cause any Fresnel reflections as the cleaved ends of the fiber
are now fused into a single piece of fiber. They do, however, show a loss of power. A
good quality fusion splice will actually be difficult to spot owing to the low losses. Any
signs of a Fresnel reflection is a sure sign of a very poor fusion splice.
C. Mechanical Splice
Mechanical splices appear similar to a poor quality fusion splice. The fibers do have
cleaved ends of course but the Fresnel reflection is avoided by the use of index marching

gel within the splice. The losses to be expected are similar to the least acceptable fusion
splices.
Fig : 46 A typical OTDR trace
D. Bend Loss
This is simply a loss of power in the area of the bend. If the loss is very localized,
the result is indistinguishable from a fusion or mechanic splice.
3.6 EVENT INTERPRETATION IN OTDR

In general, two types of events occur: reflective and non-reflective.
3.6.1 Reflective Events

Reflective events occur where discontinuity arises in the fiber, causing an abrupt
change in the refractive index. Reflective events can occur at breaks, connector junctions,
mechanical splices, or the indeterminate end of fiber. For reflective events, connector loss
is typically around 0.5 dB. For mechanical splices, though, the loss typically ranges from
0.1 to 0.2 dB.

Fig : 47 A reflective event at a connector junction
If two reflective events occur very close together, the OTDR may have problems
measuring the loss of each event. In this case, it displays the loss of the
combined events, which typically occurs when measuring a short fiber length,
such as a fiber jumper.
Fig : 48 A reflective event at two connector junctions located close together
In the case of a fiber end, the reflective event will fall into the noise and prevent
taking the attenuation measurement.

Fig : 49 A reflective event at a fiber end
Fiber ends can also cause a non-reflective event. In this case, no reflectance is
detected.
3.6.2 Non-reflective Events

Non-reflective events occur where discontinuities are absent in the fiber and are
generally produced by fusion splices or bending losses, such as macro bends. Typical loss
values range from 0.02 to 0.1 dB, depending on the splicing equipment and operator.
Fig : 50 A non-reflective event
For non-reflective events, the event loss can appear as an event gain, displaying a
step-up on the OTDR trace.
3.7 OTDR MEASUREMENTS

An OTDR can perform the following measurements:
 For each event: Distance location, loss, and reflectance
 For each section of fiber: Section length, section loss (in dB), section loss rate (in
dB/km), and optical return loss (ORL) of the section
 For the complete terminated system: Link length, total link loss (in dB), and ORL
of the link.
3.7.1 Measurement Methods

The OTDR lets technicians perform measurements on the fiber span in several
ways: full-automatic, semi-automatic, and manual measurement functions. Technicians
can also use a combination of these methods.
3.7.1.1 Full-Automatic Function
Using the full-automatic function, the OTDR detects and measures all of the
events, sections, and fiber ends automatically, using an internal detection algorithm.
3.7.1.2 Semi-Automatic Function
Selecting the semi-automatic function, the OTDR measures and reports an event
at each location (distance) with a marker. Markers can be placed either automatically or
manually. The semi-automatic function is of high interest during span acceptance (after
splicing), when technicians completely characterize all events along the span in order to
establish baseline data. Because automatic detection will not detect and report a non-
reflective event with a zero loss, it places a marker at that location so that the
semiautomatic analysis will report the zero loss.
3.7.1.3 Manual Measurement Function
For even more detailed analysis or for special conditions, technicians completely
control the measurement function manually. In this case, technicians place two or more
cursors on the fiber in order to control the way the OTDR measures the event. Depending
on the parameter being measured, technicians may need to position up to five cursors to
perform a manual measurement. While this is the slowest and most cumbersome method
of measurement, it is important to have this capability available for fiber spans with
unusual designs and construction that are difficult to analyse accurately using automated
algorithms.
SLOPE
Measure the slope (in dB/km), or fiber linear attenuation, using either the 2-point
method or the least squares approximation (LSA) method. The LSA method attempts to
determine the measurement line that has the closest fit to the set of acquisition points. The
LSA method is the most precise way to measure fiber linear attenuation, but it requires a
continuous section of fiber, a minimum number of OTDR acquisition points, and a
relatively clean backscatter signal, which is free of noise.

3.8 MEASUREMENT ARTIFACTS AND ANOMALIES IN

OTDR
Occasionally, the backscattered trace displays unexpected results and events.
GHOSTS
False Fresnel reflections, termed ghosts, on the trace waveform may be

occasionally observed. Ghosts can result from a strong reflective event on the fiber,
causing a large amount of reflected light to be sent back to the OTDR, or an incorrect
range setting during acquisition.
Fig : 51 Ghosts on an OTDR trace
In both cases, the ghost can be identified because no loss is incurred as the signal
passes through this event. In the first case, the distance at which the ghost occurs
along the trace is a multiple of the distance of the strong reflective event from
the OTDR.
The use of index-matching gel at the reflection point can reduce the reflection. In
addition, selecting a shorter pulse width, selecting a reduced power setting on the OTDR
(some OTDRs provide this option), or adding attenuation in the fiber before the reflection
can reduce the injected power.
If the event causing the ghost is situated at the end of the fiber, a few short turns
around a suitable tool, such as a pen, pencil, or mandrel, will sufficiently attenuate the
amount of light being reflected back to the source and eliminate the ghost. This technique
is known as a mandrel wrap.
Be sure to select a mandrel of the appropriate diameter for the type of cable, jacketed
fiber, or coated fiber used, eliminating permanent damage to the fiber span. Never bend a
fiber or cable to introduce attenuation without using a suitable mandrel, which will
prevent excess bending.
SPLICE GAIN
It is important to note that an OTDR measures splice loss indirectly, depending on

information obtained from the backscattered signal. It is assumed that the backscattering
coefficients of the fiber spans are identical all along the link under test. If this is not the
case, then measurements can be inaccurate. One common example is the observance of

apparent splice gains or gainers. The inaccuracy is quite small, but with today‘s fusion
splicing equipment and experienced technicians making very low loss splices, it is
possible for the effect to make the splice appear to be a gain instead of a loss.
If fibers of different mode field diameters, such as core size, are joined, the
resulting OTDR trace waveform can show higher backscattering levels. This result is due
to the increased level of backscattered signal reflected back to the OTDR in the
downstream fiber.
This phenomenon can occur when joining different types of fiber in a multimode
span or joining two fibers with different backscatter coefficients.
Fig : 52 A positive splice from A to B
3.9 OPTICAL POWER METER

The power meter is the standard tester in a typical fiber optic technician‘s tool kit.
It is an invaluable tool during installation and restoration. The power meter‘s main
function is to display the incident power on the photodiode. Transmitted and received
optical power is only measured with an optical power meter. For transmitted power, the
power meter is connected directly to the optical transmitter‘s output.
For received power, the optical transmitter is connected to the fiber system. Then,
the power level is read using the power meter at the point on the fiber cable where the
optical receiver would be.
The power meter, as it is commonly called, measures the optical power of light
present on a fiber optic cable. An optical power meter (OPM) is a device used to measure
the power in an optical signal. This light can be generated directly from the output of a
fiber optic transmitter device or from another common fiber optic testing device: a laser
light source. The optical power is measured in dBm or in mW.
A typical optical power meter consists of a calibrated sensor, measuring amplifier

and display. The sensor primarily consists of a photodiode selected for the appropriate
range of wavelengths and power levels. On the display unit, the measured optical power
and set wavelength is displayed.
A traditional optical power meter responds to a broad spectrum of light; however

the calibration is wavelength dependent. This is not normally an issue, since the test
wavelength is usually known, however it has a couple of drawbacks. Firstly, the user
must set the meter to the correct test wavelength, and secondly if there are other spurious
wavelengths present, then wrong readings will result.
3.9.1 DETECTOR SPECIFICATIONS
Currently, power meter photodiodes use Silicon (for multimode applications),

Germanium (for single-mode and multimode applications), and Indium Gallium Arsenide
(InGaAs) (for single-mode and multimode applications) technologies. As shown in the
following figure, InGaAs photodiodes are more adapted to the 1625 nm wavelength than
Germanium (Ge) photodiodes, because Ge photodiodes are quite sensitive and drop off
rapidly at the 1600 nm window.
Fig : 53 Responsivity of the three typical detector types
Features found on more sophisticated power meters may include temperature

stabilization, the ability to calibrate to different wavelengths, the ability to display the
power relative to ― reference‖ input, the ability to introduce attenuation, and a high power
option.
3.9.2 DYNAMIC RANGE
The requirements for a power meter vary depending on the application. Power
meters must have enough power to measure the output of the transmitter (to verify
operation). They must also be sensitive enough, though, to measure the received power at
the far (receive) end of the link. Long-haul telephony systems and cable TV systems use
transmitters with outputs as high as +16 dBm and amplifiers with outputs as high as +30
dBm. Receiver power levels can be as low as –36 dBm in systems that use an optical
preamplifier.
In local area networks (LANs), though, both receiver and transmitter power levels
are much lower. The difference between the maximum input and the minimum sensitivity
of the power meter is termed the dynamic range. While the dynamic range for a given
meter has limits, the useful power range can be extended beyond the dynamic range by
placing an attenuator in front of the power meter input. However, this limits the low-end

sensitivity of the power meter.
For high power mode, use an internal or external attenuator. If using an internal
attenuator, it can be either fixed or switched.
Typical dynamic range requirements for power meters are as follows:
 +20 to –70 dBm for standard power applications
 +26 to –55 dBm for high power applications such as Analog RF

transmission in cable TV (CATV) or video overlay in passive optical
network (PON) systems.
 –20 to –60 dBm for LAN applications
Sometimes optical power meters are combined with a different test function such
as an Optical Light Source (OLS) or Visual Fault Locator (VFL), or may be a sub-system
is a much larger instrument. When combined with a light source, the instrument is usually
called an Optical Loss Test Set.
Optical Loss Test Sets (OLTS) are available in dedicated hand held instruments
and platform-based modules to suit various network architectures and test requirements.
They are used to measure optical power and power loss, and reflectance and reflected
power loss. The products may also be used as optical sources or optical power meters, or
to measure optical return loss or event reflectance.
3.9.3 THE PROCEDURE TO MEASURE THE OPTICAL LOSS IN THE

FIBER OPTIC CABLE
Set the power meter to the wavelength of the light source you are using
 Connect a short fiber jumper cable between the light source and the power meter.
See Figure 2.
 Make note of the power level, in dBm. We will call this ―Re
ading A‖.
 Connect the fiber cable under test to the output • of the light source
 Connect the power meter, set at the same wavelength as the power source, to the
far end of the fiber cable under test. See Figure 3.
 Make note of the power level, in dBm. We will call this ―Re
ading B‖.
 The optical loss in the fiber cable is equal to ―

Reading A‖ minus ―
Reading B
Optical Loss = “Reading A” – “Reading B”

Fig : 54 Connection of fiber jumper cable between the light source and the power
meter
Fig : 55 Figure
When multimode fiber is used, measurements should be made at 850nm or

1310nm. It is preferred that measurements be made at both wavelengths, if possible, as
the optical loss can vary significantly as the wavelength varies when multimode fiber is
used.
When single mode fiber is used, measurements should be made at 1310nm as

this is the most common wavelength used with single mode fiber. These measurement
procedures should be repeated for every fiber cable in the system.
3.10 CONCLUSION
The OTDR is a more sophisticated measurement instrument. It uses a technology
that injects a series of optical pulses into the fiber under test and analyses the light
scattering and the light reflection. This allows the instrument to measure the intensity of
the return pulse in functions of time and fiber length. The OTDR is used to measure the
optical power loss and the fiber length, as well as to locate all faults resulting from fiber
breaks, splices or connectors. OTDRs are also used for maintaining fiber plant
performance. An OTDR allows you to see more details on cable installation, termination
quality and provides advanced diagnostics to isolate a point of failure that may hinder
network performance. An OTDR allows discovery of features along the length of a fiber
that may affect fiber reliability. OTDRs characterize features such as attenuation
uniformity and attenuation rate, segment length, location and insertion loss of connectors
and splices, and other events such as sharp bends that may have been incurred during
cable installation.

TX Module OFC LAYING AND INSTALLATION PRACTICES
4 OFC LAYING AND INSTALLATION PRACTICES

(SECTION -I)
TRENCHING AND LAYING OF PLB DUCT
4.2 OBJECTIVE
 Know the soil classification
 develop installation work plan and identify dependencies if any
 determine the statutory permissions required and the relevant authorities

involved
 liaise with authorities and obtain relevant clearances/ municipal approvals
 Understand the trenching
 Understand the laying/construction practices
 Back Filling and Dressing of the Trench
5.1 INTRODUCTION
On the basis of the survey reports routes for OF cable laying shall be finalized.
Road Cutting Permission shall be obtained from road and rail authorities for laying the
Optical Fiber Cable along the finalized roads and at rail / road crossing along the route.
Generally O.F. Cable may preferably be laid straight as far as possible along the road near
the boundaries, away from the burrow pits. When the O.F. Cable is laid along the
National Highways, Cable should run along the road land boundary or at a minimum
distance of 15 meters from the center line of the road where the road land is wider.
As the OFC carries high capacity traffic and is planned for about 25 to 30 years of
life. It is essential that the cable is laid after obtaining due permission from all the
concerned authorities to avoid any damage (which may result in disruption of services /
revenue loss) and shifting in near future due to their planned road widening works.
Trenching is the traditional cable laying method in which an above ground trench
is excavated to produce an open cable laying environment. In areas where the aesthetic
and technical above ground considerations are not of priority, such as open country areas,
trenching is still an economical and timely method to lay cable.
Horizontal directional drilling is the in-word in trenchless technology for

installations below the ground for installing cables, ducts, pipes etc. Due to its ease of
maneuverability the technology is considered best for working in city conditions
minimizing utility damages.

4.3 EXCAVATION AND BACKFILLING FOR OPEN CUT

TRENCHING
The Contractor shall carry out excavation and backfilling of trenches in all kinds
of soil strata for laying PLB HDPE pipe, RCC pipe and GI pipe. Soil shall be classified
under two broad categories Rocky and Non Rocky, The soil is categorized as rocky if the
cable trench cannot be dug without blasting and / of chiseling. All other types of soils
shall be categorized as Non Rocky including Murrum & soil mixed with stone or soft
rock.
ROCKY SOIL.
The terrain which consists of hard rocks or boulders where blasting/ chiseling is required
for trenching such as quartzite, granite, basalt in hilly areas and RCC (reinforcement to be
cut through but not separated) and the like.
NON ROCKY SOILS
This will include all types of soil- soft soil/hard soil/murrumie. any strata, such as
sand, gravel, loam, clay, mud, black cotton murrum, shingle, river or nullah bed boulders,
soling of roads, paths etc. (All such soils shall be sub-classified as kachcha soil) and hard
core, macadam surface of any description (water bound, grouted tarmac etc.), CC roads
and pavements, bituminous roads, bridges, culverts (All such soils shall be classified as
Pucca soils)
4.4 GENERAL GUIDE LINES FOR TRENCHING AND PLB

DUCT LAYING
BEFORE START OF INSTALLATION
Before the start of trenching following are to be ensured:
 obtain OFC route plan from the planning team or the supervisors as per which
OFC has to be laid
 verify the proposed route to ensure that bend ratios meet manufacturer's
specifications and industry standards
 ensure that site is made safe and secure for cable installation in coordination with
labour workers
 develop installation work plan and identify dependencies if any
 determine the statutory permissions required and the relevant authorities involved
 liaise with authorities and obtain relevant clearances/ municipal approvals
 ensure availability of all required trenching, cable laying, pipe laying, OFC laying
and splicing equipments and spares for timely completion of installation activity
and the availability of test equipments like OTDR and Power meter for carrying

out optical tests
DURING THE TRENCHING AND LAYING OF PLB DUCT
 ensure cable drum is placed near site location and test cable on drum for optical
continuity
 ensure trenching is carried out by labour workers as per the route plan
requirements and site terrain
 ensure minimum radius is maintained, where bends are necessary
 ensure use of specially designed dispensers to place the ducts in the trench
asstraight as possible
 ensure pipe/ ducts are placed at lower appropriate depths as per the laying
standards after approval from competent personnel
 ensure that ducts are free from twists, collapsed portions and that all such portions
are rectified by using appropriate couplers
 ensure proper uncoiling of PLB ducts
4.5 TYPES OF PIPE TO BE USED FOR OPTICAL FIBRE

CABLE
Optical Fibre Cables should be pulled through Permanently Lubricated PLB-
HDPE Duct of 40 mm-OD and 33 mm ID Pipe in 200/500/1000 Meter Coil.
 Wherever DWC pipe or GI pipes or R.C.C. pipes are used for protection, the two
ends of the pipe should be properly sealed to protect HDPE pipe from sharp edge
of GI pipe and to bar the entry of rodents. For providing additional protection
Split RCC/GI pipes should be used from top instead of full RCC/GI pipes.
 Use of normal duty DWC (Double walled corrugated) HDPE pipe – ISI marked
and anti-rodent conforming, choosing suitable DWC from nominal OD/ID dia
50/38,63/50,77/63,90/76,120/103,145/126,160/136,175/148 mm).
 It is recommended that where ever OFC is passing over the ground surface
(exposed outside) and more prone to damage, GI pipe may be used preferably.
Depending upon the site conditions and cost consideration one of the protection
viz DWC / GI / RCC pipe may be used.
4.6 STEPS INVOLVED IN OF CABLE TRENCHING AND

LAYING OF PLB DUCT
The Optical Fibre Cable shall be laid through PLB HDPE Ducts buried at a
nominal depth of 165cms. All Depths should be measured from the top of pipe. The steps
involved in OF Cable trenching are as under:

 Excavation of trench up to a nominal depth of 165 cms.in non-Rocky soil,

according to construction specifications. Along National/State Highways/other
roads and in built up /rural areas. Under exceptional conditions/ genuine
circumstances due to site constraints/ soil conditions, relaxation can be granted by
the competent authority for excavation of trench to a depth lesser than 165cm.
Such relaxation shall be given as per the laid down norms/ procedures being
followed by the concerned CPSUs for their own works and with the approval of
the competent authority. The payment in such cases shall be made on pro-rata
basis as per the existing norms adopted by the concerned CPSUs. Fig. 1 shows the
dimensional view of excavation of trench and other details of installation in
normal soil for PLB HDPE pipe.
Fig : 56 Trench in Normal Soil for PLB HDPE pipe
 Laying of PLB HDPE Ducts/coils coupled by sockets in excavated trenches, on

bridges and culverts, as per construction specification and sealing of PLB HDPE
Ducts pipe ends at every manhole by end-plugs of appropriate size.
 Providing additional protection by R.C.C. Pipes/GI pipes and/or

concreting/chambering, wherever required. According to construction
specification.
 Fixing of GI pipes/troughs with clamps on culverts/bridges and/or chambering or

concreting of G.I. Pipes/troughs, wherever necessary. Normally, RCC/DWC pipes
shall be used and use of GI pipes shall be avoided. However, in case it is felt that
GI pipe is unavoidable in certain circumstances this should be done with the prior
approval of competent authority within the concerned CPSUs. This shall be

recorded appropriately.
 Laying Protection Pipes on Bridges And Culverts. In case trenching and pipe
laying is not possible on the culverts, the pipes shall be laid on the surface of the
culverts/bridges after due permission from the competent authority as per
construction specification
 Back filling and Dressing of the Trench according to construction specifications.
 Making manhole (of size 2.0 m length x 1.0 m width x 1.65 m Depth) at every
Cable pulling location for housing the OF Cable loop & Pulling Optical Fibre
Cable using proper tools and accessories. Sealing of both ends of the PLB HDPE
pipe in manhole by hard rubber bush of suitable size to avoid entry of rodents into
the PLB HDPE Ducts, putting split PLB HDPE Ducts and split RCC pipes with
proper fixtures over cable in the manhole to protect the bare cable.
 Digging of pit of size 2 meter x 2 meter x 1.8 meter (depth) for fixing of Jointing
chambered-cast RCC cover or stone of suitable size on jointing chamber to protect
the Joint and backfilling of jointing chamber with excavated soil.
 Digging of pits 500 cm to 1000 cm towards jungle side at every manhole and
jointing chamber along the route to a depth of 75cms. fixing of route
Indicator/joint indicator, concreting and backfilling of pits. Painting of route
indicators with Blue colour and joint Indicator by Grey colour and sign writing
denoting route/joint indicator number for BBNL.
4.7 SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIALS TO BE USED

4.7.1 PLB HDPE Duct
Optical Fiber Cables should be pulled though Permanently Lubricated HDPE Duct
of 40mm/33 mm.
4.7.1.1 PLB HDPE Duct Accessories
a) Push fit Coupler
Push Fit couplers shall be used for coupling PLB HDPE ducts/coils.
b) PP Rope
The PP rope can be ordered along with the PLB duct as required. In this case PP
(Polypropylene Para Pro) ropes drawn through the HDPE/PLB pipes/coils and safely tied
to the end caps at either ends with hooks to facilitate pulling of the OF cables at a later
stage.
c) End Cap
End Cap shall be used for sealing the ends of the empty ducts, prior to installation
of the OF Cable and shall be fitted immediately after laying the duct to prevent the entry

of any dirt, water, moisture, insects/rodents etc.
Fig : 57 HDPE end Caps
d) Cable sealing Plug
This shall be used to seal the end of the ducts perfectly, after the OF cable is
pulled in the duct. For pulling the cable through the ducts, it is necessary to provide
manholes at that location and also at bends and corners wherever required. The ends of
the PLB HDPE ducts/coils are closed with Cable sealing Plugs.
4.7.2 Material for Providing Additional Protection

4.7.2.1 RCC Full Round Pipes
Reinforced cement concrete pipes (spun type) coupled with RCC collars sealed
with cement mortar used to provide additional protection to PLB HDPE Ducts/coils at
lessor depths should be of full round, NP-2 class and size 100 cm (internal diameter). The
pipes should have a nominal length of 2 meters. The RCC collars should be properly
sealed using cement mortar.

Fig : 58 RCC Collar
4.7.2.2 RCC Split Pipes
The split Reinforced cement concrete pipes (spun type) with in-built collars are
used to provide additional protection to PLB HDPE Ducts/coils should be of 100mm
internal dia.
4.7.2.3 G.I. Pipes
G.I. pipes should be of medium duty class having inner diameter of 50 mm.
4.7.2.4 DWC Pipes
Use of normal duty DWC (Double walled corrugated) HDPE as first choice for
protection of Optical Fiber Cable instead of GI pipes. The DWC pipes used shall be of
size 75/61mm.
4.7.2.5 M.S. Weld Mesh
The PLB HDPE Ducts can also be protected by embedding it in concrete of size
of 25 cms x25 cms reinforced with MS weld mesh. The strength of RCC/CC is dependent
on proper curing, therefore, it is imperative that water content of CC/RCC mix does not
drain out into the surrounding soil.
Fig : 59 M.S. Weld Mesh
4.7.3 Joint Chamber

The Joint chamber shall be provided at every joint location to keep the OF cable
joint well protected and also to house extra length of cable which may be required in the
event of faults at a later date. The Joint chamber shall be of pre-cast RCC type as per
construction specification. Brick chamber can also be made with prior permission of
Engineer in-charge.
4.7.4 Rubber Bush

To prevent entry of rodents into PLB HDPE DUCTS, the ends of PLB HDPE
DUCTS are sealed at every manhole and joint using rodent resistant hard rubber bush
(cap) after optical fibre cable is pulled. The rubber bush should be manufactured from
hard rubber with grooves and holes to fit into 40 mm PLB HDPE DUCTS pipe, so that it
should be able to prevent the entry of insects, rodents, mud, and rainwater into the PLB
HDPE DUCTS pipe.
Fig : 60 Rubber Cork
4.7.5 Route/Joint Indicator

The Route/Joint indicators are co-located with each manhole/joint chamber. In
addition Route indicators are also to be placed where route changes direction like road
crossings etc. Either RCC/Pre-cast or Stone based route indicators can be used.
4.8 LAYING / CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

4.8.1 Trenching
4.8.1.1 Location and Alignment of the Trench
In built up areas, the trench will normally follow the foot-path of the road except
where it may have to come to the edge of the carriage way cutting across road with
specific permissions from the concerned authorities maintaining the road (such
permissions shall be obtained by the department as per MOU signed with respective State
Govt.). Outside the built up limits the trench will normally follow the boundary of the
roadside land. However, where the road side land is full of burrow pits or afforestation or
when the cable has to cross culverts/ bridges or streams, the trench may come closer to
the road edge or in some cases, over the embankment or shoulder of the Road
(permissions for such deviations for cutting the embankment as well as shoulder of the
road shall be obtained).
Once the alignment is marked, no deviation from the alignment is permissible

except with the approval of Engineer-in- charge. While marking the alignment only the
center line will be marked and the Contractor shall set out all other work to ensure that,
the excavated trench is as straight as possible. The Contractor shall provide all necessary
assistance and labor, at his own cost for marking the alignment. Contractor shall remove
all bushes, undergrowth, stumps, rocks and other obstacles to facilitate marking the centre
line without any extra charges. It is to be ensured that minimum amount of bushes and
shrubs shall be removed to clear the way and the contractor shall give all, consideration to
the preservation of the trees.
The lineup of the trench must be such that PLB pipe(s) shall be laid in a straight
line, both laterally as well as vertically except at locations where it has to necessarily take
a bend because of change in the alignment or gradient of the trench, subject to the
restrictions mentioned elsewhere.
4.8.1.2 Line-Up
The line-up of the trench must be such that PLB HDPE Ducts shall be laid in a
straight line except at locations where it has to necessarily take a bend because of change
in the alignment or gradient of the trench, subject to the restrictions mentioned elsewhere.
4.8.2 Method of Excavation

In built up areas, the contractor shall resort to use of manual labour / HDD only to
ensure no damage is caused to any underground or surface installations belonging to other
public utility services and/or private parties.
However, along the Highways and cross country there shall be no objection to the
Contractor resorting to mechanical means of excavation, provided that no underground
installations existing the path of excavation, if any, are damaged.
There shall be no objection to resort to horizontal boring to bore a hole of required

size and to push through G.I. Pipe (50 mm ID) through horizontal bore at road crossing or
rail crossing or small hillocks etc.

All excavation operations shall include excavation and ‗getting out‘. ‗Getting out‘
shall include throwing the excavated materials at a distance of at least one meter or half
the depth of excavation, whichever is more, clear off the edge of excavation. In all other
cases ‗getting out‘ shall include depositing the excavated materials as specified.
In Rocky strata excavation shall be carried out by use of electro mechanical means
like breakers/ jack hammers or by blasting wherever permissible with express permission
from the competent authority. If blasting operations are prohibited or not practicable,
excavation in hard rock shall be done by chiseling/ jack hammers.
Trenching shall as far as possible be kept ahead of the laying of pipes. Contractor
shall exercise due care that the soil from trenching intended to be loose for back filling is
not mixed with loose debris. While trenching, the Contractor should not cause damage to
any underground installations belonging to other agencies and any damage caused should
be made good at his own cost and expense.
Necessary barricades, night lamps, warning board and required watchman shall be
provided by the contractor to prevent any accident to pedestrians or vehicles. While
carrying out the blasting operations, the contractor shall ensure adequate safety by
cautioning the vehicular and other traffic. The contractor shall employ sufficient man-
power for this with caution boards, flags, sign writings etc.
The contractor should provide sufficient width at the trench at all such places,
where it is likely to cave in due to soil conditions without any extra payment. A minimum
free clearance of 15 cms. should be maintained above or below any existing underground
installation. No extra payment will be made towards this. In order to prevent damage to
PLB HDPE DUCTS over a period of time, due to the growth of trees, roots, bushes, etc.,
the contractor shall cut them when encountered in the path of alignment of trench without
any additional charges.
In large burrow pits, excavation may be required to be carried out for more than
165 cms in-depth to keep gradient of bed less than 15 degrees with horizontal. If not
possible as stated above, alignment of trench shall be changed to avoid burrow pit
completely.
4.8.3 Depth and Size of the Trench

The depth of the trench form top of the surface shall not be less than 165 cms
unless otherwise relaxation is granted by competent authority under genuine
circumstances.
In rocky terrain, less depth shall be allowed only in exceptional circumstances

with additional protection where it is not possible to achieve the normal depth due to
harsh terrain/ adverse site conditions encountered. This shall be done only with the
approval of the competent authority and consent of the Engineer in-charge after following
the laid down norms and procedures being followed in the CPSUs concerned. This shall
be properly documented. In all cases, the slope of the trench shall not be less than 15
degrees with the horizontal surface. The width of the trench shall normally be 45 cms at
the top & 30 cms at the bottom.

In case, additional pipes (HDPE/GI/RCC Pipes) are to be laid in some stretches,

the same shall be accommodated in this normal size trench.
When trenches are excavated in slopes, uneven ground, inclined portion, the lower
edge shall be treated, as top surface of land and depth of trench will be measured
accordingly. In certain locations, such as uneven ground, hilly areas and all other Places,
due to any reason whatsoever it can be ordered to excavate beyond standard depth of 165
cms to keep the bed of the trench as smooth as possible. Near the culverts, both ends of
the culverts shall be excavated more than 165 cms. to keep the gradient less than 15
degree with horizontal. For additional depth in excess of 165 cms., no additional payment
shall be applicable.
If excavation is not possible to the minimum depth of 165 cms. as detailed above,
full facts shall be brought to the notice of the Engineer in charge in writing giving details
of location and reason for not being able to excavate that particular portion to the
minimum depth.
Approval shall be granted by the competent authority in writing under genuine

circumstances. The decision of the competent authority shall be final and binding on the
contractor. All the relaxations granted as specified above shall be dealt with as per the
laid down norms and procedure of CPSUs.
4.8.3.1 Dewatering:
The Contractor shall be responsible for all necessary arrangements to remove or

pump out water from trench. The Contractor should survey the soil conditions
encountered inthe section and make his own assessment about dewatering arrangement
that may be necessary. No extra payment shall be admissible for this.
4.8.3.2 Wetting:
Wherever the soil is hard due to dry weather conditions, if watering is to be done
for wetting the soil to make it loose, the same shall be done by the contractor. No extra
payment shall be admissible for this.
4.8.3.3 Blasting:
For excavation in hard rock, where blasting operations are considered necessary,
the contractor shall obtain approval of the Engineer-in-Charge in writing for resorting to
blasting operation. The contractor shall obtain license from the competent authority for
undertaking blasting work as well as for obtaining and storing the explosive as per the
Explosive Act, 1884 as amended upto date and the explosive Rules, 1983. The contractor
shall purchase the explosives fuses, detonators, etc. only from a licensed dealer.
Transportation and storage of explosive at site shall conform to the aforesaid Explosive
Act and Explosive Rules. The contractor shall be responsible for the safe custody and
proper accounting of the explosive materials. Fuses and detonators shall be stored
separately and away from the explosives. The Engineer-in-Charge or his authorized
representative shall have the right to check the contractor‘s store and account of
explosives. The contractor shall provide necessary facilities for this. The contractor shall
be responsible for any damage arising out of accident to workmen, public or property due

to storage, transportation and use of explosive during blasting operation. Blasting

operations shall be carried out under the supervision of a responsible authorized agent of
the contractor (referred subsequently as agent only), during specified hours as approved
in writing by the Engineer-in-Charge. The agent shall be conversant with the rules of
blasting. All procedures and safety precautions for the use of explosives drilling and
loading of explosives before and after shot firing and disposal of explosives shall be taken
by the contractor as detailed in IS: 4081 safety code for blasting and related drilling
operation.
4.8.3.4 Trenching Near Culverts/ Bridges:
The PLB HDPE Ducts shall be laid in the bed of culvert at the depth not less than
165 cms protected by RCC pipes as decided by Engineer- in charge. Both ends of culverts
shall be excavated more than 165 cms in depth to keep the gradient of not less than 15
degree with horizontal. The bed of trench should be as smooth as possible.
While carrying out the work on bridges and culverts, adequate arrangement for
cautioning the traffic by way of caution boards during day time and danger lights at night
shall be provided. In case of small bridges and culverts, where there is a likelihood of
their subsequent expansion and remodeling, the cable should be laid with some curve on
both sides of the culvert or the bridge to make some extra length available for
readjustment of the cable at the time of reconstruction of culvert or the bridge.
4.9 LAYING OF PLB HDPE DUCTS

 After the trench is excavated to the specified depth, the bottom of the trench has to
be cleared of all stones or pieces of rock and leveled up properly. A layer of soft
soil/or sand (in case the excavated material contains sharp pieces of rock/stones)
of not less than 5 cms is required for leveling the trench to ensure that the cable
when laid will follow a straight alignment. Adequate care shall be exercised while
laying so that the OF cables are not put to undue tension/pressure after being laid
as this may adversely affect the optical characteristics of cables with passage of
time.
 The contractor shall ensure that trenching and pipe laying activities are
continuous, without leaving patches or portions incomplete in between. In case
intermediate patches are left, measurement of the completed portions will be taken
only after work in such left over patches are also completed in all respects.
 Preparatory to aligning the pipe for jointing, each length of the PLB HDPE Ducts
shall be thoroughly cleaned to remove all sand, dust or any other debris that may
clog, disturb or damage the optical fibre cable when it is pulled at a later stage.
The ends of each pipe and inside of each Socket shall be thoroughly cleaned of
any dirt or other foreign materials.
 After the trench is cleaned the PLB HDPE Ducts/Coil shall be laid in the cleaned
trench, jointed with Sockets. Drawing up of PP rope is optional as per TEC GR. In
case of use of PP Rope, at every manhole approximately at every 200m or at
bends or turns the PP rope will be tied to the HDPE end caps used for sealing the
PLB HDPE Ducts, to avoid entry of rodents/mud etc.

 At the end of each day work, the open ends of the pipes sections shall be tightly
closed with endcaps to prevent the entry of dirt/mud, water or any foreign matter
into PLB HDPE Ducts until the work is resumed. In built up area falling within
Municipal/Corporation limits, the PLB HDPE Ducts shall be laid with protection
using RCC Pipes/ Concreting reinforced with weld mesh (only in exceptional
cases).
 For lesser depths requiring additional protection in built up areas, towns and cities
falling within t the municipal limits, suitable protection shall be provided to PLB
HDPE pipes/coils using RCC/DWC full round/split pipes or GI pipes or cement
concreting reinforced with MS weld mesh or a combination of any of these as per
the site requirement. This shall be done only with the prior instructions/approval
of the Engineer-in-charge. The specifications for providing each of these
protections are given later in this document.
 Moreover, in cross country routes, if depth is less than 1.2 meters, protection by
using RCC/DWC Pipe shall be provided. Engineer-in-Charges shall decide about
such stretches and type of protection to be provided in view of the site
requirements. Normally 100 mm RCC /DWC Pipes shall be used for protecting
PLB HDPE Ducts but if more than one PLB pipe is to be laid and protected,
RCC/DWC Pipe of suitable size to accommodate the required number of PLB
Pipes shall be used.
 The PLB HDPE Ducts shall be laid in RCC Full Round spun Pipes/GI Pipes as
required at Road crossings. The RCC pipes/GI pipes shall extend at least 3 meters
on either side of the road at Road crossings. At Road crossings, extra GI/PLB
HDPE Ducts may be laid as per the direction of the Engineer-in charge. On Rail
bridges and crossings, the PLB HDPE Ducts shall be encased in suitable cast iron
as prescribed by the Railway Authorities.
 Wherever RCC pipes are used for protection, the gaps between the RCC collars
and the RCC pipe shall be sealed.
 Wherever GI pipes are used, special care should be taken to ensure that G.I. Pipes
are coupled properly with the sockets so as to avoid damage to PLB pipe and
eventually the OF Cable in the event of pressure coming on the joint and G.I. Pipe
joint giving its way. Rubber bushes shall be used at either ends of the GI pipes to
protect PLB pipe.
 In case of protection by concreting at site, the nominal dimension of concreting

shall be 250 mm x250 mm section.
 For carrying out concreting work in trenches, yellow PVC sheets of width not less
than 1.0 M shall be spread and nailed on sides of the trench to form trapezoidal
section for concreting in the cleaned trench, to avoid seepage of water into the
soil.
 A bed of cement concrete mixture of appropriate width and 75 mm thickness shall

be laid on the PVC sheet, before laying PLB HDPE ducts. The PLB HDPE Ducts
shall then be laid above this bed of concrete. After laying the PLB HDPE Ducts,

MS weld mesh is wrapped around and tied and concrete mix is poured to form the
cross sectional dimensions as instructed by the Engineer-in-charge.
 The strength of RCC is dependent on proper curing therefore, it is imperative that

water content of RCC mix does not drain out into the surrounding soil. Portions
where cement concreting has been carried out shall be cured with sufficient
amount of water for reasonable time to harden the surface. After curing, refilling
of the balance depth of the trench has to be carried out with excavated soil.
 The PLB HDPE Ducts/RCC/GI Pipes shall be laid only in trenches accepted by
Engineer-in-Charge or his representative. The Contractor shall exercise due care
to ensure that the PLB HDPE Ducts are not subjected to any damage or strain.
 Water present in the trench at the time of laying the PLB HDPE Ducts shall be
pumped out by the contractor before laying the pipes in the trench to ensure that
no mud or water gets into the pipes, thus choking it.
 In case of nallahs, which are dry for nine months in a year, the PLB HDPE Ducts
shall be laid inside the RCC Pipes laid at a minimum depth of 165 cms., as
instructed by the Engineer-in-charge. The mechanical protection shall extend at
least 5 meters beyond the bed of nallah on either side.
 Notwithstanding anything contained in clauses referred above, the Engineer-in-

charge may order, based on special site requirements, that the PLB HDPE Ducts
may be encased in reinforced cement concrete. While laying the pipes, a gap of 2
M is kept at convenient locations approx. 200 m apart and at the bends and turns,
which will be used as manholes during OF cable pulling. Ends of the PLB HDPE
Ducts at the manholes shall be sealed using end caps after tying the PP rope to the
end caps to avoid choking of the pipes. In a similar manner, manholes shall be
kept while approaching bridges, road crossings etc., as instructed by the Engineer-
in-charge. The location of the manholes will be decided by the Engineer-in-
charge.
LAYING PROTECTION PIPES ON BRIDGES AND CULVERTS:
In case trenching and pipe laying is not possible on the culverts, the pipes shall be
laid on the surface of the culverts/bridges after due permission from the competent
authority. Of late the bridge construction authorities are providing channel ducts on the
footpaths on the bridges for various services. The RCC/DWC/ G.I. Pipes can be laid in
these ducts for pulling cables. However, for laying cables on existing bridges, where duct
arrangement does not exist, one of the following methods may be adopted.
a. In case of the Bridges/Culverts, where there are no ducts and where the cushion
on the top of the Arch is 50 cm to 100 cm or more, G.I. Pipe (Carrying PLB
HDPE pipe and cable) may be buried on the top of the Arch adjoining the parapet
wall, by digging close to the wheel guards. Every precaution shall be taken to see
that no damage occurs to the arch of the culvert. After burying the GI pipe, the
excavated surface on the arch shall be restored.

b. Where the thickness of the Arch is less than 50 cms, the pipe must be buried
under the wheel guard masonry and the wheel guard rebuilt.
c. If neither of the two methods is possible, the G.I. Pipes/GI Troughs must be
clamped on the parapet wall with the clamps. If necessary, the pipes may be taken
through the parapet wall at the ends where the wall diverges away from the road.
Methods cited in above clauses should be carried out under close supervision of
Road authorities.
The surface to be concreted should be thoroughly cleaned and leveled before

concreting. At both ends of the Bridges/Culverts, where the GI Pipes /GI Troughs slope
down and get buried, the concreting should be extended sufficiently to ensure that no
portion of the GI Pipes/GI Troughs is exposed as approved by the Engineer- in- charge to
protect the pipe/trough from any possible externally caused damage.
Where white wash/colour wash is existing on the Bridges/ Culverts, the same
should also be carried out on the concreted portion to ensure uniformity.
4.10 BACK FILLING AND DRESSING OF THE TRENCH

Provided that the PLB HDPE pipes have been properly laid in the trench at the
specified depth, the back filling operation shall follow as early as practicable. The earth
used for filling shall be free from all roots, Grass, shrubs, vegetation, trees, saplings and
any other kind of garbage or pebbles. The back filling operation shall be performed in
such a manner so as to provide firm support under and above the pipes and to avoid bend
or deformation of the PLB HDPE pipes when the pipes get loaded with the back filled
earth.
At locations where the back filled materials contains stones/sharp objects which
may cause injury to the PLB HDPE pipes and where the excavated or rock fragments are
intended to refill the trench in whole or in part, the trench should be initially filled, with a
layer of ordinary soil or loose earth (free from any stones/pebbles) not less than 10 cms
thick over the pipes.
Back filling on public, roads, railway crossings, footpaths in city areas shall be
performed immediately after laying the HDPE pipes. Back filling at such locations shall
be thoroughly rammed, so as to ensure original condition so that it is safe for the road
traffic. All excess soil/ material left on road/ footpath/railway crossing shall be removed
by contractor. However, along the highways and in country side, the excess dug up
material left over after refilling should be kept in a heap above over the trench.
In city limits, at any given time not more than 50 Meters length of trench should
be kept open and in all places where excavation has been done, no part of the trench
should be kept open over night to avoid occurrence of any mishap or accident in darkness.
4.11 INSTALLATION OF OFC WITH THE TRENCHLESS

TECHNIQUE
Horizontal directional drilling is an excellent alternative to traditional utility

installation methods. Unlike manual labor, trenching or excavation, the HDD process is
highly suitable in urban areas or places where aboveground obstructions exist that are
expensive, inconvenient or impossible to disturb for product installation. HDD machines
install utilities under obstacles such as roads, rivers, creeks, buildings and highways —
with little or no impact to the aboveground surface.
Fig : 61 General scheme of the directional drilling technique: drilling the pilot hole
The trenchless techniques (or no-dig techniques) allow installation of underground

optical cables minimizing or eliminating the need for excavation. These techniques create
a horizontal bore below the ground in which the underground infrastructure (ducts, pipes
or direct buried cables) can be placed. Trenchless techniques can reduce environmental
damage and social costs and, at the same time, provide an economic alternative to open-
trench methods of installation
From a general point of view, the trenchless techniques are very useful in the
following situations:
 where road surface excavation is restricted or prohibited by administrative

agencies, etc. (newly constructed roads, emergency vehicle entrances/exits, etc.);
 where the open-cut method cannot assure safety or would cause risks to traffic and
pedestrians;
 where noise, vibration, dust and other pollution are caused by open-cut method;
 where the open-cut method may impede road traffic and thus hinder the business
of nearby stores;
 where congested sections where open-cut method may damage the buried
facilities of other companies or sections where the presence of buried objects
causes significant lack of work efficiency;
 where conduits should be buried at deep locations and open-cut construction

would greatly increase the amount of excavated soil;

 where road surfaces use high-grade material which would increase the cost of
reinstatement after excavation;
 where road sections with high traffic volumes limit the work to the night-time
hours (lower work efficiency, higher labour costs);
 where open-cut construction would involve extra costs to move historic remains
or other items.
 normally 250cms depth is possible
 bore dia 100mm for 4 PLB or less pipes and for 5-8 PLB Bore dia 200mm.
 depth at the entry should be 165cms.
 depth, deviation and offset to be provided by machine automatically with graph.
 HDD is normally deployed in soft soil.
 GI route indicators at every 200 meter manhole and 30 cm above ground level
The choice of the most suitable technique to be adopted is related to each type of
application, as outlined in the following.
 Long installation lengths can be achieved (several km) by dividing the work
length into shorter sections (100-200 m as an average). The length of each section
will depend on the characteristics of the machines and the design requirements.
Boring/directional drilling (both fluid-assisted and dry boring) machines should be
used for this particular application.
 River and railway crossings were the first applications of trenchless technology
due to the fact that traditional digging techniques were not suitable. Surface-
launched machines are often the best solution because obstacles can be crossed
with a curved drilling path, thus avoiding the need to excavate deep launch and
reception pits (especially in river crossings). It is possible to consider two different
kinds of crossing with respect to the length and to the depth of the installed duct:
i) Road and railway crossings: For both, the length of the drilling is normally not
very long, so that both fluid-assisted and dry directional drilling machines can be
used, or the use of micro-tunnelling systems depending on the duct diameter;
ii) River crossings: The length and the depth of the bore normally required are
very long and deep, and it is important to avoid the excavation of big launch and
reception pits on the opposite sides of the river. For these situations the drilling is
started directly from the surface using a fluid assisted directional drilling system.
 Urban environments are also very attractive for the application of trenchless
technology because it could avoid, or drastically reduce, the troublesome
drawbacks normally created by digging work in urban areas. Due to the small
diameters of the ducts and the short distance of each drilling section (manholes or

chambers are normally very close together), a small and dry directional rig is used,
in order to reduce the overall dimension of the working site, and to avoid flooding
of the drilling fluid along the drilling path and the use of micro-tunnelling
systems, depending on the duct diameter.
4.12 INSTALLATION OF OFC WITH THE MINI-TRENCH

TECHNIQUE
The so-called mini-trenching technique allows the installation (in small trenches)
of underground optical cables in ducts. The advantages of this technique over
conventional cable laying technologies lie essentially in its speed of execution, lower
cost, significantly lower environmental impact and limited disruption to road traffic and,
as a consequence of the previous items, easiness in obtaining permits for the taking over
of public area.
The mini-trenching technique can be applied on routes that generally involve

asphalted surfaces such as roads and sidewalks with a compact soil subgrade. It is not
recommended that the technique be used on routes where the soil subgrade is sandy,
gravelly or contains medium-sized cobbles (i.e., measuring 10 to 20 cm in diameter). If
other underground utilities crossing a planned route already exist at a depth interfering
with the depth of the mini-trench, this technology is not appropriate.
4.12.1 Traditional mini-trench (10 × 30 cm)

Mini-trenching is normally carried out by simultaneously cutting through the
paving and digging a trench whose depth and cross-section vary in accordance with the
number of ducts to be laid: depth is normally between 30 and 40 cm, while cross-section
can vary between 7 and 15 cm. In order to guarantee a protection against impact resulting
from road-repairing, the depth of the laid infrastructure shall be maintained constant at a
known level that must be 5 cm deeper than the foreseen asphalt cutting depth normally
specified for road surface repair works.
Fig : 62 Example of mini-trenching installation configuration

In cases where the mini-trench is dug along a road with no curb or sidewalk, the
excavation shall normally be located at distance of around one metre from the edge of the
road (or, if possible, just on the external side of the lateral line). In special circumstances
where this is not possible, the mini-trench may be dug in the shoulder at the edge of the
asphalt. Any crossings through unpaved sections (which must in any case have a compact
subgrade) should be carried out using the same technique.
4.12.2 The enhanced mini-trench

Further mini-trench technique development has resulted in a new solution in
which all phases of duct/cable laying are simultaneous.
In details, the enhanced mini-trench is characterized by reduced dimensions of 5

cm wide and 30 cm deep (mini-trench 5 × 30), In the enhanced mini-trench 5 × 30 it is
possible to lay one Ø 50 mm duct or two (one laid upon the other).
Fig : 63 Example of mini-trench 5 × 30 cm configuration
The enhanced mini-trench allows one to operate with smaller machinery on

narrow roads, producing a lower quantity of waste material and thereby reducing
operating expense. So, this solution can operate both in urban and in non-urban
environments.

Fig : 64 Example of application of enhanced mini-trench 5 × 30 cm technology
4.12.3 Installation of OFC with the micro-trench technique

The micro-trenching technology can be applied on routes that involve asphalted
surfaces, such as roads or sidewalks with a base of compact material (asphalt or concrete).
Its advantages over conventional cable-laying technologies lie essentially in its speed of
execution, major reduction in infrastructure deployment costs, and significantly lower
impact on the environment and on road traffic. Protection against breakage from road
reparation is not possible due to the shallow depths used in micro-trenching techniques. It
is therefore essential to carefully plan the routes on which these techniques are to be used,
in order to provide long-term stability of the routes.
Micro-trenching is normally carried out by cutting a shallow groove in the asphalt

(better if not less than 7 cm), but without penetrating past the asphalt layer. Care must be
taken to avoid cutting entirely through the asphalt, as this could cause the pavement along
the sides of the groove to crack or split.
This precaution must be borne in mind in all cases where there is no lateral
protection on one or both sides of the groove, which can prevent the asphalt layer from
shifting, and particularly in cases where micro-trenching is performed along the edge of a
road with no curb or sidewalk. In such cases, the groove shall normally be located at a
suitable distance (e.g. at least one metre) from the edge of the road.
Groove width may vary (e.g. 10-15 mm) in accordance with the diameter of the
cable laid. The optical fibres are preferably enclosed in a metallic (e.g. copper) tube filled
with a suitable filling compound and surrounded by a polyethylene jacket.

Fig : 65 Sharp change in route direction
4.13 INSTALLATION OF AERIAL CABLES

Optical aerial cable include the normal practices for both self-supporting cables
(all dielectric or including a metallic element) and lashed cables (e.g. attached to a pre-
installed tension strand). The mechanical stresses and, therefore, strain experienced
during aerial cabling are generally less than those induced during underground placing
and in a mixed underground/overhead route underground cable may, with care, be used
for overhead sections.
In general, where end-pull or distributed pull methods are used, the various types
of systems indicated in the above clauses to protect the cable from excessive strain during
installation may be employed for aerial cable and it is good practice also to ensure that
cable back-tension is always carefully controlled. Where lashing to pre-tensioned support
wire or existing metallic cable is employed, the optical fibre aerial cable must be
constructed to withstand lashing. The lashing-wire tension must also be carefully
controlled. Great care must be exercised when handling cable in aerial route installations.
Provided the need to protect from overload and over-bending is borne in mind,
most normal aerial cable installation winching equipment including end-pull winches,
intermediate winches, controlled cable feeding devices, etc., can be used. For long length
installations, where end-pull or distributed-pull systems are used, it is very important that
proper guiding equipment is provided at positions where sharp changes of direction
occur, and every effort should be made to ensure pulling-in at an even speed.

Fig : 66 Aerial cable pulling through system
4.14 INSTALLATION OF BURIED CABLES

Normal buried cable installation methods, including ploughing (direct, vibratory
or winched), trenching and moling, can, in general, be used for direct burial of optical
fibre cable, provided the cable is specifically designed for this type of application. The
same depth of cover as for metallic cables is usually adequate, but traffic capacity or other
considerations of security may indicate a requirement for greater depth. Where a trench
method is used, back filling materials and practices may require particular consideration
so that fibre strain limits are not reached during this operation.
Fig : 67 Installation by cable ploughing
When ploughing methods are used the design of the guiding equipment between
the cable reel and the cable laying guide must take careful account of specified cable
bending criteria and have a low friction value to prevent fibre overstrain. Cable
overload protection systems are not normally necessary but, where a large ploughing
machine is used and there are driven cable reels and guide wheels, a tension device
can be incorporated.
In-service mechanical protection at road or service crossings or in situations of

high vulnerability may be felt to be necessary.

4.15 INSTALLATION OF OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES OVER

POWER LINES
Optical fibres are particularly suitable for use on the aerial power lines in high-
voltage networks, because they are immune by electromagnetic influences.
Optical Fibre Cables for laying over Power Lines: These cables are installed on
the overhead power distribution network. Following are the few types of the Optical Fibre
Cable for laying over Power Line.
1. All-Dielectric Self-supporting (ADSS) Optical Fibre Cable for laying on power

line alignments - To be installed on the overhead power distribution network up to 33
KV.
2. Optical Ground Wire (OPGW) Cable for laying on power lines) - To be installed
on existing high voltage Power Line alignments beyond 33 KV, up to 400 KV. The cable
may also replace the existing Ground Wire of the alignment.
4.16 CONCLUSION
Optical fibre must be protected from excessive strains, produced axially or in
bending, during installation and various methods are available to do this. The aim of all
optical fibre cable installation methods and systems should be to install the cable with the
fibre in, as near as possible, a strain free condition, ready for splicing.
Methods and practices used in the handling of optical fibre cables during
installation can, without producing any immediately evident physical damage or
transmission loss, affect their long term transmission characteristics.
After placement of PLB HDPE duct, the duct must be capped or plugged to
prevent moisture or foreign matter from entering until the cable installation starts

SECTION –II
CABLE PULLING AND BLOWING/JETTING
4.17 OBJECTIVE
 Know the importance of cable handling techniques
 Understand cable placing techniques
 Carry out Cable pulling and cable blowing
 Use the figure-of-eight technique for cable pulling
 Install the different types of indicator
4.18 INTRODUCTION
Fiber optic cable can be installed using different cable placing methods. This
chapter covers conventional cable placing techniques that are used to pull or blow (cable
jetting) the cable into the conduit or innerduct. Fiber optic cables may be ordered in bulk
lengths or in specific reel lengths to accommodate fixed splice locations. The cable
lengths are determined by measuring the distance between splice locations, including
allowances for racking in all manholes, plus enough excess to allow for splicing and slack
storage coils. Maximum cable lengths are limited by reel capacities.
4.19 ROUTE PLANNING AND SELECTION FOR OPTICAL

FIBER CABLE LAYING
 Survey of the cable route should be conducted.
 Manholes and ducts should be inspected to determine the optimum splice point
locations and duct assignments.
 Accessibility of manholes to splicing vehicles.
 Fibre optic cable must be protected in intermediate MH.
 A cable pull plan should be developed based on equipment/manpower resources

available.
 Reel and winch location should be inspected.
 The full plan about elevation and locations of bends and offsets, For ease of
installation
 Fill ratio of the duct should not exceed 50%. (OF cable in duct)

Fig : 68 Duct and cable ratio
 Bends describe pronounced turns in the routing of a duct system
4.20 CABLE HANDLING TECHNIQUE FOR STOCKING

 The cable drums stored in open shall be kept on strong surface
 Suitable stoppers shall be placed properly for its stability.
 The cable drums shall be stored in a manner allowing easy access for lifting and
moving and the drums shall be stored away from other construction activities
 The drum shall always be ‗rotated in the direction of an arrow which is marked on
the side boards of the drums‘ sometimes ‗roll this way‘ arrow is indicated on the
drum flange
 The drums shall not be rolled over objects that could cause damage to the
protective battens or the cable
 After transit, the drums shall be inspected for damage such as broken battens and
where possible, the outer layers of the cable should be inspected
 The cable drums shall always be kept upright with the cable ends securely tied to
prevent unwrapping. All battens or coverings shall be left in a place until the
cable is unrolled from the drums during installation.
Fig : 69 Cable drum

1. SEALING OF CABLE END
During all stages of storage/use, it is essential that the end of the cable are
effectively sealed by heat shrink end cap. Failure to effectively seal may result in
water entry in the cable and making it unfit for the use.
2. UNLOADING OF CABLE DRUMS
The drums shall not be dropped on the ground directly to avoid irreparable
damages to he cable due to impact.
Unload the drums with fork lift truck with forks enough to take full width of the
drum so that the weight is born by both the flanges or the cable drum may be
lifted by a suitable crane.
4.21 TOOLS REQUIRED FOR CABLE PULLING

1. Jack- One pair.
2. Rope for unloading / loading/unloading Cable winch.
3. Nylon rope drums of 1250 M (For machine pulling).
4. 4 mm rope
5. Swivel and shackle.
6. Pulling socks or cable grip
7. Lubricant.
8. Plastic bowls for lubricant
9. Sponge.
10. Walkie-Talkie 6 Nos.
11. Drop wires 2 kms.
12. Rubber, 2 / manhole.
13. Half round (split) pipes, 2 /manhole.
14. Polythene tape, 5 m/manhole.
15. Clamps 4 / manhole.
16. Cleaning brush for cleaning pipes.
17. Mandrill
4.22 CABLE HANDLING METHODS TO MAXIMIZE

INSTALLED LENGTHS BY PULLING

Where it is not possible, because of load limitations, to install long length optical
fibre cables using a single end-pull, it may be necessary to employ a method of dividing
the load along the cable length and this can be done, depending on circumstances, by
either static or dynamic methods.
The most common static method is known as the “figure-of-eight system”. This
procedure requires the cable drum to be placed at an intermediate point and cable drawn
in one direction of the route by normal end-pull techniques. The remaining cable is then
removed from the drum and laid out on the ground in a figure-of eight pattern. The winch
is then moved to the other end of the section and the laid out cable is drawn in using the
same end-pull method. This method requires appropriate space at the figure-of-eight
point.
Dynamic load sharing is more complicated and requires more equipment and
setting up; however, it has the advantage of allowing installation in one direction straight
from the drum. In this process special cable winches are employed at intermediate points
and the maximum load on the cable is related to the distance between these intermediate
points. It should be borne in mind that with intermediate winching all the installing forces
are transmitted through the cable sheath and the design of a particular cable being placed
by this method should take this into account. Intermediate or distributed winching
systems require good coordination, synchronization and communication between the
intermediate points. Capstan type intermediate winches may introduce additional cable
twisting.
Hand-pulling methods can be employed at intermediate points on long length

optical fibre cable installation, but great care must be taken to ensure that minimum
bending and other mechanical criteria are not contravened.
Fig : 70 A typical Example

4.23 CABLE STORAGE IN HANDHOLE

Handholes are frequently used to provide access to cable splices and slack storage
coils. On long cable pulls, handholes may be used to facilitate intermediate-assist placing
operations. The intermediate assist hand holes are typically installed near obstacles or at a
predetermined spacing that coincides with the maximum expected cable installation
length.
All handholes must be large enough to accommodate the minimum bend

diameters as required for cable placing and coiling operations. The splice closure
dimensions must also be considered when sizing the handhole. Innerducts should enter
the handhole near the corners so that the full width of the handhole can be used to coil the
cable.
Fig : 71 Cable Storage in Handhole
4.24 CABLE INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES

Various techniques are available to ease the installation of long lengths of fiber
optic cable. All have been used extensively in the field.
The length of cable that can be pulled in one operation will vary with duct conditions, the
equipment used, pulling technique selected, and the skill of the craftsmen.
For manual pulling, the rope may be attached to a diameter and then to the pulling
eye which is fixed to the cable end by supplier. The pulling may be done either manually
under close supervision watching all the time the pulling tension or by means of winch
with automatic cut off at set tension monitored through dynamometer fitted in the pulling
winch.
To reduce the friction between the cable and HDPE, a suitable lubricant may be
continuously applied with a sponge to the cable surface during pulling at every
intermediate man-hole. The standard lubricants with low frictional coefficient may be
used. As soon as 1 km cable or so is pulled towards one side of the route, sufficient
overlap of cable may be kept at splicing location so that the ends may be taken into the

Air conditioned splicing van placed at a convenient and nearby place. 15 meter cable may
be the maximum requirement.
4.24.1 central-pulls and Backfeeding Technique

 Longer cable pulls, or those involving many bends, may also use center-pull and
―back feeding‖ techniques.
 In a center-pull operation, set up the cable reel near the center of the duct run to be
pulled. Pull the cable in one direction to the next designated splice point.
Fig : 72 Step 1 - Pull or blow cable into first half of the cable route
 Next, the inside end of the cable is accessed by removing the remaining cable
from the reel and storing it on the ground in a figure-eight.
Fig : 73 Step 2 - Remove the cable from the reel and store in a figure-eight.
 Flip over the figure-eight so that the pulling-eye end of the cable is on top.
 Pull the exposed end of the cable in the opposite direction to complete the pull.
Hand tending of the cable paying off from the figure-eight is normally required.
Fig : 74 Step 3 – Pull or blow cable from the figure-eight into the second half of the
cable route
4.24.2 Forward-Feeding Technique

 In the forward-feed technique, the leading end of the cable and excess cable length
are pulled out of the inner duct at an intermediate manhole and stored on the ground

in a figure-eight.
Fig : 75 Step 1. Pull or blow cable to an intermediate manhole and store the cable in a
figure-eight.
The cable placing equipment is then repositioned, the figure-eight is turned over to
access the outside cable end, and the cable is fed back into the inner duct and pulled
forward into the next duct section.
Fig : 76 Step 2. Reposition the placing equipment and flip the figure-eight stack to
access the end of the cable.
Step 3. Feed the cable into the inner duct and pull or blow the cable to the splice
location.
This technique can be used multiple times during a cable installation to greatly
increase the distance between cable splices.
4.25 METHODS FOR FIBRE OPTIC CABLE INSTALLATION

INTO HDPE DUCTS.
The two most common methods are generally used for installation of O.F. Cable
into HDPE Telecom duct, which are:
 Cable Pulling
 Cable Blowing
4.25.1 CABLE PULLING

 Manholes marked during PLB HDPE Ducts pipe laying of approx. size of 2.0 m
length x 1.0 m width x 1.65 m depth shall be excavated for pulling the cables.
 There may be situations where addition manholes are required to be excavated, for
some reasons, to facilitate smooth pulling of cable.

 De-watering of the manhole, if required.
 The Optical Fibre cables are available in drums in lengths of appox. 2 kms. The cables
shall be blown / manually pulled (in exceptional cases) through already laid PLB
HDPE DUCTS. This work is to be carried out under the strict supervision of site in-
charge. It shall be ensured that during the blowing / pulling of Cable the tension is
minimum and there is no damage to the Cable/Optical fibers.
 After pulling of the drum is completed, both ends of the PLB HDPE DUCTS pipe in
each Man hole should be sealed by hard rodent resistant rubber bush, to avoid entry of
rodents/mud into PLBHDPE Ducts.
 The Manholes are prepared by providing 40 mm split PLB HDPE DUCTS pipe of 2.5
to 3m length and closing the split PLB HDPE Ducts by providing necessary clamps/
adhesive tape as per the directions of Engineer-in- charge. Afterwards, the split/cut
PLB HDPE DUCTS pipe are covered with 100 mm split RCC pipe of 2m length and
sealing the ends of RCC pipe with lean cement solution for protecting bare cable in
the manhole .
 After fixing of RCC Split Pipes necessary back filling/reinstatement and dressing of
manholes should be carried out as referred under trenching. The location of the
pulling manhole should be recorded for preparation of documentation.
4.25.2 cable blowing/jetting

This advanced method is based on the concept of consistent high pressure airflow,
equally distributed along the entire cable throughout the duct. The cable is mechanically
fed into the pressurized space to overcome the pressure drop at the entry point. The
additional pushing force at the entry point is important to increase the total blow able
length. A cable jet-blowing machine is combination with an appropriate Compressor is
essential for optimal blowing. For an effective Cable Blowing at an average speed of 50-
60 meter /min.
Cable blowing systems use high-pressure, high-velocity airflow combined with a

pushing force to install the cable. A hydraulic or pneumatic powered drive wheel or drive
belt is used to push the cable into the innerduct at the feed manhole. Controls and gauges
on the cable blowing system allow the operator to monitor and adjust the air flow and
push force that is exerted on the cable. Some cable jetting systems use a plug at the cable
end to capture the compressed air and generate a small pulling force on the end of the
cable.

Fig : 77 Blowing / Jetting Machine
4.25.3 Guidelines for Blowing/Jetting of cable

Before start of blowing/jetting of cable you must do the following:
 ensure duct joints are airtight to ensure smooth cable blowing using cable blowing
machines
 ensure cable blowing/ jetting is carried out using rodder as per standard process
 ensure availability of additional cable length (loop) at jointing locations, for future
use in case of failures
 ensure that ends of ducts are closed with End Plugs to avoid ingress of mud, water
or dust
 ensure that entire length of the duct is cleaned to remove sand, dust that may
damage the optical fiber cable
4.25.3.1 Factors Influencing the Blow able Length:
 Inside diameter of the duct.
 Outside cable diameter.
 Cable weight.
 Coefficient of friction between cable sheath and duct inner surface.
 Number of slopes.
 Cable stiffness
 Compressor parameters.
 Straightness of route.

 Degree of winding of the duct in the trench.
 Ambient temperature
4.25.3.2 Blowing Chamber & Manholes
 These Chambers at a distance of 1 Km, are required. The size of the Blowing
Chamber is 3m x 1m x 1.5m (length x width x depth). These Blowing Chambers
are temporary Chambers and are refilled after accomplishing the blowing
operation.
 Joint Pit. These are required at the termination locations. The distance of the
Splice Chambers depends upon the length of the Optic Fibre Cable being used.
Generally 2 Kms. length of Optical Fibre Cable is used. However, in developed
countries, 4/6 Kms. of Optic Fibre Cable lengths are used. Pit size must be chosen
carefully, taking into account length of Splice Closure and cable loop required for
splicing and future repair. Joint Pit is always greater than Splice Closure length
plus twice the minimum bending radius of the cable. A pit length of 1 metre is
sufficient for most of the splice Closures Generally size of the manhole is 1.5 m x
1m x 1.65(length x width x depth).
4.26 CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTING CHAMBER:

The joint chambers are provided at every joint to keep the O.F.C. joint well
protected and also to keep extra length of cable, which may be, required to attend the
faults at a later date. Jointing chambers are to be prepared at the Fiber Point of
Interconnect (FPIO) or normally at distance of every 2 kms. Actual location of jointing
chamber depends on length of cable drum and appropriateness of location for carrying out
jointing work. The location is finalized by Engineer-in-charge.
The jointing chambers are constructed by way of fixing pre-cast RCC

chambers/Brick Chambers and covers as per the instructions from Engineer-in- charge.
4.26.1 Pre cast RCC chamber

For fixing pre cast RCC chamber, first a pit of size 2 m x 2 m x 1.8 m depth shall
be required to be dug. Pre cast RCC chamber shall consist of three parts
(i) round base plate of 140 cm diameter and 5 cm thickness in two halves
(ii) full round RCC joint chamber with diameter of 120 cm and height of 100 cm and
thickness of 5 cm
(iii) round top cover will be in two halves with diameter of 140 cm and thickness of 5
cm having one handle for each half in centre and word ‗ BSNL OFC‘ engraved
on it.

Fig : 78 Pre cast RCC chamber
aAfter, fixing the pre cast RCC joint chamber, the joint chamber is filled with clean
sand before closing. Back filling of joint chamber pit with excavated soil shall be
carried out in the end.
4.26.2 Brick Chamber

The chamber should have internal dimensions of 1.2 m x 1.2 m and 1 m height.
The joint chamber should be so constructed that PLB pipe ends remain protruding
minimum 5 cms inside the chamber on completion of plastering. The PLB pipes should
be embedded in wall in such a way that, the bottom brick should support the pipe and
upper brick should be provided in a manner that PLB HDPE pipe remains free from the
weight of the construction. Pre-cast RCC slab with two handles to facilitate easy lifting,
of size 0.7 m x 1.4 m and of thickness of 5 cm having one handle for each half in centre
and word '‘OFC' engraved on it are to be used to cover the joint chamber. Two numbers
of such slabs are required for one joint chamber. The joint chamber is filled with clean
sand before closing. Back filling of joint chamber pit with excavated soil shall be carried
out in the end.
4.27 FIXING OF ROUTE INDICATORS / JOINT INDICATORS

Pits shall be dug 500 cm to 1000 cm towards jungle side at every Manhole and
Jointing chamber for fixing of Route/Joint Indicator. In addition, Route Indicators are also
required to be placed where O.F. Cable changes directions like road crossing etc. The pits
for fixing the indicator shall be dug for a size of 60 cms. x 60 cms. and 75 cms. (depth).
The indicator shall be secured in upright position by ramming with stone and
murrum up to a depth of 60 cms. and concreting in the ratio of 1:2:4 (1: cement, 2: coarse
sand, 4 stone aggregate 20 mm nominal size) for the remaining portion of 15 cms.
Necessary curing shall be carried out for the concreted structure with sufficient amount of
water for reasonable time to harden the structure.
4.27.1 RCC/Pre cast Route Indicators

The route /joint indicator made of pre-cast RCC should have the following
dimensions:
Base - 250 mm x 150 mm
Top - 200 mm x 75 mm
Height - 1250 mm
Fig : 79 RCC/PRE CAST ROUTE INDICATORS
4.27.2 Stone based Route Indicators

The route /joint indicators made of Sand/lime Stone Should have the following
dimension. The word ‗BSNL OFC‘ should be engraved on the Route/Joint indicators.
i. Stone to be used (Sand/lime Stone)
ii. Indicator Top surface to be rounded
iii. Base 155 mm × 100 mm
iv. Upper 500 mm length to be Tapered width wise as shown in the drawing and
homogeneously finished.

v. Height 650mm (Straight) + 400 mm (Tapered)
vi. The route indicators should be engraved with word ‗OFC‘ of size 80mm length
& 50mm, width.
vii. Length 3.5 Ft., top 4‖x4‖ dressed 1Ft. from top & tapered.
Fig : 80 Stone based Route Indicators
The Route indicators shall painted yellow and placed at 500 to 1000 cm away
from the centre of the trench towards jungle side. The Joint indicators are placed at OFC
joints and placed 500 to 1000 cm away from wall of the joint chamber facing jungle side
and are painted Red. The engraved word ― BSNL OFC‖ should be painted in white, on
route as well as joint indicators. Numbering of route indicators/joint indicators should
also be done in white paint. The numbering of existing route/joint indicator should not be
disturbed on account of additional joints. Enamel paints of reputed brand should be used
for painting and sign writing of route as well joint indicators.
The route and joint indicator shall be painted with primer before painting with oil
paint. The material used should bear ISI mark. The size of each written letter should be at
least 3.5 cms. The colours of painting and sign writing are as under:
(1) For Joint Indicator: Red colour
(2) For Route Indicator: Yellow colour
(3) For BSNL OFC & Nos: White colour.

4.28 CONCLUSION
Fiber optic cable may be installed indoors or outdoors using several different
installation processes. Outdoor cable may be direct buried, pulled or blown into conduit
or innerduct, or installed aerially between poles. Fiber cable is designed to be pulled with
much greater force this excess stress on the cable may harm the fibers, potentially causing
eventual failure. Particular care should be taken during installation to prevent kinking the
cable which can harm the fibers. When laying cable out for a long pull, use a "figure-8"
on the ground to prevent twisting. Since there are so many types of fiber optic cable and
so many different applications, so follow the cable manufacturer's recommendations.
Fiber optic cable is often custom-designed for the installation and the manufacturer may
have specific instructions on its installation.

TX Module FTTH Technology
5 FTTH TECHNOLOGY
5.1 OBJECTIVE
 Concept of FTTH.
 Network Architecture of FTTH
 GPON and GEPON technology.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Growing demand for high speed internet is the primary driver for the new
access technologies which enable experiencing true broadband. Today‘s, there is an
increasing demand for high bandwidth services in market around the world. However,
traditional technologies, like Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem
technologies, commonly used for ― broadband access,‖ which have access speeds to
the order of a megabit per second, with actual rates strongly dependent on distance
from the exchange (central office) and quality of the copper infrastructure, can not
fulfill today‘s customer demand for bandwidth hungry applications such as high-
definition TV, high-speed Internet access, video on demand, IPTV, online gaming,
distance learning etc. Amongst various technologies, the access methods based on the
optical fiber has been given extra emphasis keeping into long term perspective of the
country. It has many advantages over other competing access technologies of which
‗Being Future Proof‘ and providing ‗True Converged Network‘ for high quality multi-
play are the salient ones. The stable and long term growth of Broadband is, therefore,
going to be dependent on robust growth of fiber in the last mile.
However, for providing multi-play services (voice, video, data etc.) and other
futuristic services fiber in the local loop is must. The subscriber market for multi-play
is large and growing and includes both residences and businesses. Businesses need
more bandwidth and many of the advanced services that only fiber can deliver. All
view Multi- Play as a strong competitive service offering now and into the future and
are looking at fiber as the way to deliver. Optical fiber cables have conventionally
been used for long-distance communications. However, with the growing use of the
Internet by businesses and general households in recent years, coupled with demands
for increased capacity, the need for optical fiber cable for the last mile has increased.
A primary consideration for providers is to decide whether to deploy an active (point-
to-point) or passive (point-to-multipoint) fiber network.
5.3 FIBER TO THE X (FTTX)
Today, fiber networks come in many varieties, depending on the termination

point: building (FTTB), home (FTTH), curb (FTTC) etc. For simplicity, most people
have begun to refer to the fiber network as FTTx, in which x stands for the
termination point. As telecommunications providers consider the best method for
AGM/DGM (LICE) Page 93 of 194

delivering fiber to their subscribers, they have a variety of FTTx architectures to

consider. FTTH, FTTB, and FTTC each have different configurations and
characteristics.
5.3.1 FTTH (Fiber To The Home):

FTTH is now a cost-effective alternative to the traditional copper loop. ―
Fiber
to the Home‖ is defined as a telecommunications architecture in which a
communications path is provided over optical fiber cables extending from an Optical
Line Terminal (OLT) unit located in central office (CO) connects to an Optical
Network Terminal (ONT) at each premise. Both OLTs and ONTs are active devices.
This communications path is provided for the purpose of carrying telecommunications
traffic to one or more subscribers and for one or more services (for example Internet
Access, Telephony and/or Video-Television). FTTH consists of a single optical fiber
cable from the base station to the home. The optical/electrical signals are converted
and connection to the user‘s PC via an Ethernet card. FTTH is the final configuration
of access networks using optical fiber cable.
User’s Home
ONU
O Optical Fiber Cable

L
T
E
Central Office
Fig : 81 FTTH Configuration
5.3.2 FTTB (Fiber To The Building):

―Fiber to the Building‖ is defined as a telecommunications architecture in which a
communications path is provided over optical fiber cables extending from an Optical
Line Terminal (OLT) unit located in central office (CO) connects to an Optical
Network Unit (ONU at the boundary of the apartment or office or building enclosing
the home or business of the subscriber or set of subscribers, but where the optical
fiber terminates before reaching the home living space or business office space and
where the access path continues to the subscriber over a physical medium other than
optical fiber (for example copper loops).
User’s Building
Copper loops
L
ONU
T
E
Central Office
Fig : 82 FTTB Configuration

FTTB regarded as a transitional stage to FTTH. By introducing fiber cables

from the fiber termination point to the home living space or business office space
FTTB can be converted to full FTTH. Such a conversion is desirable as FTTH
provides better capacity and longevity than FTTB. Optical fiber cable is installed up
to the metallic cable installed within the building. A LAN or existing telephone
metallic cable is then used to connect to the user.
5.3.3 FTTC (Fiber To The Curb):

A method of installing optical fiber cable by the curb near the user‘s home.
An optical communications system is then used between the ONU installed outside
(such as near the curb or on Street Cabinet) from the installation center. Finally, copper
cable is used between the ONU and user.
User’s Home

ONU
L
T Copper Cable
E
ONU
Central Office
Fig : 83 FTTC Configuration
5.4 WHY FTTH?
FTTH is a true multi-service communications access which simultaneously

handles several phone calls, TV/video streams, and Internet users in the home/office.
There are several advantages of deploying FTTH over other traditional access
technologies as given below:
 FTTH provides end-users with a broad range of communications and

entertainment services, and faster activation of new services.
 Competition is beginning to offer a ―

multi-play‖ (i.e., voice, video,
data etc) bundle.
 FTTH provides Service Provider‘s with the ability to provide ―

cutting
edge‖ technology and ―
best-in-class‖ services.
 Deploying a fiber optic cable to each premise will provide an

extraordinary amount of bandwidth for future services.

 FTTH provides carriers with an opportunity to increase the average

revenues per user (ARPU), to reduce the capital investment required to
deliver multiple services, and to lower the costs of operating networks
(fewer outdoor electronics, remote management, ..) will result in less
operational expense.
 FTTH provides the community in which it‘s located with superior

communications which enhance the efficiency of local business and
thus deliver economic advantage for the community.
 Around the world FTTH is viewed as strategic national infrastructure

similar to roads, railways, and telephone networks.
5.5 TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR FTTH ARCHITECTURE:
When deciding which architecture to select a provider has many things to

consider including the existing outside plant, network location, the cost of deploying
the network, subscriber density and the return on investment (ROI). At present
different technology options are available for FTTH architecture .The network can be
installed as an active optical network, or a passive optical network (PON).
5.5.1 Active Optical Network

The active optical network implementation is known as the ― Active Node‖ and
is simply described as a ― point-to-point‖ solution. Subscribers are provided a
dedicated optical cable and the distribution points are handled by active optical
equipment. These active architectures have been setup as either ―Home Run Fiber‖
or ―Active Star Ethernet‖.
5.5.1.1 Home Run Fiber (Point-to-Point) Architecture
A Home Run Fiber architecture is one in which a dedicated fiber line is

connected at the central office (CO) to a piece of equipment called an Optical Line
Terminator (OLT). At the end user location, the other side of the dedicated fiber
connects to an Optical Network Terminal (ONT). Both OLTs and ONTs are active, or
powered, devices, and each is equipped with an optical laser The Home Run fiber
solution offers the most bandwidth for an end user and, therefore, also offers the
greatest potential for growth. Over the long term Home Run Fiber is the most flexible
architecture; however, it may be less attractive when the physical layer costs are
considered. Because a dedicated fiber is deployed to each premise, Home Run Fiber
requires the installation of much more fiber than other options, with each fiber
running the entire distance between the subscriber and the CO.

User’s Premise
Point To Point
CO
Fig : 84 Home Run Fiber (Point-to-Point) architecture
5.5.1.2 Active Star Ethernet (Point-to-Multi Point) Architecture
Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture is a point-to-Multi-point architecture

in which multiple premises share one feeder fiber through a Ethernet switch located
between the CO and the served premises.
User’s Premise
P2M Switched
Ethernet
CO
Fig : 85 Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture
With Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture, end users still get a dedicated
fiber to their location; however, the fiber runs between their location and Ethernet
switch. Like Home Run Fiber, subscribers can be located as far away from the
Ethernet switch and each subscriber is provided a dedicated ―pipe‖ that provides full
bidirectional bandwidth. Active Star Ethernet reduces the amount of fiber deployed;
lowering costs through the sharing of fiber.
5.6 PASSIVE OPTICAL NETWORK (POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT)

ARCHITECTURE
The key interface points of PON are in the central office equipment, called the
OLT for optical line terminal, and the CPE, called ONU for optical network unit (for
EPON) and ONT for optical network terminal (for GPON). Regardless of
nomenclature, the important difference between OLT and ONT devices is their
purpose. OLT devices support management functions and manage maximum up to
128 downstream links. In practice, it is common for only 8 to 32 ports to be linked to
a single OLT in the central office. On the other hand the ONT (or ONU) devices in

the CPE support only their own link to the central office. Consequently, the
ONT/ONU devices are much less expensive while the OLTs tend to be more capable
and therefore more expensive.
5.6.1 OLT:
The OLT resides in the Central Office (CO). The OLT system provides aggregation
and switching functionality between the core network (various network interfaces)
and PON interfaces. The network interface of the OLT is typically connected to the IP
network and backbone of the network operator. Multiple services are provided to the
access network through this interface,.
Fig : 86 PON Architecture
5.6.2 ONU/ONT:
This provides access to the users i.e. an External Plant / Customer Premises
equipment providing user interface for many/single customer. The access node
installed within user premises for network termination is termed as ONT. Whereas
access node installed at other locations i.e. curb/cabinet/building, are known as ONU.
The ONU/ONT provide, user interfaces (UNI) towards the customers and uplink
interfaces to uplink local traffic towards OLT.
5.6.3 PON:
Distributed or single staged passive optical splitters/combiners provides
connectivity between OLT & multiple ONU/ONTs through one or two optical
fibers. Optical splitters are capable of providing up to 1:64 optical split, on end

to end basis. These are available in various options like 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32
and 1:64.
5.6.4 NMS:
Management of the complete PON system from OLT.
 One OLT serves multiple ONU/ONTs through PON
 TDM/TDMA protocol between OLT & ONT
 Single Fiber/ Dual Fiber to be used for upstream & downstream
 Provision to support protection for taking care of fiber cuts, card failure
etc.
 Maximum Split Ratio of 1:64
 Typical distance between OLT & ONT can be greater than 15Km (with
unequal splitting - up-to 35Km)
 Downstream transmission I.e. from OLT to ONU/ONT is usually TDM
 Upstream traffic I.e. from ONU/ONT to OLT is usually TDMA
 PON system may be symmetrical or asymmetrical
 PON and fiber infrastructure can also be used for supporting any one way
distributive services e.g. video at a different wavelength
PON is configured in full duplex mode in a single fiber point to multipoint (P2MP)
topology. Subscribers see traffic only from the head end, and not from each other. The
OLT (head end) allows only one subscriber at a time to transmit using the Time
Division Multiplex Access (TDMA) protocol. PON systems use optical splitter
architecture, multiplexing signals with different wavelengths for downstream and
upstream.
5.7 SPLITTER CONFIGURATIONS
There are two common splitter configurations are being used for PON
architecture i.e. centralized and the cascaded approaches.

5.7.1 Centralized Splitter Approach

In Centralized Splitter Approach typically uses a 1x32 splitter in an outside
plant enclosure, such as a fiber distribution terminal. In the case of a 1x32 splitter,
each device is connected to an OLT in the central office. In this approach, optical
splitters are concentrated in a single location from which all customer‘s optical
network terminals (ONTs) at 32 homes are connected as shown in fig. 7.
Fig : 87 Centralized Splitter Approach
5.7.2 Cascaded Splitter Approach

A cascaded split configuration results in pushing splitters deeper into the
network as shown in fig.8. Passive Optical Networks (PONs) utilize splitter
assemblies to increase the number of homes fed from a single fibre. In a Cascaded
PON, there will be more than one splitter location in the pathway from central office
to customer. Currently, standard splitter formats range from 1 x 2, 1 x 4, 1 x 8, 1 x 16
and 1 x 32 so a network might use a 1 x 4 splitter leading to a 1 x 8 splitter further
downstream in four separate locations. Optimally, there would eventually be 32 fibers
reaching the ONTs of 32 homes.
Fig : 88 Cascaded Splitter Approach
There are several ― flavors‖ of PON technology, i.e. new access technology
named APON (ATM Passive Optical Network), BPON (Broadband Passive Optical
Networking), EPON (Ethernet Passive Optical Networking) and GPON (Gigabit
Passive Optical Networking) which delivers gigabit-per-second bandwidths while
offering the low cost and reliability.

APON
ATM PON (APON) was standardized by the ITU in 1998 and was the first
PON standard developed. It uses ATM principles as the transport method and
supports 622 Mbps downstream services and 155 Mbps upstream service shared
between 32-64 splits over a maximum distance of 20 km.
BPON
Shortly after APON, Broadband PON (BPON) followed and is very similar to
APON. BPON also uses ATM, but it also boasts superior features for enhanced
broadband services like video. BPON has the higher performance numbers then
APON pre-splitting maximum of 1.2 Gbps downstream and 622 Mbps upstream.
EPON
The IEEE standardized Ethernet PON (EPON) in the middle of 2004. It uses
Ethernet encapsulation to transport data over the network. EPON operates at rates of
1.25Gbps both downstream and upstream (symmetrical), using 8B/10B encoding over
a maximum reach of 20. EPON is also called now as Gigabit Ethernet PON (GE-
PON). It is defined as a single fiber network using Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM) operating at a wavelength of 1490 nm downstream and 1310 nm upstream.
This leaves the 1550 nm window open for other services, such as analog video or
private WDM circuits.
GPON
Gigabit PON (GPON) is the next generation of PON‘s from the line of APON
and BPON. The ITU has approved standard G.984x for it. GPON will support both
ATM and Ethernet for Layer 2 data encapsulation so is clearly an attractive
proposition. GPON supports two methods of encapsulation: the ATM and GPON
encapsulation method (GEM). GEM supports a native transport of voice, video, and
data without an added ATM or IP encapsulation layer. GPONs support downstream
rates as high as 2.5 Gbits/sec and an upstream rate from 155 Mbits/sec to 2.5
Gbits/sec. BSNL is procuring the GPON that will support downstream rate 2.5Gbps
and upstream 1.25 Gbps.
5.8 THE FEATURES OF DIFFERENT PON STANDARD
Features BPON GPON EPON
Responsible FSAN & ITU-T SG15 FSAN & ITU-T SG15 IEEE 802.3ah
Standard body
(G-983 Series) (G-984 Series)
Bandwidth Down Stream up to 622 Mbps Down Stream up to 2.5 Down Stream up to
Gbps 1.25 Gbps
Up Stream up to 155.52
Mbps Up Stream up to 2.5 Gbps Up Stream up to 1.25
Gbps

Downstream ‫ג‬ 1490 nm & 1550 nm 1490 nm & 1550 nm 1490 nm
Upstream ‫ג‬ 1310 nm 1310 nm 1310 nm
Layer-2 ATM ATM, Ethernet, TDM over Ethernet

Protocols GEM
Frame ATM GPON Encapsulation Ethernet Frame

Method
Max. Distance 20 km 20 Km(supports logical 10 and 20 Km.

(OLT to ONU ) reach up to 60 Km)
Split Ratio 1:16, 1:32 and 1:64 1:16, 1:32 and 1:64 1:16 and 1:32
Line Codes NRZ ( Scrambled ) NRZ ( Scrambled ) 8B/10B
Downstream AES: Advanced Encryption AES: Advanced Encryption Not Defined

Security Standard -128 bit key Standard ( Counter mode)
FEC None Yes Yes
No. of fibers 1 or 2 1 or 2 1
Protection Support multiple protection Support multiple protection None

Switching configuration configuration
5.9 CONCLUSION
From the BSNL network point of view GPON, being the TDM based
technology, shall integrate into the existing switching network. While the VOIP
feature in the GE-PON provides easy migration path to the Next Generation
Network (NGN) of the BSNL. Since TDM switches and the NGN are to coexist for
up to 2015 as per the NGN vision plan both GPON and GE-PON are the most suitable
PON technologies for BSNL.

TX Module SDH & NGSDH
6 SDH AND NGSDH
6.1 Objective
•Limitation of PDH signals.
•Concept of SDH.
•Multiplexing Structure of STM.
6.2 Introduction
With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications

networks were gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years. To
cope with the demand for ever higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called the
Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) evolved. The bit rates start with the basic
multiplex rate of 2 Mbit/s with further stages of 8, 34 and 140 Mbit/s. In North
America and Japan, the primary rate is 1.5 Mbit/s. Hierarchy stages of 6 and 44
Mbit/s developed from this. Because of these very different developments, gateways
between one network and another were very difficult and expensive to realize. PCM
allows multiple use of a single line by means of digital time-domain multiplexing.
The analog telephone signal is sampled at a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz, quantized and
encoded and then transmitted at a bit rate of 64kbit/s. A transmission rate of 2048
kbit/s results, when 30 such coded channels are collected together into a frame along
with the necessary signaling information. This so-called primary rate is used
throughout the world. Only the USA, Canada and Japan use a primary rate of 1544
kbit/s, formed by combining 24 channels instead of 30. The growing demand for more
bandwidth meant that more stages of multiplexing were needed throughout the world.
A practically synchronous (or, to give it its proper name: plesiochronous) digital
hierarchy is the result. Slight differences in timing signals mean that justification or
stuffing is necessary when forming the multiplexed signals. Inserting or dropping an
individual 64 kbit/s channel to or from a higher digital hierarchy requires a
considerable amount of complex multiplexer equipment.
Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on

multiplexing signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed).
Also, various parts of the world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of
international interworking; for example, between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s
systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048 Mbit/s system. To recover a 64
kbit/s channel from a 140 Mbit/s PDH signal, it‘s necessary to demultiplex the signal
all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s level before the location of the 64 kbit/s channel can
be identified. PDH requires ― steps‖ (140-34, 34-8, 8-2 demultiplex; 2-8, 8-34, 34-140
multiplex) to drop out or add an individual speech or data channel.

6.3 Plesiochronous Digital Multiplexing
PDH technology (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy) is based on pulse code

modulation (PCM). In pulse code modulation a multiple-shift usage of a transmission
link is enabled by TDM (time division multiplexing). PDH technology enables with
its hierarchical structures the implementation of networks with transmission capacities
of up to 140 Mbit/s. In applications with cross connecting on bit-level or with a
demand of special interfaces, PDH system technology is in use even today.
Traditionally, transmission systems have been asynchronous, with each

terminal in the network running on its own clock. In digital systems, clocking (timing)
is one of the most important considerations. Timing means using a series of repetitive
pulses to keep the bit rate of the data stream constant and to indicate where the ones
and zeros are located in a data stream. Because these clocks are free running and not
synchronized, large variations occur in the clock rate and thus the signal bit rate.
Asynchronous multiplexing uses multiple stages; lower-rate signals are

multiplexed, and extra bits are added (bit-stuffing) to account for the variations of
each individual stream and combined with other bits (framing bits) to form higher-
level bit rates. Then bit-stuffing is used again to produce even higher bit rates. At the
higher asynchronous rate, it is impossible to access these signals without
multiplexing.
The PDH systems belong to the first generation of digital terrestrial

telecommunication systems in commercial use.
Before SDH transmission networks were based on the PDH hierarchy. 2

Mbit/s service signals are multiplexed to 140 Mbit/s for transmission over optical
fiber or radio. Multiplexing of 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s requires two intermediate
multiplexing stages of 8 Mbit/s and 34 Mbit/s. Multiplexing of 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s
requires multiplex equipment known as 2nd, 3rd and 4th order multiplexer.

Fig : 89 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchies (PDH)
6.4 S.D.H. Evolution
SDH evolution is possible because of the following factors:
(i) Fibre Optic Bandwidth: The bandwidth in Optical Fibre can be increased
and there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH.
(ii) Technical Sophistication: Although, SDH circuitary is highly complicated, it

is possible to have such circuitary because of VLSI technique which is also
very cost effective.
(iii) Intelligence: The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.
(iv) Customer Service Needs: The requirement of the customer with respect to
different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional
equipment.
The different services it supports are:
1. Low/High speed data.
2. Voice

3. Interconnection of LAN
4. Computer links
5. Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)
6.5 Advantages of SDH
SDH brings the following advantages to network providers:
6.5.1 High transmission rates

Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in modern SDH
systems. SDH is therefore the most suitable technology for backbones, which can be
considered as being the super highways in today's telecommunications networks.
6.5.2 Simplified add & drop function

Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and insert
low-bit rate channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is no longer
necessary to demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous structure.
Fig : 90 Simplified add & drop function
6.5.3 High availability and capacity matching

With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements
of their customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a matter of minutes.
The network provider can use standardized network elements that can be controlled
and monitored from a central location by means of a telecommunications network
management (TMN) system.
6.5.4 Reliability
Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair
mechanisms to cope with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element does
not lead to failure of the entire network which could be a financial disaster for the

network provider. These back-up circuits are also monitored by a management

system.
6.5.5 Future-proof platform for new services

Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for services ranging from POTS, ISDN
and mobile radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it is able to
handle the very latest services, such as video on demand and digital video
broadcasting via ATM that are gradually becoming established.
6.5.6 Interconnection
SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network
providers and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized,
making it possible to combine network elements from different manufacturers into a
network. The result is a reduction in equipment costs as compared with PDH.
6.5.7 Support PDH Payloads

SDH supports the transmission of existing PDH payloads, other than 8Mbit/s.
Most importantly, because each type of payload is transmitted in containers
synchronous with the STM-1 frame, selected payloads may be inserted or extracted
from the STM-1 or STM-N aggregate without the need to fully hierarchically de-
multiplex as with PDH systems.
6.6 SDH Rates
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The basic unit of
SDH is STM-1. Different SDH rates are given below:
STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous.
6.7 The STM-1 frame format
The S.D.H. standards exploit one common characteristic of all PDH networks
namely 125 micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals (time for 1
byte in 64 k bit per second). This is the time for one frame of SDH. The frame
structure of the SDH is represented using matrix of rows in byte units as shown. As
the speed increases, the number of bits increases and the single line is insufficient to
show the information on Frame structure. Therefore, this representation method is
adopted. How the bits are transmitted on the line is indicated on the top of the figure.

The Frame structure contains 9 rows and number of columns depending upon
synchronous transfer mode level (STM). In STM-1, there are 9 rows and 270
columns. The reason for 9 rows arranged in every 125 micro seconds is as follows:
For 1.544 Mbit PDH signal (North America and Japan Standard), there are 25
bytes in 125 micro second and for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, there are 32 bytes in
125 micro second. Taking some additional bytes for supervisory purposes, 27 bytes
can be allotted for holding 1.544 Mbit per second signal, i.e. 9 rows x 3 columns.
Similarly, for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, 36 bytes are allotted in 125 micro
seconds, i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns. Therefore, it could be said 9 rows are matched to
both hierarchies.
The standardized SDH transmission frames, called Synchronous Transport

Modules of Nth hierarchical level (STM-N). The STM-1 frame is the basic
transmission format for SDH. The frame lasts for 125 microseconds; therefore, there
are 8000 frames per second.
A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s is defined in ITU-T Recommendation

G.707. This frame is called the synchronous transport module (STM). Since the frame
is the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy, it is known as STM-1. Figure 4
shows the format of this frame. It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270
columns. Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the upper left corner
and ending with the byte in the lower right corner. The frame repetition rate is 125
ms., each byte in the payload represents a 64 kbit/s channel. The STM-1 frame is
capable of transporting any PDH tributary signal.
The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. G.707 makes a
distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex
section overhead (MSOH). The reason for this is to be able to couple the functions of
certain overhead bytes to the network architecture. The table below describes the
individual functions of the bytes.
Fig : 91 Schematic diagram of STM-1 frame
Calculation of Bit Rate of STM-1
 NO OF ROWS IN FRAME: 9

 NO OF COLUMNS: 270
 NO OF BYTES IN FRAME: 270*9
 NO OF BITS IN A FRAME: 270*9*8
 FRAME DURATION: 125us
 NO OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN ONE SECOND: 270*9*8*1/125 µs
=155.520Mb/S
6.7.1 Section overhead (SOH) Area

The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. SOH means the
additional bytes in the STM-N frame structure needed for normal and flexible
transmission of information payload and these bytes are mainly used for the running,
management and maintenance of the network. In the 1~ 9 × N columns of the SDH
frame, 1~3 rows and 5~9 rows are allocated to the SOH. SOH can be further
categorized as RSOH (Regenerator Section Overhead) and MSOH (Multiplex Section
Overhead). 1~3 rows are allocated to RSOH and 5~9 rows to MSOH. RSOH can be
accessed either at the regenerator to at the terminal equipment. However, MSOH
passes a regenerator transparently and is terminated at the terminal equipment. Fig. 3
shows distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the
multiplex section overhead (MSOH).
Fig : 92 Section Overhead
The table below describes the individual functions of the bytes.

Table 1: Overhead bytes and their functions
6.7.2 Payload Area

Information payload area is the place where information about various
services is stored in the SDH frame structure. Horizontal columns 10 × N~270 × N,
and vertical rows 1~9 belong to the information payload area. In it, there are still
some Path Overhead (POH) bytes transmitted as part of the payload in a network and
these bytes are mainly used for the monitor, management and control of the path
performance.
6.7.3 Administrative Unit Pointer (AU-PTR) area

AU PTR is a kind of indicator, mainly used to indicate the accurate position of
the first byte of information payload in the STM-N frame, so that the information can
be correctly decomposed at the receiving end. It is located at the fourth row of 1~9 ×
N columns in the STM-N frame structure. The adoption of the pointer mode is an
innovation of SDH. It can perform multiplex synchronization and STM-N signal
frame locating in the quasi-synchronization environment.
6.7.4 Path overhead

Path Overhead (POH) bytes are mainly used for the monitor, management and
control of the path performance. A distinction is made between two different POH
types:
VC-11/12 POH
The VC-11/12 POH is used for the low-order path. ATM signals and bit rates
of 1.544 Mbit/s and 2.048 Mbit/s are transported within this path.

VC-3/4 POH
The VC-3/4 POH is the high-order path overhead. This path is for transporting
140 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s and ATM signals.
6.8 Network Elements of SDH
Figure 4 is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various

tributaries. The mixture of different applications is typical of the data transported by
SDH. Synchronous networks must be able to transmit plesiochronous signals and at
the same time be capable of handling future services such as ATM.
Fig : 93 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications networks

Current SDH networks are basically made up from four different types of network
element. The topology (i.e. ring or mesh structure) is governed by the requirements of
the network provider.
6.8.1 Terminal Multiplexer ( TM)

Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous
input signals into higher bit rate STM–N signals as shown in Fig. 3 below. On the
tributary side, all current plesiochronous bit rates can be accommodated. On the
aggregate, or line side we have higher bit rate STM–N signals. Terminal multiplexers
are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals into higher bit rate
STM-N signals.
Fig : 94 TM
6.8.2 Add/drop Multiplexers(ADM)

Add/drop multiplexers (ADM) permits add and drop of lower order signals.
Lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or inserted into high speed
SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes it possible to set up ring
structures, which have the advantage that automatic back-up path switching is
possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
Fig : 95 ADM

6.8.3 Regenerators
Regenerators as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and
amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and
distorted by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data
stream. Messages are received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g. service
channels E1, F1) in the RSOH (regenerator section overhead). Messages can also be
output using these channels.
Fig : 96 Regenerator
6.8.4 Digital Cross-connect (DXC)

This network element has the widest range of functions. It allows mapping of
PDH tributary signals into virtual containers as well as switching of various
containers up to and including VC-4. It permits switching of Transmission lines with
different bit rates.
Fig : 97 DXC
6.8.5 Network Element Manager

Telecommunications management network (TMN) is considered as a further
element in the synchronous network. All the SDH network elements mentioned so far
are software-controlled. This means that they can be monitored and remotely
controlled, one of the most important features of SDH.
Fig : 98 Network Element Manager

6.9 Next Generation SDH
Next Generation SDH enables operators to provide more data transport services
while increasing the efficiency of installed SDH/SONET base, by adding just the new
edge nodes, sometime known as Multi Service Provisioning Platforms (MSPP) / Multi
Service Switching Platforms (MSSP), can offer a Combination of data interfaces such
as Ethernet, 8B/10B, MPLS (Multi Protocol Label Switching) or RPR(Resilient Packet
Ring), without removing those for SDH/PDH. This means that it will not be necessary
to install an overlap network or migrating all the nodes or fiber optics. This reduces the
cost per bit delivered, and will attract new customers while keeping legacy services. In
addition, in order to make data transport more efficient, SDH/SONET has adopted a
new set of protocols that are being installed on the MSPP/MSPP nodes. These nodes
can be interconnected with the old equipment that is still running.
WHAT IS NEXT GENERATION SDH?
Following major issues that exist in the legacy SDH:
 Difficulty of mapping newer (Ethernet, ESCON, FICON, Fiber Channel etc)

services to the existing SDH transport network.
 Inefficient use of the transport network in delivering data services.
 Inability to increase or decrease available bandwidth to meet the needs of data

services without impacting traffic.
Three mature technologies—
 Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ITU-T G.7041
 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS), ITU-T G.7042
 Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), ITU-T G.707
-together in Next generation SDH solved the above issues and adding three
main features to traditional SDH:
 Integrated Data Transport i.e. Ethernet tributaries in addition to 2Mb,

140 Mb, STM-1,4,16 ----GFP
 Integrated non-blocking, wide-band cross connect (2Mb granularity)

making the efficient use of the transport network in delivering data
services ---VCAT

 Dynamic Bandwidth allocation, Intelligence for topology discovery,

route computation and mesh based restoration------LCAS
Fig : 99 Block Diagram of NGSDH
Next Generation SDH is Packet Friendly and have IP router like capabilities. It does
not matter if the client stream has constant or variable bit rates.
“VCAT provides more granularity, LCAS provides more flexibility and GFP
efficiently transports asynchronous or variable bit rate data signals over a
synchronous or constant bit rate”.
Hence,
Next Generation SDH = Classic SDH + [GFP+VCAT+LCAS]
6.10 COMPONENTS OF NEXT GEN SDH
6.10.1 GENERIC FRAMING PROCEDURE (GFP):

Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), an all-purpose protocol for encapsulating
packet over SONET (POS), ATM, and other Layer 2 traffic on to SONET/SDH
networks. GFP is defined in ITU-T G.7041 along with virtual concatenation and link
capacity adjustment scheme (LCAS) transforms legacy SDH networks to Next
generation SDH networks.
GFP adds dynamism to legacy SDH. GFP is most economical way of adopting
high speed services, constant bit rate and variable bit rate, in SDH networks and can
provide basis for evolving RPR.

Customer Operator
Edge Adaptation Core
Ethernet S
Na GFP VC LCAS
D
?
H
tiv M
FICON e U
Generic Virtual Link SONET/
Int Frame Concatenation X/
erf Capacity D SDH/
ESCON Procedure Adjustment E OTN
ac
Scheme M
es U
FC X
Fibre LAPS
Channel
Fig : 100 Functional Model of GFP
There are actually two types of GFP mechanisms ;-
1. PDU-oriented known as Frame mapped GFP (GFP-F)
2. Block-code-oriented known as Transparent GFP (GFP-T)
6.10.1.1 GFP-F: -
GFP-F (Framed) is a layer 2 encapsulation in variable sized frames. Optimised

for data packet protocols such as DVD, PPP and Ethernet, MPLS etc Frame mode
supports rate adaptation and multiplexing at the packet/frame level for traffic
engineering. This mode maps entire client frame into one GFP frames of constant
length but gaps are discarded. The frame is stored first in buffer prior to encapsulation
to determine its length. This introduces delay and latency.
6.10.1.2 GFP-T:
GFP-T is useful for delay sensitive services. GFP-T (Transparent) is a layer 1

encapsulation in constant sized frames. Optimized f or traffic based on 8B/10B
codification such as VoIP,DVB-ASI,1000BASE-T, SAN, Fibre Channel, and ESCON.

Fig : 101 GFP-F & GFP-T
Transparent mode accepts native block mode data signals and uses SDH frame
merely as a lightweight digital wrapper. GFP-T is very good for isocronic or delay
sensitive protocols &SAN (ESCON). GFP-T is used for FC, Gigabit Ethernet etc.
6.10.2 CONCATENATION (V-CAT & C-CAT) :

SDH concatenation consists of linking more than one VCs to each other to
obtain a rate that does not form part of standard rates. Concatenation is used to transport
pay loads that do not fit efficiently into standard set of VCs.
Two concatenation schemes are:
1. Contiguous concatenation
2. Virtual concatenation
Fig : 102 VCAT Efficiency

6.10.2.1 Contiguous concatenation:
The traditional method of concatenation is termed as contiguous. This means

that adjacent containers are combined and transported across the SDH network as one
container. Contiguous concatenation is a pointer based concatenation. It consists of
linking N number of VCs to each other in a logical manner within the higher order
entity i.e. VC4 and above. The concatenated VCs remain in phase at any point of
network. The disadvantage is that it requires functionality at every N/E adding cost and
complexity. Lower order VCs (VC-12, VC3) concatenation is not possible in
contiguous concatenation as shown in Fig.
6.10.2.2 Virtual Concatenation:
Virtual concatenation maps individual containers in to a virtually concatenated

link. Any number of containers can be grouped together, which provides better
bandwidth granularity than using a contiguous method. It combines a number of
lower/higher order VCs (VC-12, VC3 & VC4 payload) that form a larger concatenation
Group, and each VC is treated as a member. 10 Mb Ethernet would be made up of five
VC-12s, creating these finely tuned SDH pipes of variable capacities improve both,
scalability and data handling/controlling ability as per SLA (service level agreement).
The transport capacity with or without VC is shown in Fig. 4
2. VCs are routed individually and may follow different paths, within the
network, only the path originating and path terminating equipment need to recognize
and process the virtually concatenated signal structure as shown in Fig. 5
Transporting Concatenated Signals
Contiguous Concatenation
C-4 C-4
C-4 C-4
C-4 C-4 C-4 C-4
C-4 C-4 One Path C-4 C-4

NE NE
Core Network VC-4-4c
Virtual Concatenation
VC-4
Path 1 #1
Differential Delay
VC-4 VC-4 VC-4
#1 #1 #1
VC-4 VC-4
VC-4 #2
#2 #2
VC-4 VC-4-2v
Path 2 #2
Fig : 103 Virtual & Contiguous Concatenation
Virtual concatenation Benefits:
 Use the same core NEs, modify only edge NEs.

 Low investment and fast ROI (return on investment).
 Efficient & scalable i.e. fine granularity and multi-path capability.
 SDH gives best QoS, well engineered and reliable.
6.10.3 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme(LCAS):

Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) is an emerging SONET/SDH standard
and is defined in ITU-T G.7042 having capability to dynamically change the amount of
bandwidth used in a virtually concatenated channel i.e. bandwidth management
flexibility. LCAS is bi-directional signaling protocol exchanged over the overhead
bytes, between Network Elements that continually monitors the link. LCAS can
dynamically change VCAT path sizes, as well as automatically recover from path
failures. LCAS is the key to provide ―
bandwidth on demand‖.
LCAS enables the payload size of VCG (group of VCs) to be adjusted in real time
by adding or subtracting individual VCs, from VCG dynamically, without incurring hits
to active traffic. In LCAS, signalling messages are exchanged between the two VCs end
points to determine the number of concatenated payloads and synchronize the
addition/removal of SDH channels using LCAS control packets.
BENEFITS OF LCAS :-
A . Call by call bandwidth (Bandwidth on demand)
Customer
 rents a 6Mb Internet connection (VC-12-3v)
 calls to get additional 2Mb
Operator
 will provision additional VC-12 path
.and will hitless add it to existing connection via LCAS!
Fig : 104 Bandwidth call by call

B. Bandwidth on Schedule
A customer is offered a fixed bandwidth of 100 Mb (VLAN) Ethernet, allotting

46 VC-12 ( 0ne VC12 = 2.176 Mb x 46 = 100.1 Mb). Every night for one hour
additional 900 M ESCON service is provisioned by LCAS. New revenue opportunity
at low traffic hours.
Fig : 105 Bandwidth on scheduled Time
LCAS is not only used for dynamic bandwidth adjustment but also for survivability
options for next generation SDH. LCAS is a tool to provide operators with greater
flexibility in provisioning of VCAT groups, adjusting their bandwidth in service and
provide flexible end-to-end protection options. LCAS is defined for all high and low
order payloads of SDH.
6.11 Conclusion
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) & NGSDH is a standard technology for

synchronous data transmission on optical media. It is the international equivalent of
Synchronous Optical Network. Both technologies provide faster and less expensive
network interconnection than traditional PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)
equipment. Now Next Generation SDH is capable to support packet data also.

TX Module DWDM TECHNOLOGY-AN OVERVIEW
7 DWDM TECHNOLOGY-AN OVERVIEW
7.1 OBJECTIVE
•Concept of DWDM Technology.
•Network Architecture of DWDM
•Multiplexing Structure of DWDM.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
The emergence of DWDM is one of the most recent and important phenomena
in the development of fiber optic transmission technology. Dense wavelength-division
multiplexing (DWDM) revolutionized transmission technology by increasing the
capacity signal of embedded fiber. One of the major issues in the networking industry
today is tremendous demand for more and more bandwidth. Before the introduction of
optical networks, the reduced availability of fibers became a big problem for the
network providers. However, with the development of optical networks and the use of
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology, a new and probably,
a very crucial milestone is being reached in network evolution. The existing
SONET/SDH network architecture is best suited for voice traffic rather than today‘s
high-speed data traffic. To upgrade the system to handle this kind of traffic is very
expensive and hence the need for the development of an intelligent all-optical
network. Such a network will bring intelligence and scalability to the optical domain
by combining the intelligence and functional capability of SONET/SDH, the
tremendous bandwidth of DWDM and innovative networking software to spawn a
variety of optical transport, switching and management related products.
7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF DWDM TECHNOLOGY
Early WDM began in the late 1980s using the two widely spaced wavelengths
in the 1310 nm and 1550 nm (or 850 nm and 1310 nm) regions, sometimes called
wideband WDM. The early 1990s saw a second generation of WDM, sometimes
called narrowband WDM, in which two to eight channels were used. These channels
were now spaced at an interval of about 400 GHz in the 1550-nm window. By the
mid-1990s, dense WDM (DWDM) systems were emerging with 16 to 40 channels
and spacing from 100 to 200 GHz. By the late 1990s DWDM systems had evolved to
the point where they were capable of 64 to 160 parallel channels, densely packed at
50 or even 25 GHz intervals.
As fig. 1 shows, the progression of the technology can be seen as an increase

in the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the
wavelengths. Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in

their flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and management

capabilities.
Fig : 106 Evolution of DWDM
7.4 THE CHALLENGES OF TODAY'S

TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
To understand the importance of DWDM and optical networking, these

capabilities must be discussed in the context of the challenges faced by the
telecommunications industry, and, in particular, service providers. The forecasts of
the amount of bandwidth capacity needed for networks were calculated on the
presumption that a given individual would only use network bandwidth six minutes of
each hour. These formulas did not factor in the amount of traffic generated by
Internet access (300 percent growth per year), faxes, multiple phone lines, modems,
teleconferencing, and data and video transmission. In fact, today many people use the
bandwidth equivalent of 180 minutes or more each hour.
Therefore, an enormous amount of bandwidth capacity is required to provide

the services demanded by consumers. At the transmission speed of one Gbps, one
thousand books can be transmitted per second. However today, if one million families
decide they want to see video on Web sites and sample the new emerging video
applications, then network transmission rates of terabits are required. With a
transmission rate of one Tbps, it is possible to transmit 20 million simultaneous 2-
way phone calls or transmit the text from 300 years–worth of daily newspapers per
second.
In addition to this explosion in consumer demand for bandwidth, many service

providers are coping with fiber exhaust in their networks. Today, many operators are
nearing one hundred–percent capacity utilization across significant portions of their
networks. Another problem for operators is the challenge of deploying and integrating
diverse technologies in one physical infrastructure. Customer demands and
competitive pressures mandate that carriers offer diverse services economically and
deploy them over the embedded network. DWDM provides service providers an
answer to that demand .

Use of DWDM allows providers to offer services such as e-mail, video, and
multimedia carried as Internet protocol (IP) data over asynchronous transfer mode
(ATM) and voice carried over SDH. Despite the fact that these format—IP, ATM,
and SDH—provide unique bandwidth management capabilities, all three can be
transported over the optical layer using DWDM. This unifying capability allows the
service provider the flexibility to respond to customer demands over one network.
7.5 RESOLVING THE CAPACITY CRISIS
Faced with the challenges of increased service needs, fiber exhaust, and
layered bandwidth management, service providers need options to provide an
economical solution. One way to alleviate fiber exhaust is to lay more fiber; this will
not be the most economical solution. However, laying new fiber will not necessarily
enable the service provider to provide new services or utilize the bandwidth
management capability of a unifying optical layer.
A second choice is to increase the bit rate using time division multiplexing
(TDM), so that more bits (data) can be transmitted per second. Traditionally, this has
been the industry method of choice (STM–1, STM –4, STM –16, etc.). However,
when service providers use this approach exclusively, they must make the leap to the
higher bit rate in one jump, having purchased more capacity than they initially need.
Based on the SDH hierarchy, the next incremental step from 10 Gbps TDM is 40
Gbps—a quantum leap that may remain unutilized in the near future.
The telecommunications industry adopted the SDH standard to provide a

standard synchronous optical hierarchy with sufficient flexibility to accommodate
current and future digital signals. SDH accomplishes this by defining standard rates
and formats and optical interfaces. For example, multiple electrical and optical
signals are brought into a SDH terminal where they are terminated and multiplexed
electrically before becoming part of the payload of an STM–1, the building block
frame structure of the SDH hierarchy. The STM–1 payloads are then multiplexed to
be sent out on the single fiber at a single rate: STM-4 to STM-16 to STM-64 and
eventually to STM-256.
A synchronous mode of transmission means that the laser signals flowing

through a fiber-optic system have been synchronized to an external clock. The
resulting benefit is that data streams transmitting voice, data, and images through the
fiber system flow in a steady, regulated manner so that each stream of light can
readily be identified and easily extracted for delivery or routing.
7.6 CAPACITY EXPANSION AND FLEXIBILITY: DWDM
The third choice for service providers is dense wavelength division

multiplexing (DWDM), which increases the capacity of embedded fiber by first
assigning incoming optical signals to specific frequencies (wavelength, lambda)
within a designated frequency band and then multiplexing the resulting signals out
onto one fiber. Because incoming signals are never terminated in the optical layer, the
interface can be bit-rate and format independent, allowing the service provider to

integrate DWDM technology easily with existing equipment in the network while
gaining access to the untapped capacity in the embedded fiber.
DWDM combines multiple optical signals so that they can be amplified as a

group and transported over a single fiber to increase capacity. Each signal carried can
be at a different rate and in a different format (SDH, ATM, data, etc.) For example, a
DWDM network with a mix of SDH signals operating at 2.5 Gbps and 10 Gbps over
a DWDM infrastructure can achieve capacities of over 40 Gbps. A system with
DWDM can achieve all this gracefully while maintaining the same degree of system
performance, reliability, and robustness as current transport systems. Today we are
talking of DWDM terminals of up to 80 wavelengths of STM-16, a total of 200 Gbps,
which is enough capacity to transmit 40,000 volumes of an encyclopedia in one
second.
The technology that allows this high-speed, high-volume transmission is in

the optical amplifier. Optical amplifiers operate in a specific band of the frequency
spectrum, making it possible to boost light wave signals and thereby extend their
reach without converting them back to electrical form. Demonstrations have been
made of ultra wideband optical-fiber amplifiers that can boost light wave signals
carrying over 100 channels (or wavelengths) of light. A network using such an
amplifier could easily handle a terabit of information. At that rate, it would be
possible to transmit all the world's TV channels at once or about half a million movies
at the same time.
Consider a highway analogy where one fiber can be thought of as a multilane

highway. Traditional TDM systems use a single lane of this highway and increase
capacity by moving faster on this single lane. In optical networking, utilizing DWDM
is analogous to accessing the unused lanes on the highway (increasing the number of
wavelengths on the embedded fiber base) to gain access to an incredible amount of
untapped capacity in the fiber. An additional benefit of optical networking is that the
highway is blind to the type of traffic that travels on it. So, the vehicles on the
highway can carry ATM packets, SDH, and IP.
7.7 CAPACITY EXPANSION POTENTIAL
By beginning with DWDM, service providers can establish a grow-as-you-go

infrastructure, which allows them to add current and next-generation TDM systems
for virtually endless capacity expansion. DWDM also gives service providers the
flexibility to expand capacity in any portion of their networks—an advantage no other
technology can offer. Carriers can address specific problem areas that are congested
because of high capacity demands. This is especially helpful where multiple rings
intersect between two nodes, resulting in fiber exhaust.
Service providers searching for new and creative ways to generate revenue
while fully meeting the varying needs of their customers can benefit from a DWDM
infrastructure as well. By partitioning and maintaining different dedicated
wavelengths for different customers, for example, service providers can lease
individual wavelengths—as opposed to an entire fiber—to their high-use business
customers.

Compared with repeater-based applications, a DWDM infrastructure also increases

the distances between network elements—a huge benefit for long-distance service
providers looking to reduce their initial network investments significantly. The fiber-
optic amplifier component of the DWDM system enables a service provider to save
costs by taking in and amplifying optical signals without converting them to electrical
signals. Furthermore, DWDM allows service providers to do it on a broad range of
wavelengths in the 1.55µm region. For example, with a DWDM system multiplexing
up to 16 wavelengths on a single fiber, carriers can decrease the number of amplifiers
by a factor of 16 at each regenerator site. Using fewer regenerators in long-distance
networks results in fewer interruptions and improved efficiency.
7.8 THE OPTICAL LAYER AS THE UNIFYING LAYER
Aside from the enormous capacity gained through optical networking, the
optical layer provides the only means for carriers to integrate the diverse technologies
of their existing networks into one physical infrastructure. DWDM systems are bit-
rate and format independent and can accept any combination of interface rates (e.g.,
synchronous, asynchronous, STM-1, STM-4, STM-16 etc) on the same fiber at the
same time. If a carrier operates both ATM and SDH networks, the ATM signal does
not have to be multiplexed up to the SDH rate to be carried on the DWDM network.
Because the optical layer carries signals without any additional multiplexing, carriers
can quickly introduce ATM or IP without deploying an overlay network.
But DWDM is just the first step on the road to full optical networking and the
realization of the optical layer. The concept of an all-optical network implies that the
service provider will have optical access to traffic at various nodes in the network,
much like the SDH layer for SDH traffic. Optical wave-length add/drop (OADM)
offers that capability, where wavelengths are added or dropped to or from a fiber,
without requiring a SDH terminal. But ultimate bandwidth management flexibility
will come with a cross-connect capability on the optical layer. Combined with
OADM and DWDM, the optical cross-connect (OXC) will offer service providers the
ability to create a flexible, high-capacity, efficient optical network with full optical
bandwidth management.
7.9 KEY DWDM SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
There are certain key characteristics of acceptable and optimal DWDM

systems. These characteristics should be in place for any DWDM system in order for
carriers to realize the full potential of this technology. The following questions help
determine whether a given DWDM system is satisfactory.
 Well-engineered DWDM systems offer component reliability, system

availability, and system margin.
 An optical amplifier has two key elements: the optical fiber that is doped with
the element erbium and the amplifier. When a pump laser is used to energize the
erbium with light at a specific wavelength, the erbium acts as a gain medium that
amplifies the incoming optical signal. If a connector is used rather than a splice,

slight amounts of dirt on the surface may cause the connector to become
damaged.
 Automatic adjustment of the optical amplifiers when channels are added or

removed achieves optimal system performance. This is important because if
there is just one channel on the system with high power, degradation in
performance through self-phase modulation can occur. On the other hand, too
little power results in not enough gain from the amplifier.
 In the 1530- to 1565-nm range, silica-based optical amplifiers with filters and
fluoride-based optical amplifiers perform equally well. However, fluoride-based
optical amplifiers are intrinsically more costly to implement.
It is possible to upgrade the channel capacity or wavelengths. However, for this

they need either more power or additional signal-to-noise margin. For example, each
time providers double the number of channels or the bit rate, 3 dB of additional
signal-to-noise margin is needed.
7.10 VARIETIES OF WDM
Early WDM systems transported two or four wavelengths that were widely
spaced. WDM and the ― follow-on‖ technologies of CWDM and DWDM have
evolved well beyond this early limitation.
WDM
Traditional, passive WDM systems are wide-spread with 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16

channel counts being the normal deployments. This technique usually has a distance
limitation of less than 100 km.
CWDM
Today, coarse WDM (CWDM) typically uses 20-nm spacing (3000 GHz) of
up to 18 channels. The CWDM Recommendation ITU-T G.694.2 provides a grid of
wavelengths for target distances up to about 50 km on single mode fibers as specified
in ITU-T Recommendations G.652, G.653 and G.655. The CWDM grid is made up of
18 wavelengths defined within the range 1270 nm to 1610 nm spaced by 20 nm.
DWDM
Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with channel
count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand kilometers
with amplification and regeneration along such a route.
7.11 DWDM SYSTEM FUNCTION
DWDM stands for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, an optical

technology used to increase Band width over existing fiber optic backbones. Dense
wavelength division multiplexing systems allow many discrete transports channels by
combining and transmitting multiple signals simultaneously at different wavelengths

on the same fiber. In effect, one fiber is transformed into multiple virtual fibers. So, if
you were to multiplex 32 STM-16 signals into one fiber, you would increase the
carrying capacity of that fiber from 2.5 Gb/s to 80 Gb/s. Currently, because of
DWDM, single fibers have been able to transmit data at speeds up to 400Gb/s.
Fig : 107 Block Diagram of a DWDM System
A key advantage to DWDM is that it's protocol and bit rate-independent.

DWDM-based networks can transmit data in SDH, IP, ATM and Ethernet etc.
Therefore, DWDM-based networks can carry different types of traffic at different
speeds over an optical channel. DWDM is a core technology in an optical transport
network. Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with
channel count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand
kilometers with amplification and regeneration along such a route.
The concepts of optical fiber transmission, loss control, packet switching,

network topology and synchronization play a major role in deciding the throughput of
the network.
7.12 TRANSMISSION WINDOWS
Today, usually the second transmission window (around 1300 nm) and the
third and fourth transmission windows from 1530 to 1565 nm (also called
conventional band) and from 1565 to 1620 nm (also called Long Band) are used.
Technological reasons limit DWDM applications at the moment to the third and
fourth window.
The losses caused by the physical effects on the signal due by the type of
materials used to produce fibres limit the usable wavelengths to between 1280 nm
and 1650 nm. Within this usable range the techniques used to produce the fibres can
cause particular wavelengths to have more loss so we avoid the use of these
wavelengths as well.
7.13 DWDM SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Figure 3 shows an optical network using DWDM techniques that consists of

five main components:
7.13.1 Transmitter (transmit transponder):

- Changes electrical bits to optical pulses

- Is frequency specific
- Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse
7.13.2 Multiplexer/ demultiplexer:

- Combines/separates discrete wavelengths
7.13.3 Amplifier:
- Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side
- Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side (post amplifier) and
on the receive side (preamplifier)
- In line amplifiers (ILA) are placed at different distances from the source to
provide recovery of the signal before it is degraded by loss.
- EDFA (Eribium Doped Fiber Amplifier) is the most popular amplifier.
7.13.4 Optical fiber (media):

- Transmission media to carry optical pulses
- Many different kinds of fiber are used
- Often deployed in sheaths of 144–256 fibers
7.13.5 Receiver (receive transponder)

- Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits
- Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse
Fig : 108 DWDM System Components
7.14 BENEFITS OF DWDM
• Increases bandwidth (speed and distance)
• Does not require replacement or upgrade their existing legacy systems

• Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing data needs
• Less costly in the long run because increased fiber capacity is automatically
available; don't have to upgrade all the time
7.15 CONCLUSION
DWDM promises to solve the "fiber exhaust" problem and is expected to be

the central technology in the all-optical networks of the future. This increase means
that the incoming optical signals are assigned to specific wavelengths within a
designated frequency band, then multiplexed onto one fiber. This process allows for
multiple video, audio, and data channels to be transmitted over one fiber while
maintaining system performance and enhancing transport systems. This technology
responds to the growing need for efficient and capable data transmission by working
with different formats, such as SONET/SDH, while increasing bandwidth.

TX Module CPAN & OTN TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
8 CPAN & OTN TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
8.1 Objective
•Limitation of circuit switched network signals.
•CPAN & OTN Technology.
•Network Architecture of CPAN and OTN .
8.2 Introduction
The purpose of a transport network is to provide a reliable aggregation and

transport infrastructure for any client traffic type. With the growth of packet-based
services, operators are transforming their network infrastructures while looking at
reducing capital and operational expenditures. In this context, a new technology is
emerging: a transport profile of Multi-Protocol Label Switching called MPLS-TP.
Transport network requirements of BSNL in the present scenario requires packet

transportation, as all the new network elements are generating IP Traffic which is to
be
reliably transported. Based on this requirement, Packet Transport Network Planning
guidelines have been prepared which outlines the basic concepts,
technology & network architecture for the future transport network of BSNL. The
network basically comprises of MPLS-TP based nodes.
 In BSNL transport network was designed and deployed to carry basically

TDM traffic comprising of Els, STM-1s & STM-16s. The network elements
such as Switches, BTSs, BSCs& MSCs etc utilized TDM interfaces for
transportation of information from one place to the other as part of service
delivery. With the introduction of Broadband for which large number of
DSLAMs were installed for high speed Broadband delivery, transport of
Ethernet traffic was also introduced in BSNL network, through RPR Switches
deployed in metro districts.
 To carry TDM traffic efficiently & reliably SDH network comprising of STM-
1 CPE, STM-1 ADM, STM-4, STM-16 ADM, STM-16 MADM and STM-64
has been extensively deployed which carried all type of TDM traffic. For long
distance transport, linear DWDM systems ( 2.5G& 10G) were deployed which

carried mostly SDH traffic through its lambdas ( STM-1, STM-4, STM-16).
During 2009 Digital Cross Connect (DXCs) were also introduced in BSNL
network with granularity of STM-1 Cross Connect along with aggregation and
ASON capability. Thus SDH, DXC and DWDM is presently the backbone of
the transport network of BSNL.
 From 2006 onwards, with the advent of Ethernet over SDH (EoSDH) all
SDH,DWDM& DXC Equipment procured by BSNL had the capability of
transporting Ethernet traffic over SDH frame through Generic Framing
Protocol (GFP) and Virtual Concatenation. This technology enabled BSNL to
adapt to the transition phase in the technological development curve where the
network elements were progressively switching towards Ethernet Interfaces (
FE, GE) but continued to support TDM interfaces too. Further with
deployment of large numbers of RPR Switches and OCLAN Switches with
Broadband network the requirement of Ethernet transport through traditional
TDM transport backbone was minimal.Even the routers of MPLS network
(P&PE) had substantial TDM interfaces to enable the transportation of traffic
in secure reliable media, utilizing BSNL's traditional TDM transport
backbone.
 But the situation depicted above is rapidly changing with 100% network
elements being deployed by Mobile, Broadband and NGN for fixed access
supporting only Ethernet interface for interconnection. Thus the volume of
transport requirement for Ethernet Interfaces bas exponentially increased
while requirement of TOM transport is rapidly vanishing. The network
transportation requirement has clearly shifted from TOM with smaller portion
of Packet to almost l00o/o Packet transport. As we move in the era of Packet
transport, utilizing TDM network for the same becomes inefficient and costly.
Moreover, the packet network gives support to different class of services,
aggregation and dynamic statistical multiplexing etc. in transport layer for
efficient delivery of services.

8.3 What is Packet Transport Network?
Attributes required for Ethernet transport.
Attributes Packet network Transport network Packet transport

network
Connection mode Connectionless Connection oriented Connection oriented
OAM/Operation & Out of band In band In band

maintenance
Protection Control plane Data plane switching Data plane switching

switching depend
BW efficiency Statistical Fixed bandwidth Statistical

multiplexing multiplexing
Data rate Flexible Rigid SDH hierarchy Flexible

granularity
QoS QoS Single class QoS differentiation

differentiation
Packet Transport->Packet efficiency + Transport grade
8.4 MPLS-TP
The goal of MPLS-TP is to provide connection-oriented transport for packet

and TDM services over optical networks leveraging the widely deployed MPLS
technology. Key to this effort is the definition and implementation of OAM and
resiliency features to ensure the capabilities needed for carrier-grade transport
networks – scalable operations, high availability, performance monitoring and multi-
domain support.
Objective of MPLS-TP is:
 To enable MPLS to be deployed in a transport network and operated in a

similar manner to existing transport technologies (SDH/SONET/OTN)
 To enable MPLS to support packet transport services with a similar degree of

predictability, reliability, and OAM to that found in existing transport
networks
Current transport networks (e.g. SONET/SDH) are typically operated from a

network operation center (NOC) using a centralized network management system
(NMS) that communicates with the network elements (NEs) in the field via the

telecommunications management network (TMN). The NMS provides well-known

FCAPS management functions which are: fault, configuration, accounting,
performance, and security management. Together with survivability functions such as
protection and restoration, availability figures of >99,999% have been achieved
thanks to the highly sophisticated OAM functions that are existing e.g. in
SONET/SDH transport networks. This well proven network management paradigm
has been taken as basis for the development of the new MPLS-TP packet transport
network technology.
Moreover, MPLS-TP provides dynamic provisioning of MPLS-TP transport

paths via a control plane. The control plane is mainly used to provide restoration
functions for improved network survivability in the presence of failures and it
facilitates end-to-end path provisioning across network or operator domains. The
operator has the choice to enable the control plane or to operate the network in a
traditional way without control plane by means of an NMS. It shall be noted that the
control plane does not make the NMS obsolete – the NMS needs to configure the
control plane and also needs to interact with the control plane for connection
management purposes.
One of the major motivations for developing MPLS-TP was the need for the
circuits in Packet Transport Networks. Traditionally packet transport switches each
packet independently. However with connection oriented transport a ‗connection‘ is
first setup between the end points and then all the traffic for that connection follows
only that path through the network. This makes the Packet Transport Network very
similar to the TDM networks and simplifies management and migration of the
transport network.
The concept of Label Switched Paths or LSPs from MPLS technology is

already tried and tested and successful in the internetworking world. It made sense to
adapt it for use in Packet Transport Networks. However there was a need to simplify
the working of MPLS to make it more suitable for use in the Packet Transport World.
With this in mind, some features were removed from the traditional MPLS, since it
was felt that thesewere not needed in Transport World and would simply the network.
The features from MPLS that arenot supported by MPLS-TP are:
a) MPLS Control Plane: MPLS-TP does not require LDP or any other
control plane protocol toset up the circuits. Instead a user provisioned model is
followed. The user can provision acircuit from a centralized Network
Management System in a way similar to TDM networks.
b) Penultimate Hop Popping (PHP) : PHP is used by MPLS Edge Routers to

reduce the load oftwo label lookups. However this causes problems with QoS
and was disabled in MPLS-TP
c) LSP Merge: Merging two LSPs (going to the same destination) reduces the
number of labelsbeing used in the network. However it makes it impossible to
differentiate between trafficcommon from two different sources before the
merging happened. To simplify things intransport networks, LSP merge was
also disabled.

d) Equal Cost Multi Path: In traditional IP/MPLS networks different packets

between a source-destinationpair can take different paths. This is especially
true when multiple equal costpaths exist. However this is in conflict with the
concept of a circuit where all the traffic shouldfollow the same path. Hence
ECMP is disabled.
8.5 Differences between MPLS and MPLS-TP
When it comes to the major differences between MPLS and MPLS-TP, here's
what you need to know.
 Bidirectional Label Switched Paths (LSPs). MPLS is based on the

traditional IP routing paradigm -- traffic from A to B can flow over different
paths than traffic from B to A. But transport networks commonly use
bidirectional circuits, and MPLS-TP also mandates the support of bidirectional
LSPs (a path through an MPLS network). In addition, MPLS-TP must support
point-to-multipoint paths.
 Management plane LSP setup. Paths across MPLS networks are set up with
control-plane protocols (IP routing protocols or Resource Reservation
Protocol (RSVP) for MPLS Traffic Engineering (MPLS-TE). MPLS-TP could
use the same path setup mechanisms as MPLS (control plane-based LSP
setup) or the traditional transport network approach where the paths are
configured from the central network management system (management plane
LSP setup).
 Control plane is not mandatory. Going a step farther, MPLS-TP nodes

should be able to work with no control plane, with paths across the network
computed solely by the network management system and downloaded into the
network elements.
 Out-of-band management. MPLS nodes usually use in-band management or

at least in-band exchange of control-plane messages. MPLS-TP network
elements have to support out-of-band management over a dedicated
management network (similar to the way some transport networks are
managed today).

 Total separation of management/control and data plane. Data forwarding

within an MPLS-TP network element must continue even if its management or
control plane fails. High-end routers provide similar functionality with non-
stop forwarding, but this kind of functionality was never mandatory in
traditional MPLS.
 No IP in the forwarding plane. MPLS nodes usually run IP on all interfaces

because they have to support the in-band exchange of control-plane messages.
MPLS-TP network elements must be able to run without IP in the forwarding
plane.
 Explicit support of ring topologies. Many transport networks use ring

topologies to reduce complexity. MPLS-TP thus includes mandatory support
for numerous ring-specific mechanisms.
8.6 MPLS and MPLS-TP Components
As mentioned previously, MPLS refers to a suite of protocols, and MPLS-TP refers to

a set of compatible enhancements to the MPLS protocol suite. These protocols and
new enhancements can be separated into the following categories:
 Network Architecture—Covers the definition of various functions and the

interactions among them.
 Data Plane-Covers the protocols and mechanisms that are used to forward the
data packets. This can further be divided into the following subcategories:
o Framing, forwarding, encapsulation
o OAM
o Resiliency (protection and restoration)
 Control Plane—Covers the protocols and mechanisms used to set up the label-
switched paths (LSPs) that are used to forward the data packets.
 Management Plane—Covers the protocols and mechanisms that are used to

manage the network.

A list of protocols and mechanisms in each of these categories is provided in

Figure 1. The figure also highlights the set of enhancements that are being pursued by
MPLS-TP. The protocol and mechanisms highlighted in blue are being added to the
MPLS/GMPLS protocol suite as part of the MPLS-TP effort. In Figure 1, the
protocols and mechanisms highlighted in red might not be needed for the transport
networks and are, therefore, being made optional. Note that these mechanisms will
remain as part of the MPLS/GMPLS protocol suite. It is IETF‘s guidance to vendors
that these mechanisms do not need to be supported on the platforms that are being
targeted towards transport networks.
Fig : 109 Components of MPLS and MPLS-TP
8.7 Applicability and Deployment Options for CPAN
MPLS-TP enhancements are primarily applicable to the access and

aggregation networks, where the majority of the migration from circuit-switched
networks to packet-based networks is currently occurring, and where higher scale and
lower cost is required. Juniper believes that the OAM enhancements to the MPLS
protocol suite, however, will be extremely valuable to all MPLS networks, especially
in the MPLS-based core networks. These OAM enhancements will allow service
providers to have better visibility into their existing MPLS-based core networks,
which will allow further optimization. The new OAM capabilities will also help the
wholesale business by improving the tools required to measure and enforce strict

SLAs. Juniper, therefore, is prioritizing the implementation of these OAM

enhancements, such as the enhancements to BFD and LSP ping. Figure 2 illustrates
how IP/MPLS and MPLS-TP can be deployed together and are very complementary
in nature.
Fig : 110 MPLS and MPLS-TP Deployment Options
8.8 OTN
With the growing demand for services and bandwidth, now telecom operators
are trying to converge their networks in order to reduce Operational Expenses
(OPEX), and also to eliminate additional Capital Expenditures (CAPEX) on multiple
parallel networks. The amount of data traffic relative to voice traffic on optical
networks and the total traffic volume keeps increasing. These factors are the drivers
behind emerging, flexible technologies to supplement the mature, voice optimized,
SONET/SDH transport infrastructure and help manage network complexity. The aim
of the optical transport network (OTN) is to combine the benefits of SONET/SDH
technology with the bandwidth expandability of DWDM. OTN (Optical Transport
Network) provides a vehicle to enable convergence, and for providing a common and
SONET/SDH-like operational model for network operations, administration,
maintenance and provisioning (OAM&P) functionality, without altering the
individual services. This newly developed OTN is specified in ITU-T G.709 Network
Node Interface for the Optical Transport Network (OTN).
Since the 1980s, SONET/SDH is supporting a flexible and transparent mix of

traffic protocols including IP, Fiber Channel, Ethernet and GFP by providing
protection and performance monitoring. Whilst deployment of dense wavelength
division multiplex (DWDM) networks during the following decade served to increase
existing fiber bandwidth, it severely lacked the protection and management
capabilities inherent in SONET/SDH technology.
The optical transport network (OTN) was created with the intention of
combining the benefits of SONET/SDH technology with the bandwidth expansion
capabilities offered by dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) technology.

Networks employing OTN technology are designed and optimized to support

current applications employing massive network capacity, and OTN is increasingly
recognized as the transport standard of choice to meet the growing demand for
network capacity. The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
defines OTN in a set of standards, with the G.709 specification acting as the core
technology definition. The ITU-T standards cover the encapsulation format,
multiplexing, switching, management, supervision, and survivability of optical
channels carrying client payloads. OTN also provides the ability to measure network
performance across multiple service providers‘ domains and to provide seamless, end-
to-end monitored services.
An Optical Transport Network (OTN) is composed of a set of Optical

Network Elements connected by optical fiber links, able to provide functionality of
transport, multiplexing, routing, management, supervision and survivability of optical
channels carrying client signals. A distinguishing characteristic of the OTN is its
provision of transport for any digital signal independent of client-specific aspects, i.e.
client independence.
ITU Standard G.709 is commonly called Optical Transport Network (OTN)–

sometimes referred to as digital wrapper (DW), allows network operators to
converge networks through seamless transport of the various types of legacy protocols
while providing the flexibility required to support future client protocols.
OTN provides transport for all digital payloads with superior performance and
support for the next generation of dynamic services with operational efficiencies not
expected from current optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) transport
solutions and support for a wide range of narrowband and broadband services like
· SDH/SONET
· IP based services
· Ethernet services
· ATM services
· Frame Relay services
· Audio/Video services etc.

Fig : 111 Converged transport over OTN
16.1 KEY ADVANTAGES OF OTN
Unlike SONET/SDH, OTN was designed to be an efficient transport layer for

packet services such as Ethernet. At the same time, OTN is able to support the
multiplexing of many different protocols including SONET/SDH, video, and storage
protocols such as Fiber Channel.
OTN offers a number of advantages over legacy transport networks and the
primary advantages of OTN include:
 Reduction in transport costs: By allowing multiple clients to be transported

on a single wavelength, OTN provides an economical mechanism to fill optical
network wavelengths.
 Efficient use of optical spectrum: OTN facilitates efficient use of DWDM

capacity by ensuring fill rates are maintained across a network using OTN
switches at fiber junctions.
 Determinism: OTN dedicates specific and configurable bandwidth to each

service, group of services, or each network partition. This means that network
capacity and managed performance (throughput, latency, jitter, and availability)
are guaranteed for each client, and there is no contention between concurrent
services or users.
 Virtualize network operations: The ability to partition an OTN-switched

network into private network partitions, also referred to as Optical Virtual
Private Networks (O-VPNs), provides a dedicated set of network resources to a
client, independent of the rest of the network. Each network tenant sees only
the resources associated with that tenant‘s private partition. Other resources

associated with other tenants will not be visible. O-VPNs also ease network
evolution because network upgrades can be tested or introduced in a protected
network partition or ‗sandbox,‘ without the risk of impacting day-to-day
network operations in production partitions.
 Flexibility: OTN networks give operators the ability to employ the

technologies needed now to support transport demands while enabling
operators to adopt new technologies as business requirements dictate.
 Secure by design: OTN networks ensure a high level of privacy and security
through hard partitioning of traffic onto dedicated circuits. This segregation of
network traffic makes it difficult to intercept data transferred between nodes
over OTN-channelized links. And because OTN-switched networks keep all
applications and tenants separate, organizations can effectively stop hackers
who access one part of the network from gaining access to other parts of the
network.
 Robust yet simple operations: OTN network management data is carried on a

separate channel completely isolated from user application data. This means
OTN network settings are much more difficult to access and modify by gaining
admittance through a client interface port.
 Better Forward Error Correction: OTN has increased the number of bytes
reserved for Forward Error Correction (FEC), allowing a theoretical
improvement of the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) by 6.2 dB. This improvement
can be used to enhance the optical systems in the following areas:
 Increase the reach of optical systems by increasing span length or

increasing the number of spans.
 Increase the number of channels in the optical systems, as the required

power theoretical has been lowered 6.2 dB, thus also reducing the non-linear
effects, which are dependent on the total power in the system.
 The increased power budget can ease the introduction of transparent optical
network elements, which can‘t be introduced without a penalty. These elements
include Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers (OADMs), Optical Cross Connects (OXCs),
splitters, etc., which are fundamental for the evolution from point-to-point optical
networks to meshed ones.
 Tandem Connection Monitoring (TCM): TCM enables the user and its
signal carriers to monitor the quality of the traffic that is transported between
segments or connections in the network.
8.9 OTN Vs. SONET/SDH
Although OTN and SONET/SDH have similarities, there are also some
significant design differences. Perhaps the biggest difference is that SONET/SDH
was defined with fixed frame rates, while OTN was defined with fixed frame sizes.

Table-1: Comparison of SDH/SONET and OTN
OTN SONET/SDH
Asynchronous mapping of payloads Synchronous mapping of payloads
Timing distribution not required Requires tight timing distribution across

networks
Designed to operate on multiple Designed to operate on multiple wavelengths

wavelengths (DWDM)
Scales to 100 Gb/s (and beyond) Scales to a maximum of 40 Gb/s
Performs single-stage multiplexing Performs multi-stage multiplexing
Uses a fixed frame size and increases Uses a fixed frame rate for a given line rate
frame rate to match the client rate and increases frame size (or uses
concatenation of multiple frames) as client
size increases
FEC sized for error correction to Not applicable (no standardized FEC)
correct 16 blocks per frame
The G.709 standard defines client payload encapsulation, OAM overhead,

FEC, and a multiplexing hierarchy. These functions deliver optical transport
capabilities as robust and manageable as SONET/SDH, but with greater suitability
for current traffic demands, and data center interconnection circuits in particular.
OTN is asynchronous and thus does not require the complex and costly
timing distribution and verification of SONET/SDH. Instead, OTN includes per-
service timing adjustments to carry both asynchronous (GbE, ESCON) and
synchronous (OC-3/12/48, STM-1/4/16) services. OTN can additionally multiplex
these services into a common wavelength.
Like SONET/SDH, OTN also offers comprehensive OAM, but with

standardized FEC. OAM is used to efficiently manage network resources and
services. FEC enables service providers to extend the distance between optical
repeaters, reducing expenses and simplifying network operations.
8.10 Optical Transport Network (OTN) Layers
The optical transport hierarchy (OTH) is a new transport technology for

optical transport networks developed by the ITU. It is based on the network
architecture defined in various recommendations (e.g., G.872 on architecture; G.709
on frames and formats; and G.798 on functions and processes). OTH combines
electrical and optical multiplexing under a common framework. The electrical domain
is structured in a hierarchical order just like SONET/SDH, and the optical domain is
based on DWDM multiplexing technology but with standardized interfaces and

methods to manage the network. ITU-T recommendation G.872, Architecture for the
Optical Transport Network (OTN), defines two classes of OTN interfaces:
 OTN inter-domain interface (IrDI): This interface connects the networks

of two operators, or the subnetworks of one or multiple vendors in the
same operator domain. The IrDI interface is defined with 3R (reshape,
regenerate and retime) processing at each end. Since the IrDI is the
interface for interworking, it was the focus of the initial standard
development.
 OTN intra-domain interface (IaDI): This interface connects networks

within one operator and vendor domain. Since the IaDI is typically
between equipment of the same vendor, it can potentially have proprietary
features added such as a more powerful FEC
The transport of a client signal in the OTN (shown in Figure i.e. Basic OTN
Transport Structure) starts with the client signal (SONET/SDH, ATM, GFP, Ethernet
etc.) being adapted at the optical channel payload unit (OPU) layer by adjusting the
client signal rate to the OPU rate. The OPU overhead itself contains information to
support the adaptation process of the client signal. Once adapted, the OPU is mapped
into the optical channel data unit (ODU) with the necessary ODU overhead to ensure
end-to-end supervision and tandem connection monitoring. Finally, the ODU is
mapped into an OTU, which provides framing, as well as section monitoring and
FEC.
Fig : 112 IrDI Vs IaDI
Additional OH may be added to the OCh to enable the management of

multiple colors in the OTN. The OMS and the OTS are then constructed. The result is
an OCh comprising an OH section, a client signal, and a FEC segment.

Fig : 113 Basic OTN Transport Structure
The OCh OH, which offers the OTN management functionality, contains four
substructures: the OPU, ODU, OTU, and frame alignment signal (FAS).
Each OPUk (k=0,1,2,2e,3,4,flex) is transported using an optical channel (OCh)

assigned to a specific wavelength of the ITU grid. Several channels can be mapped
into the OMS layer and then transported via the OTS layer. The OCh, OMS and OTS
layers each have their own overhead for management purposes at the optical level.
The overhead of these optical layers is transported outside of the ITU grid in an out-
of-band common optical supervisory channel (OSC). In addition, the OSC provides
maintenance signals and management data at the different OTN layers.
8.11 Standard OTN Line Rates
G.709 defines standard interfaces and rates. OTN rates are equal to or higher than
the bit rates of the client traffic. Typical client signals and corresponding to G.709
rates are listed in Table-2.
Table 2
OPUk OTUk OTUk

OTN Line OTUk Line
Client Signal Payload frame frequency
Client Signal Signal Rate
Type [ Rate period accuracy
(G.709) (kbit/s)
(kbit/s) (µs) (ppm)

SONET/SDH STS-48/STM-16 OTU1 2,666,057 2,488,320 48.971 ± 20
SONET/SDH STS-192/STM-64 OTU2 10,709,225 10,037,629 12.191 ± 20
Ethernet/Fibre 10GBASE-
OTU2e 11,095,727 10,356,012 11.766 ±100
Channel R/10GFC
STS-768/STM-
SONET/SDH/E 256/
OTU3 43,018,413 40,150,519 3.034 ±20
thernet Transcoded 40GB
ASE-R
Up to
Ethernet OTU3e2 44,583,355 41,611,131 2.928 ±20
4 10GBASE-R
Ethernet 100GBASE-R OTU4 111,809,973 100,376,298 1.167 ±20
ODUflex signals are transported over ODU2, ODU3, ODU4 ±100
Note: ODU0 signals are to be transported over ODU1, ODU2, ODU3, ODU4 or
ODUCn signals, ODU2e signals are to be transported over ODU3, ODU4 and
ODUCn signals and ODUflex signals are transported over ODU2, ODU3, ODU4 and
ODUCn signals
Unlike SDH/SONET, the line rate is increased by maintaining the G.709 frame
structure (4 rows x 4080 columns) and decreasing the frame period (in SDH/SONET
the frame structure is increased and the frame period of 125 µs is maintained).
8.12 OTN Frame Structure
There are three overhead areas in an OTN frame: the Optical Payload Unit
(OPU) overhead, the Optical Data Unit (ODU) overhead, and the Optical Transport
Unit (OTU) overhead. These overhead bytes provide path and section performance
monitoring, alarm indication, communication, and protection switching capabilities.
One additional feature is the inclusion of a Forward Error Correction (FEC) function
for each frame. The FEC improves the Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR) by 4 to
6 dB, resulting in longer spans and fewer regeneration requirements.
Figure illustrates the three parts that constitute the G.709 OTN frame; namely
the overhead, the payload, and the FEC.

Fig : 114 OTN Frame
Although OTN and SONET/SDH have similarities but the biggest difference
in respect of frame structure is that SONET/SDH was defined with fixed frame rates,
while OTN was defined with fixed frame sizes.Perhaps the biggest difference is that
SONET/SDH was defined with fixed frame rates, while OTN was defined with fixed
frame sizes.
8.13 Optical Transport Network Equipment
There are several different types of optical transport network equipment being
deployed based on the OTN standards. The most common types include:
 Regenerators,
 OTN terminal equipment
 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADMs),
 Optical cross connect (OXCs).
OTN terminal equipment is used for point-to-point connections through WDM
networks, mapping the client signals into OPUs, sometimes multiplexing multiple
signals in the electrical domain, and finally performing mapping/multiplexing in the
optical domain. OADMs, OXCs, and some types of regenerators primarily process the
OTN signals in optical domain.
8.14 Conclusion
MPLS-TP is a set of enhancements to the already rich MPLS protocol suite.

The current MPLS suite has successfully served packet-based networks for more than
a decade. The MPLS-TP enhancements will increase the scope of MPLS overall,
allowing it to serve both the transport and the services networks.
The biggest and most important enhancements that are being developed under
the MPLS-TP effort are OAM related (e.g., fault management and performance
monitoring). These OAM enhancements will prove to be very valuable for the
existing MPLS networks, as they will allow operators to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of their networks by enabling full end-to-end integration with the
existing and the next-generation MPLS networks.

OTN-based backbones and metro cores offer significant advantages over

traditional WDM transponder-based networks, including increased efficiency,
reliability, and wavelength–based private services. The IP-over-OTN infrastructure
also offers better management and monitoring, reduced hops, increased protection of
services, and reduced costs for equipment acquisition. In addition to scaling the
network to 100G and beyond, OTN plays a key role in making the network an open
and programmable platform, enabling transport to become as important as computing
and storage in intelligent data center networking.

TX Module
9 TERRESTRIAL RADIO LINKS
9.1 Objective
•Microwave Communications
•Basic Link Budget
•Antenna
9.2 Introduction
We use the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum for many things,
including television and radio broadcasting, telephones and other wireless
communications, navigation and radar for a variety of measurements including police
speed traps, and even microwave cooking ovens. Electromagnetic waves can be broadly
classified in terms of frequencies along with their uses as follows in Table-1:
Table-1
RANGE NAM WAVELENG USES

E TH
0–30 KHz V.L.F Up to 10 km. Used for long communication. Has

. limited information. Bandwidth require very
high power.
30–300 L.F. 10 km to 1 km
KHz
0.3–3 M.F. 1 km to 100 m Radio Broadcast, Marine Power in KW,

MHz ground wave propagation, i.e. follows the
curvature of the Earth.
3–30 MHz H.F. 100 m to 10 m Long haul point to point

communication. Propagation is by one or more
reflections from ionosphere layers and so
subject to variations.
30–300 V.H. 10 m to 1 m Line of sight, Tropo-scatter

MHz F. communication.
0.3–3 U.H. 1 m to 10 cm. –––––– do ––––––

GHz F.
3–30 GHz S.H.F 10 cm to 1 cm. Line of sight, terrestrial M/W and

. Satellite communication.

TX Module
30–300 E.H.F 1 cm to 1 mm. Experimental.

GHz .
9.3 MICROWAVE
Microwave transmission refers to the technique of transmitting information over

microwave frequencies, using various integrated technologies. The portion of the
microwave spectrum called millimeter wave is highly susceptible to attenuation by the
atmosphere (especially during wet weather). The term SHF corresponds to
"MICROWAVE" Cent metric waves. As a convention frequencies, above 1 GHz and up
to 40 GHz are termed as Microwave. However, most of the m/w systems available are in
the range of 1 to 18 GHz.
Properties
 Suitable over line-of-sight transmission links without obstacles
 Provides good bandwidth
 Affected by rain, vapor, dust, snow, cloud, mist and fog, heavy moisture,
depending on chosen frequency (see rain fade)
Microwave radio relay
Microwave radio relay is a technology for transmitting digital and analog signals,
such as long-distance telephone calls and the relay of television programs to transmitters,
between two locations on a line of sight radio path. In microwave radio relay, radio waves
are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed radio
connection between the two points. Long daisy-chained series of such links form
transcontinental telephone and/or television communication systems.
How microwave radio relay links are formed
Because a line of sight radio link is made, the radio frequencies used occupy only a
narrow path between stations (with the exception of a certain radius of each station).
Antennas used must have a high directive effect; these antennas are installed in elevated
locations such as large radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances.
Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic reflectors and
horn radiators, which have a diameter of up to 4 meters. Highly directive antennas permit
an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission
distances.
9.4 Microwave link
A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in

the microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations,
which can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart.
Microwave links are commonly used by television broadcasters to transmit programmes
across a country, for instance, or from an outside broadcast back to a studio.
Properties of microwave links

TX Module
 Involve line of sight (LOS) communication technology
 Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade
 Have limited penetration capabilities
 Sensitive to high pollen count
 Signals can be degraded during Solar proton event
Uses of microwave links
 In communications between satellites and base stations
 As backbone carriers for cellular systems
 In short range indoor communications
9.5 Applications: M/W frequency bands are used for the following services :
(i) Fixed Radio Communication Services.
(ii) Fixed Satellite Services.
(iii) Mobile Services.
(iv) Broadcasting Services.
(v) Radio Navigation Services.
(vi) Meteorological Services.
(vii) Radio Astronomy Services.
To meet the requirements of all above mentioned services, co–ordination among

the users of M/W spectrum is necessary. In this regard (in the national context) the
wireless planning and co–ordination wing (WPC) of the ministry of communication has
allotted m/w frequencies spectrum, on the basis of various wireless users classified as
general users and major users. Wireless users who are permitted to plan their services and
take action for the development of the required equipments are major users. BSNL has
been nominated as a major wireless user by the WPC in 1981 in the following sub base
band of the m/w spectrum for fixed radio communication. Microwave Spectrum Available
for BSNL is shown in Table-2.
Table-2
Band Bandwidth Available Spectrum Space
2 GHz 300 MHz 2000–2300 MHz
4 GHz 900 MHz 3300–4200 MHz

TX Module
6 GHz 1185 MHz 5925–7110 MHz
7 GHz 300 MHz 7425–7725 MHz
11 GHz 1000 MHz 10,700–11,700 MHz
13 GHz 500 MHz 12,750–13,250 MHz
In India the first M/w System was completed in December, 1965 between Kolkata
and Asansol with a system capacity of 1200 channels. At present many kilometers of M/W
systems are scattered throughout the country and further expansion is taking place at a
very large rate.
9.6 System Capacity- Analog Systems
Microwave communication systems are used to carry telephony, television and

data signals. Majority of the systems, however, carry multi–channel telephone signals. The
spectrum of the multichannel telephone signal is shown in Fig.1. This signal is also called
base band (Fig. also shows the TV spectrum). Individual telephone channels, 4 KHz wide
(300 to 3400 Hz for speech and the remaining for signaling and guard band) are
multiplexed together in a multiplex equipment to get the base band. The system capacity
of line of sight systems ranges from 60 telephone channels to 2700 channels over a Radio
bearer with a few systems of lower capacities varying from 60 to 60 channels. On the
same m/w route one can use more than one radio channels, thus getting still larger
capacity. As an example one can accommodate 8 go and 8 return RF channels each with a
capacity of 1800 telephone channels in a 500 MHz bandwidth. Of course, in such cases
usually one or two RF channels are kept as a standby which are switched over
automatically on fading or equipment failure. Usually the system with capacities up to 300
channels is called narrow band system and the systems providing more than 300 channels
are called wide band system. M/W systems used to provide communication on major
trunk routes with high traffic density and serving long distances are classified as long haul
m/w systems. 2, 4, and 6 GHz systems are long haul systems. Systems used to provide
communication over short distances for trunk routes with light traffic density are classified
as short haul system. 7 and 11 GHz systems are short haul systems.
The base band frequency given in Table-3 below:
Table-3
Channel capacity Base band frequency in KHz
60 channels 12–252

TX Module
1800 channels 312–8120/316–8204
2700 channels 312–12336/316–12388
9.7 Transmission Capacities Available on the Radio Systems
The transmission capacities available on digital radio systems are, of course,

integral multiples of PCM hierarchical bit rates and are classified into small, medium and
large or high capacity systems. Specifically this categorization covers:
Low capacity – 704 kbps, 2 mbps and 8 mbps
Medium capacity – 34 mbps
High capacity – 140 mbps
Some manufacturers and some administrations have used some other integral
multiples also such as 2 x 8 and 2 x 34 mbps systems but these are not being considered in
the Indian network. The 704 kbps system is not other wise a standard system but has been
proposed in the Indian network context, because for the rural network it is found that a 2
mbps system corresponding to 30 channels was too large and wasteful of frequency
resource. This 704 kbps system corresponds to capacity of 10 channels, which is quite
adequate in the rural network of the country.
Frequency Bands
The frequency bands and the capacities which are proposed to be used by digital
microwave and UHF systems in the country are given in Table-4:
Table-4
Bit rate No. of

Nomenclature Frequency band
Mb/s. channels
Small capacity 0.704 10 658–712 MHz (UHF)
Small capacity 2.048 30 400 MHz band (UHF)
520–585 MHz (UHF)

Small capacity 8.448 120
622–712 MHz (UHF)
2 GHz band (M/W)

Small capacity 8.448 120
(2.0–2.3 GHz)
Medium
34.368 480 7 GHz band (M/W)
capacity

TX Module
(7.425–7.725 GHz)
13 GHz band (M/W)

Medium
34.368 480
capacity (12.75–13.25 GHz) band M/W
15 GHz band (M/W)

Medium
34.368 480
capacity (14.75–15.75 GHz)
4 GHz band (M/W)

High capacity 139.264 1920
(3.3–3.8 and 3.8–4.2 GHz)
6 GHz band (M/W)
High capacity 139.264 1920 (5.925–6.425 GHz; Lower)
(6.430–7.110 GHz; Upper)
11 GHz band (M/W)

High capacity 139.264 1920
(10.7–11.7 GHz)
9.8 Digital Radio Applications
9.8.1.1 Small Capacity Digital Radio Systems
– 10 channel systems in the UHF range are being developed indigenously with a
view to utilize them in the rural area where channel requirements are very small,
for example, linking an RAX to the nearest large exchange. The systems are
expected to work in the 1+0 unprotected configuration.
– 2 Mbps system in the UHF band is expected to serve the purpose of linking
secondary switching area centre to concentration points in the rural areas of a
secondary switching area. These are expected to be manufactured by ITI, BEL and
PCL. .
– 2 and 8 Mbps systems are expected to be available in the 18 to 20 GHz range.

These are likely to be applied with integral antenna, mounted on a mast and will
have point to multipoint application. These will be suitable for business network in
large urban centres. The hop lengths are likely to be a few kilometres depending on
rainfall statistics in a given area.
– 8 Mbps system in 2 GHz band is suitable for application as a short haul system and
will find application in the rural network, for linking either secondary switching
areas to their next higher TAXs or linking the secondary switching centre to trunk
concentration points in the rural area. The advantage of this system is the
possibility of using long hops. The equipment is to be manufactured by ITI and the
expected cost per terminal is not yet established. The type of antenna used will be
grid paraboloid.

TX Module
9.8.1.2 Medium Capacity Digital Systems
The systems being used in the BSNL in the medium capacity range are 2 GHz and
13 GHz 34 Mbps equipment. Their applications are as follows:
– 2 GHz, 34 Mb/s is to be used in the trunk network with longer hops than those
feasible in the higher frequency bands.
– 7 GHz, 34 Mbps system is being used in the trunk network to connect primary
centres to secondary switching centres. It is possible to use 4 frequency channels
with one standby channel but the equipment currently expected to be available in
the country is suitable for 1+1 RF bearer.
The modulation method used in 4 PSK, Hop lengths which sometimes tend to be
as much as 40 kms requiring space diversity along with frequency diversity.
– 13 GHz 34 Mbps equipment is being used almost exclusively in the junction

network in large urban telephone systems. The rain statistics do dictate the hop
length but the use being in the urban network does not cause much problem even
in cities like Calcutta where the rainfall is heavy. These are operated in N+1 mode
with the possibility of N=7. Because of the small hop length no multipath fading
problem is observed. The modulation method used is mostly 4 PSK.
9.8.1.3 High Capacity Digital Radio Systems
Presently, 6 GHz band 140 Mbps system is being introduced for long haul trunk
routes between major cities. This equipment because of its large capacity requires several
specific features in its design. These include the use of adaptive equalisers including base
band transversal equaliser to minimize intersymbol interference and IF band resonance
equaliser to equalise notch and slope besides using space diversity. Presently, these are
being used in the N+1 mode with N=7.

TX Module
10 MLLN – MANAGED LEASED LINE NETWORK

10.1 Objective
 MLLN Features
 Advantages of MLLN
 Network Architecture
 Network Elements of MLLN
10.2 Introduction
In the present age of globalization, businesses are spread all around the
world. In order to operate the business smoothly, there is a strong need for a
dedicated telecom link that can be connected geographically spread out locations of
several businesses. The telecom facility may be either shared such as dial-up lines or
non-shared such as leased lines and managed leased line networks (MLLNs).
The MLLN service is specially designed mainly for having effective control
and monitoring on the leased line so that the down time is minimized and the circuit
efficiency is increased. This mainly deals with data circuits ranging from 64 Kbps to
2048 Kbps.
The MLLN is a Managed Leased Line Network (MLLN) system, which can
provide managed leased line connectivity. A leased line is a telecommunications
path between two points that is available 24 hours a day for use by a designated user
(individual or company). These leased lines can carry data, voice and video
information. It is not shared in common among multiple users as dialup line.
Bandwidth of a leased line can be (E0 Interface) at 64Kbps and n x 64 Kbps up to a
maximum of 2 Mbps (E1 Interface).
ITI Palakkad, in collaboration with M/s Tellabs, Finland had carried out the
supply installation, commissioning and AMC of more than 8000 Physical nodes in
India, fro the BSNL Data network, spread out from Kashmir to Kanyakumari.
10.2.1 DRAWBACK OF TRADITIONAL LEASED LINE

CIRCUITS
1. Limited range of services - Only Plain Leased Line Service, Data cards
support only up to 64 kbps, no support for N x 64 Kbps.
2. From Operator pointt of view in case of Leased Line Circuit different

boxes from different vendors so difficult to manage & control.
3. No Centralized Monitoring or alarm or performance monitering.

TX Module
Therefore we should have a control to all this, we are able to identify before
the customer know which circuit has gone faulty The solution to this is MLLN
10.2.2 MLLN FEATURES:

1. MLLN is an integrated, fully managed , multi service digital network
platform through which service provider can offer a wide range of service at
an optimal cost to business subscriber.
2. Using NMS, MLLN can provide high speed Leased Line with improved
QoS, high availability & reliability.
3. Except for connecting the local lead to the MODEM all operations &
maintenance is carried out through ROT (Remote Operating Terminal)
4. NMS supports service provisioning, Network optimization, planning &

service monitering.
5. System offers end to end circuit creation and modification, circuit loop
testing & fault isolation, automatic rerouting of traffic in case of trunk
failure, software programmability of NTU etc.
6. Banking, Financial institution, Stock market, paper industry, broadcasting &

Internet service Provider main customers for MLLN.
10.2.3 MLLN ADVANTAGES:

1. 24 hrs Performance Monitering of the circuit. (how much time circuit time up
& down and the reason for down time e.g MODEM switch off or other
reason)
2. Circuit fault reports generated proactively.(Before customer know we should

detect the fault & rectify it)
3. On Demand the Bandwidth can be increased. (without changing the

MODEM recreate the circuit with the same MODEM)
4. Low lead time for new circuit provisioning. (Create & debug if any fault)
5. Protection against the failure of the circuit (through recovery Management

process either automatic or manually)
6. Long drive on single copper pair.( for 64 kbps – 7 kms & for 2mbps – 3.5
kms)
10.2.4 Centrally managed from ROT connected to the NMS

10.2.5 APPLICATION OF MLLN:
The applications offered by MLLN are:

TX Module
 Speech circuits (hot line or P-wire). Dedicated telecom links for speech,
say, hot line for voices between two different location is established by local
or long-distance circuit within a city or between two different cities. The
terminating equipment at both ends is telephone set without dialing facility.
In such a connection, both-way signaling and speech is possible.
 Data circuits. Dedicated local or long-distance point-to-point or point-to-

multipoint data circuits at different speeds, namely, n×64kbps and up to
2Mbps can be offered for different bandwidth needs of the customers. MLLN
offers flexibility of providing leased circuits with speeds of n×64kbps and up
to 2Mbps with differential time-dependent bandwidth provisioning.
 Private data network. More than one local or long-distance leased circuits
can be provided such that data from one leased circuit can be transferred
automatically to another leased circuit for the same subscriber.
 International leased circuits. International long-distance leased circuits can

be offered for business across the globe, which are useful for Internet leased
lines and international private leased circuits (IPLCs).
 Corporate high speed internet access through Broadband.
 LAN interconnection.
 Hotline connectivity for voice.
 Point to point connection for data circuit.
 point to multipoint connection.
 EPABX Interconnection.
 VPN on MLLN Network.
 Extension of VPN (MPLS) to Customer.
10.2.6 KEY ELEMENTS OF MLLN:

 MLLN Nodes
 Servers
 Workstations
 Networking Equipment
 Others (Printers, UPS etc)
10.2.7 MLLN Nodes

o DXC (Digital Cross-Connect)

TX Module
o VMUX (Versatile Multiplexer)
o NTU (Network Terminating Unit)
o NMS (Network Management System)
10.2.8 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE:
Fig : 115 Network Architecture of MLLN
10.2.9 DXC
Capacity
 DXC (64 ports upgradeable to 128 ports)
 DXC (256 ports)
1/0 cross-connect capability
Non-Blocking Architecture
Redundancy

TX Module
 Power Supply
 Switching Matrix
 Cross-connect Memory
Expansion to be made possible by addition of cards only.
Fully Managed from Centralized NMS
10.2.10 VMUX
Type - I, Type - II, Type - III with the configurations given below
64 kbps N*64 kbps E1 Links
VMUX Type I 32 8 12
VMUX Type II 16 4 4
VMUX Type III 8 4 4
Expansion to be made possible on the same chassis by addition of cards
Type III VMUX
> 230V AC Powered
> -48V DC Powered
VMUX to be able to extend hotline circuits
> Point to point and Point to Multi-point circuit routing should

be possible
HDSL Driving Distance:
> 3.5km at 2Mbps
> 5 km at 1Mbps
> 7km for 64/128kbps (at 0.5mm dia copper cable
10.2.11 NTU (Network Terminating Unit)

Capacity
> 64/128kbps NTU with V.35
> 64/128kbps NTU with G.703

TX Module
> N x 64kbps NTU with V.35
> N x 64kbps NTU with G.703
> N x 64kbps NTU with Ethernet Interface
Line Loop Testing as per ITU-T Rec V.54
64kbps NTU to work up to 128kbps
N x 64kbps NTU to work up to 2Mbps
NTU to send power off signal to the NMS at the time of NTU getting switched off.
STU-160 works up to 128kbps
CTU-S and CTU-R works up to 2Mbps on a single pair of copper
All NTU‘s support V.54 line loop testing and support dying gasp to send power off
signal at time of power off condition.
10.2.12 NMS (Network Management System)

o MLLN NMS
o Billing and Accounting System
o Web Self-care system
o We have offered Tellabs Network Manager Release 13 to meet the

requirements
o MLLN NMS performs all the management functions on the network
o Supports regional partitioning and VPN capabilities
o Offered Performance Monitoring, Recovery, Reporting Packages
o Offered HP Open view and Cisco works which would reside on SNMP
server for managing the servers and IT elements
10.3 Different Nodes Used in MLLN
A node can be described as a digital multiplexer equipped with several trunk

interfaces and as a digital cross-connect device equipped with several channel
interfaces.
The cluster node is used in the network as a high capacity cross-connection device
with several subracks. The basic nodes and midi nodes are used as flexible
multiplexers or medium capacity cross-connect equipment. They have both one
subrack.

TX Module
The basic nodes or midi nodes are used if customer access to the network
requires a lot of tributary port capacity. A basic node can also be used as a cross-
connect device in the network (on consolidation level). A midi node is usually used
as an access multiplexer. mini nodes are used as access multiplexers or low capacity
cross-connect equipment. micro nodes are used as small capacity cross-connection
devices especially in mobile networks. network terminating units (NTUs) are used
on customer premises. The accelerator node A111 combines PDH and SDH
technologies to form a solution for interfacing customer access to backbone
transport. The accelerator node A111 is an SDH access multiplexer with one or two
155 Mbit/s STM-1 aggregate electrical or optical interfaces.
10.3.1 Cluster Node:-

It is built in Master-slave architecture. The cluster node represents the largest
node of the System. It is built in master-slave architecture. It consists of a master sub
rack and 1 - 8 slave sub racks. Slave sub racks can be either double (32 unit slots),
single (16 unit slots) or midi (8 unit slots) sub racks.
The maximum cross-connect port capacity of a cluster node is

8 * 64 Mbit/s = 512 Mbit/s = 256 * 2048 kbit/s port = 64 * 8448 kbit/s port. Each
slave sub rack brings 64 Mbit/s to the cross-connect port capacity. The cluster node
can be expanded without disturbing the existing traffic. The cluster node cross-
connects at TS (64 kbit/s) level. The cluster node‘s master subrack is mechanically
similar to the double subrack in the basic node. The difference is that the
motherboard and bus extender cards are different.
10.3.2 Basic Node:-

The Basic Node is the basic building block of the system. (16 unit slot). It is
used in local exchange or backbone networks or customer premises networks,
depending on the needed services and application. The cross connect port capacity of
a Basic node is 64 Mbps = 32*2048 kbps port = 8*8448 kbps port
10.3.3 Midi Node:-

It is a small size flexible access node for customer premises. Midi node has
the same cross-connect functionality as the basic node (64 Mbps) One slot wide
multifunctional interface unit XCG designed for the Midi node. Midi node supports
mainly the same interface units as the basic node.
10.3.4 Mini Node:-

The mini node is a small cross-connect device, which can operate as either
part of the network connected to the network manager or as a separate cross-connect
device controlled and supervised locally. The mini node is functionally very close to
the basic node. The main difference is that in the mini node the common units
(Control Unit, Cross-connection Unit and Power Supply Unit) are integrated to the
node.

TX Module
The cross-connect port capacity of a mini node is 64 Mbit/s. It supports 2-4

interface modules with 1, 2, 5 or 10 interfaces each. Due to this limitation of the
number of interfaces, it is impossible to use all the cross-connection capacity
available. The cross-connection capabilities of a mini node are the same as in SXU-
A unit in a basic node. mini nodes can make cross-connections both at 64 kbit/s and
8 kbit/s level, the bit level cross-connection capacity is 95 TS and CAS cross-
connection capacity is 32 TS. Typically mini nodes are used as an access level node
in a network or as base station transmission equipment in mobile networks.
Tellabs 8170 cluster node

Tellabs 8160
accelerator node A111
Tellabs 8150 basic node
Tellabs 8140 midi node
Tellabs 8110 network terminating unit

Tellabs 8120 mini node
Tellabs 8130 micro node
Fig : 116 Different Nodes
10.3.5 Micro node :

The total cross-connection capacity of a micro node is 64 Mbit/s. The micro
node is fully non-blocking. They can make cross-connections both at time slot and at
bit level. The bit level cross-connection capacity is 127 TS (8128 kbit/s). micro
nodes do not support CAS signaling. The cross-connection delay is one frame (125
s).
The accuracy of the internal clock is ± 30 ppm and it supports both fallback
list and quality levels. The micro node does not have a build-in test generator or a
receiver for circuit loop testing.
10.3.6 Accelerator Node:-

It is an access node combining PDH and SDH technologies.
PDH features:-
-Support for many existing interfaces units
-Two X-buses and consequently 2 x 64 Mbps = 128 Mbps capacity

TX Module
Application e.g. DSLAM
Cross connections are done only at TS level, 64 kbps.
Operated with the network manager
10.3.7 Switch Node:-

It is an N.E with ADM, LTM and SDXC.
Operated with the network manager
10.4 Conclusion
The MLLN is an integrated, fully managed, multi-service digital network
platform through which service providers can offer a wide range of services at an
optimal cost to Business Subscribers. Backed by a flexible Network Management
System with powerful diagnostics and maintenance tools, the MLLN can be used to
provide high-speed leased lines with improved QoS (Quality of Service), high
availability and reliability. The Network Management System also supports Service
Provisioning, Network Optimization, Planning and Service Monitoring.

TX Module TRANSMISSION MEDIA EQUIP PLANNING & INSTALLATION
11 TRANSMISSION MEDIA EQUIPMENT PLANNING

AND INSTALLATION
11.1 OBJECTIVE
 understand the planning of fiber optic network
 carry preliminary survey of OF route
 select the suitable route
 carry out the detailed survey
11.2 INTRODUCTION
The most important task in the plan (design) of fiber optic link is to
determine the maximum range of the optical transmission path, being in fact the
balance of optical power in the link. Balance of power is a comparison of the power
at the input of the optical link with the losses in fiber optic cables and other path
components. This will help to find the optimal parameters of transmitting and
receiving devices to ensure proper signal transmission.
11.3 FIBER OPTIC NETWORK PLANNING

Fiber optic network planning refers to the specialized processes leading to a
successful installation and operation of a fiber optic network. It includes:
 the geographic layout (premises, outside plant (OSP, etc.),
 the OF transmission equipment required and
 the type of fiber over which it will operate
Telephone networks are mainly outside plant (OSP) systems, connecting

buildings over distances as short as a few hundred meters to hundreds or thousands
of kilometers. Data rates for telecom are typically 2.5 to 40 gigabits per second using
very high power lasers that operate exclusively over single mode fibers.
Designing long distance or outside plant applications generally means

choosing cabling containing single mode (SM) fiber over all other media. Most of
these systems are designed to be used over distances and speeds that preclude
anything but SM fiber.
Choosing transmission equipment is the next step in designing a fiber optic

network. Transmission equipment and the cable plant are tightly interrelated. The
distance and bandwidth will help determine the fiber type necessary and that will
dictate the optical interfaces on the cable plant.

Shorter telecom links will use 1310 nm lasers on regular single mode fiber,
often referred to as G.652 fiber, it‘s international standard. Longer links will use a
Non-Zero dispersion shifted fiber optimized for operation with 1550 nm lasers
(G.655 for STH/DWDM).
11.4 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR OPTICAL FIBER

NETWORK PLANNING
Few general guidelines listed below to help plan SONET/SDH and other
fiber optic networks.
 First, establish a fiber link between end locations. Pay careful attention to not
only the fiber cable type but also fiber type. The most common fiber type
used in cable builds is standard ITU G.652 fiber also known as non-
dispersion shifted fiber (NDSF).Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber (NZ-DSF)
ITU G.655 type is also popular in long-haul applications because it has a
lower dispersion coefficient than standard fiber. Do not use dispersion shift
fiber ITU G.653 unless there is a very good reason to use it. This fiber type
has a zero dispersion value at 1550 nm, which can cause nonlinear distortion
effects. For long cable runs where link loss or dispersion values exceed
receiver budgets, identify intermediate sites that can accommodate signal
regeneration or amplification equipment.
 Consider an alternate, physically diverse, fiber cable protection route

between end locations to help increase link reliability in the event the
primary cable is damaged.
 Complete fiber characterization of all newly acquired fibers.
 Measured fiber parameters help in proper link budget planning and establish
a beginning of life record for future network expansion or reference in the
event of link degradation.
 Identify the total number of current and future bandwidth requirements and
transmission rates.
 For SONET/SDH systems, identify the proper SONET/SDH equipment type

and configuration.
 Complete the detailed fiber link design. This includes calculating optical
power, dispersion and OSNR budgets, as well as nonlinear effects. For
simple links (no amplifiers, no DWDM) that are within the transceiver‘s
power budget and distance limit, only the optical power budget needs to be
considered.
 Select the transmission equipment manufacturer.
 Schedule and install equipment as per engineering design and documentation.
 Perform final acceptance testing.

 Address any outstanding issues before traffic is placed onto the transmission
system.
 Often overlooked in many telecom projects is accurate network

documentation. Maintaining detailed equipment and fiber documentation is
important. This documentation can include all equipment specifications, fiber
and cable specification, fiber characterization measurements, test results,
system connection drawings, floor plans and rack layouts.
11.5 THE LINK POWER BUDGET ANALYSIS

The planning of a fiber optic link often requires a detailed link power budget
to be completed. The goal of this budget is to ensure that the total link loss does not
exceed the transceiver‘s operating specifications.
It is a simple tabulation of all fiber link losses that are obtained from field
measurement or calculation using fiber and equipment specifications. If the sum of
all the link losses is greater than the transceiver‘s specified optical budget, then the
transmission system is not likely to work properly and/or it may experience high bit
errors. Figure shows the link power budget diagram.
In order to operate system properly, a fiber optic network link must have an
adequate loss margin. That is, the total loss in the installed cable plant must be less
than the tolerable loss of the transmitters and receivers in the transmission equipment
being used.
During the design phase, the cable plant loss must be estimated, based on
average component specifications and the total cable length, to ensure the chosen
equipment will work properly. Ideally, there should be at least 3 dB less loss in the
cable plant than the link dynamic range to allow for component degradation and
potential restoration splicing.
Fig : 117 Link power budget diagram

Loss budget analysis calculation and verification of a fiber optic system‘s

operating characteristics includes all items in the cable plant, such as fiber length,
number of connectors and splices, and any other passive components such as optical
splitters.
11.5.1 CALCULATING POWER BUDGET FOR FIBER-OPTIC CABLE
To ensure that fibre-optic connections have sufficient power for correct

operation, you need to calculate the link's power budget, which is the maximum
amount of power it can transmit. When you calculate the power budget, you use a
worst-case analysis to provide a margin of error, even though all the parts of an
actual system do not operate at the worst-case levels. To calculate the worst-case
estimate of power budget (PB), you assume minimum transmitter power (PT) and
minimum receiver sensitivity (PR):
PB = PT – PR
The following hypothetical power budget equation uses values measured in

decibels (dB) and decibels referred to one milliwatt (dBm):
PB = PT – PR
PB = –15 dBm – (–28 dBm)
PB = 13 dB
11.5.2 CALCULATING POWER MARGIN FOR FIBER-OPTIC CABLE
After calculating a link's power budget, you can calculate the power margin
(PM), which represents the amount of power available after subtracting attenuation
or link loss (LL) from the power budget (PB). A worst-case estimate of PM assumes
maximum LL:
PM = PB – LL
PM greater than zero indicates that the power budget is sufficient to operate
the receiver.
Example:
Average transmitted power : 1 dB
Fiber loss : 20 dB
Splice & Connector losses : 2 dB
Receiver sensitivity : -26 dB
Power Budget : 27 dB
Therefore, link loss Margin : 27- 22=5dB

So fiber optic network link have an adequate loss margin to operate the
system properly.
11.6 PLANNING THE ROUTE

After deciding the use of fiber optic cable and suitable transmission
equipment for appropriate application, the OF cable route has to be planned. Outside
plant (OSP) cabling installations have enormous variety depending on the route the
cable must take. The route may cross long lengths of open fields, run along paved
rural or urban roads, cross roads, ravines, rivers or lakes, or, more likely, some
combination of all of these. It could require buried cables, aerial cables or
underwater cables. Cable may be in conduit, inner-duct or direct buried, aerial cables
may be self-supporting.
11.7 PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF OPTIC FIBER CABLE

ROUTE
A pre-survey of the fiber cable route is very important in planning for a
optical fiber cable project. Each section of the route from splice location to splice
location must be prepared properly before cable installation begins.
A pre-survey of the fiber cable route is an integral part of the total project.
Preliminary survey shall be carried out for finalizing the drawing for the route of
optical fiber cable as a part of project planning and execution.
Following main items of work shall constitute the survey.
 Selecting the route in general.
 Deciding the number of drop and insert locations.
 Deciding the size and assessing the length of cable required.
 Working out the requirement of circuits which are to be provided in

the cable.
 Working out the requirements of heavy tools and plants depending

upon the nature of the territory, availability of roads along the tracks,
etc.
 Assessing the special problems of the section such as type of soil,

long cuttings, new embankments, water logged areas, types of major
bridges, major yards.
 Collecting details of the existing telecommunication facilities and the

additional requirements due to electrification and preparing tentative
tapping diagrams.
 Assessing the number of track crossings and other protective works

required to be done.

 Avoiding as far as possible laying of cable too close to a road.
 Avoiding the toe of the embankment adjacent to the cultivated Fields.
 Avoiding burrow pits and areas prone to water logging.
 Avoiding soil made up of cinders, coal ashes, etc.
 Avoiding heavily fertilized soils containing acids, electrolytes and

decomposable organic materials promoting bacterial activity.
 Avoiding proximity to chemical, paper and such other industries

which discharge chemically active affluent.
 Avoiding large rock cuttings, thick jungles, routes of existing cables

and areas difficult to approach.
 Deciding carefully the cable route approaches to cable huts to avoid

built up areas including those areas where building, etc. are likely to
come up in future.
 Determining composition of the soil which may affect corrosion, etc.

on the cable and special protection required for cable.
 Working out the requirement of the various circuits to be provided in

the cables along with the cable circuit chart and tapping diagrams.
 Working out requirement of transport vehicles like jeeps, lorries,

motor trolleys, etc. for the execution of the work.
 Avoiding side of the alignment which is likely to be affected due to

addition/alteration of earth work/supply structures (such as
construction of double lane, shifting of alignment of the existing track
etc.).
11.8 SELECTION OF THE CABLE ROUTE:

The Contractor or employer shall propose preferably two most suitable routes
(unless availability of a single route is obvious) for each link keeping in views the
following broad criteria:
a) The route shall be as straight and as short as possible.
b) The route shall have minimum obstacles in order to minimise reinstatement

cost.
c) Clearances required from other authorities/bodies are minimum and that the
clearances can be obtained expeditiously.
d) Wet or unstable ground shall be avoided to the extent possible.

e) The route for the pipes shall be away from the carriage-way of the road to the
extent possible.
f) The route shall be suitable for placing manholes wherever required.
g) Future expansion of roads shall be taken into consideration.
h) Road, rail, river, nallah crossings, horizontal direction drilling shall be

minimum.
i) Underground fiber optic cable route shall be so chosen that it would be

possible maintain sufficient distance from existing underground cables and to
do excavation and backfilling along the route without disturbing the existing
cables laid by other operators/utilities during installation of PLB HDPE pipe
or future maintenance.
11.9 DETAILED SURVEY

The Contractor shall submit the survey report with the most suitable
two alternate routes for all the fiber optic links along with details described
above. The Employer shall choose one of the two alternatives. On finalization
the Contractor shall carry out detail survey for the selected routes and submit the
final survey report for approval before implementation. The final survey report
shall include at least the following:
a) A drawing of the proposed route indicating all details of the route including
name of the road, relevant details of soil strata, bridges, culverts, causeways,
rail over/under bridges, defense area, underground gas / oil / water pipe line,
power and communication cables routes, other important landmarks etc.
b) GIS mapping is also to be done for all the routes along with all desired
information. GIS software associates the attributes of a feature with its
representation on the map, and stores this information in an industry standard
relational database format
c) The distance of the fiber optic cable route from the centre of the
road/rail/river//Bridge/culvert etc. shall be indicated on the route maps as
well as documented in tables.
d) Sections of the links where Horizontal Direction drilling, Moling and Manual
auguring may be required.
e) Sections where GI or RCC hume pipe may be required.
f) Location and number of permanent and temporary manholes.
g) Location of all turns, bends and major landmarks.
h) Type, quantity and location of all the joint boxes. Care must be taken to
minimize the number of splicing and joint boxes.

i) Section lengths of the underground fiber optic cable, total length of each link
and drum scheduling for all the link.
j) List of authorities from which clearance shall be required to be obtained for

each relevant section. The final survey report shall have to be approved by
the Employer and requisite clearances (as indicated below in this section)
need to be obtained before the cable installation work is commenced.
For the routes where the Employer has finalised the route for installation of
PLB HDPE pipe vis- à-vis the underground OFC or where PLB HDPE pipe is
already installed by the Employer/Owner or other agency, the Contractor will
survey the route to facilitate installation of optical fiber cable, and submit the final
survey report as per above description.
The scope of survey shall also include the route and tentative Bill of
Materials (pipes, couplers, manholes, G.I. pipes, RCC pipes, Joint box, conduits,
bends, trays, warning bricks, Warning tape etc. and any other items required for
successful implementation of the links) for the interconnection of optical fiber
cable from the nearest manhole to the fiber termination box. It may be noted that
routing of optical fiber cable inside the building may require installation on the
walls and floors using suitable pipes, conduits, bends, trays etc and minor civil
works (e.g. making holes on the walls, cutting grooves on walls/floor and making
good etc.). The Contractor will also indicate sections where the OFC may be
required to be installed overhead using poles/other supports and guide wires,
because of non-feasibility in installation underground or lack of clearance from
authorities.
11.10 GENERAL INSTALLATION PRACTICE FOR

TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
The following chronological order is generally used for installation of any
equipment work.
1. Receipt of equipment and safety keeping in stores.
2. Opening of packing cases and check of items as per packing list.
3. Safety transportation of equipment to each site and with proper equipment

configuration.
4. Physical installation of steel iron structure as per approved lay out plan
(Location, Alignment & Rigidity). The distance between two suits may taken 1.5
meter. Keep the proper distance from wall to handle the eqpt. and to keep testing
instruments/LCT near eqpt. The equipment room should be provided with antistatic
facilities and the floor supports properly grounded, with the grounding resistance
and antistatic facilities meeting relevant requirements. Make sure that the
grounding cables are laid as designed, the air-conditioner has been installed and is
in good condition, and the corridors of the equipment room are clean.

5. The room should have sufficient space for the equipment and its maintenance
paths. There should be more than 800mm space between two rows of racks and
between wall and racks for operators to open the racks.
6. Main earthing work along runways, Main DC box and suit DC box
installation.
7. Physical installation of FDF, Eqpt racks, DDF.
8. Mounting of Power supply S/R, Equipment Subrack.
9. Earthing and station DC power supply cabling to each Rack and Subrack.
10. Insertion of modules/ cards in Proper slots/ positions with proper tool.
11. EOW installation and its cabling.
12. Station Alarm wiring to Main Alarm Panel.
13. External Clock wiring for synchronization of Equipment.
14. 2 Mbps Signal from Equipment subrack 2 mb interface to DDF rack 120
ohms.
15. Powering of equipment.
16. Configuration/ provisioning of equipment.( Node name, Node IP/NSAP

address, modules configuration, cross connections, Synchronization, Node map,
Protection etc.)
17. Local and through testing.
18. Offering for A/T.
19. Loading of Traffic
11.11 CONCLUSION
The choice of route is most important aspect in planning an underground
cable system. The correct choice is essential to reduce the cost of laying pipes,
keeping the pipes safe from damage and to attain their maximum utilization when
they have been laid. Preliminary survey shall be carried out for finalizing the
drawing for the route of optical fiber cable as a part of project planning and
execution. One of the objectives of the pre-survey is to determine where each reel of
fiber optic cable is to be placed. Slack locations and cable storage requirements must
also be considered along with splice locations. The pre-survey will verify
construction methods, special tools required, or possibly require a revision of
preliminary splice locations.

11.12 CASE STUDY

SURVEY REPORT
JABALPUR-NARSINGHPUR IInd CABLE
OFC ROUTE (24F OF Cable )
INDEX
1. Authentication & Approval Sheet
2. Introductions & Justifications of the scheme
3. Summary of the Survey Report
4. Power Loss Budget Calculation
5. Route Length Calculation
6. Assessment of the soil strata and estimation of the route and time for
trenching
7. Route details of Bridges, Culverts and Crossings
8. Requirement of Stores and Materials
9. Station wise details of the existing land, Building and Battery Power
Plant
10. Calculation of the Cable Length
11. Line Diagram of the route
12. Strata of the Route

BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE PROJECT
SURVEY REPORT
SUPERVISED BY CHECKED BY
SDE OFC PROJECT D.E.T. O.F.C. PROJECT
DN-I JABALPUR DN-I JABALPUR
ENGINEERING OFFICER
(T.P.) E.M.P.AREA, JABALPUR

APPROVED BY
DEPUTY GENERAL MANAGER
(T.P.) E.M.P.AREA, JABALPUR

SURVEY REPORT

INTRODUCTION
This scheme is proposed on the basis of minutes of meeting at O/o DGM, TP

EMP Jabalpur and as per his letter No.DM/JBP/NWP/(System & Ring/2014-15/ dtd.
12.05.2015.
This scheme is targeted for execution in the year 2015-2016. 24 F OFC cable has to
be laid between Jabalpur WTR Mux - Narsinghpur along Bijori-Gortegaon-Khubi-
Narsinghpur State Highway Road to approved in 63th RTPC WTP. Therefore
detailed Survey of Route has been carried out under the guidance of, Dy. General
Manager, TP, EMP Jabalpur & a team consisting of SDE (P) Jabalpur under the
direction of Shri, DET OFC(P) Dn-I, Jabalpur. Based on the actual survey of the
route the categorical information about an over view of the power loss budget
calculations, Route length calculations, Route details of Culvert and Bridges, Line
Diagram of the route, City wise details of the protection pipes, Requirement of
Stores, Calculation of Cable length, the assessment of soil strata, and estimation of
the rate of trenching has also been carried out and appended in this report..
On completion of the route, the system and the route will be taken over by
W.T.R. Jabalpur for maintenance.
JUSTIFICATION
The JABALPUR –NARSINGHPUR OFC ROUTE is presently
on WTR Jabalpur. No existing cable is available between Jabalpur WTR Mux -
Narsinghpur along Bijori-Gortegaon-Khubi-Narsinghpur. This scheme will provide
reliable and uninterrupted media for communication between Jabalpur-Narsinghpur
along Bijori-Gortegaon-Khubi. This alternate route of Jabalpur – Narsinghur will
provide services to WTR Jabalpur, Narsinghpur and other important place of India.
& will be helpful connect to various stations of WTR Jabalpur. In the time of road
binding SH-22 of Jabalpur –Narsinghpur (If OF cable damage ) traffic is to be
diverted by above said route as per instructions of Dy.G.M., WTR Jabalpur.

SURVEY REPORT

SUMMARY : JABALPUR-NARSINGHPUR OFC ROUTE
A. Type of Cable : 24 F Monomode Optical

Fiber
B. Type of System : DWDM
Route Length : 106.0 Km.
No. of ADMs : Existing
No. of Section : 2 Nos.
No. of exchanges are to be connected
with this route : Five

SURVEY REPORT

POWER LOSS BUDGET CALCULATION FOR
(JABALPUR-NARSINGHPUR) –
1. A. Total Cable Length : 108.0 Km
B. Total Fiber Length : 108.0 Km
2. No. of splice : 54
3. Cable attenuation : 0.3 dB/Km
4. Splice loss (dB/Splice) : 0.1 dB/Splice
5. Total cable loss including splice loss @ 0.35 db/Km : 37.8 dB
6. F.D.F connection loss @ 0.8 dB/station : 2.4 dB
7. Total loss : 40.2 dB

8. Trans Power (dBm) : -3.0 dBm
9. Receive Power (dBm) : -21.4 dBm
10. Minimum Acceptable Receive Optical Power :-35.0 dBm
11. Receive threshold (dBm) :-31.0 dBm
12. Margin kept for cable/Equipment : 6 dBm
13. Attenuator required : 100 Nos

SURVEY REPORT

ROUTE LENGTH CALCULATION
OFC ROUTE (JABALPUR-NARSINGHPUR )
i) JBP WTR MUX –Narsinghpur WTR Mux 106.0

Km
______
106.00
Say
Km.106.0

SURVEY REPORT

Assembly of the soil strata and estimation of the route
Route Non Rocky Rocky- TOTAL

Rocky -Soft Hard LENGTH
JABALPUR- 60.0 26.0 20.0 106. Km.

NARSINGHPUR Km.
Km. Km.
Total 106.0.0
Km.

SURVEY REPORT

OFC ROUTE (24F OF Cable
ROUTE DETAILS OF BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND CROSSINGS
SI. Section Culvert Bridges Road Canal Rly NH/SH of

Crossing Crossing Road
No.
No Length No Length No Length No Length No. Lengt

. h
1 JABALP 65 700 3 1300 45 600 M 22 350 M 1 50 M SH-22 R

UR- M
NARSIN M
GHPUR

SURVEY REPORT

REQUIREMENT STORES AND MATERIALS
SECTION 24F G.I. DWC H/R PLB/HDPE

O.F.C PIPE RCC PIPE (Km)
PIPE
JABALPUR- 124.0 2.0 15 Km. 0 121. Km.

NARSINGHPUR Km. Km.

SURVEY REPORT

DETAILS OF BUILDING AND POWER PLANT
Station Land Building Power Plant Battery AH E/A Syst Exchange

KVA em Capacity
JABALPU Dept Dept 1. ITI 1 Amara 200 For

R WTR Raja KVA, DW
MUX 100 X8 1000AH, DM
1 Sets
800 Amp 2 Sets
2 HBL
3000AH
2. Exico 2sets
m
2300Amp
GOTEGA Dept Dept LCOT PVT. HBL CROM For

ON EXCH. LTD. 100X4 PTON DW
2000 AH 2 GREAV DM
400 Amp. sets ES 100
KVA
NARSING Dept Dept ITI 100X5 HBL 1500 KIRLO For

HPUR AH 2 sets SKAR DW
EXCH. 500 Amp 30 KVA DM

SURVEY REPORT

CALCULATION OF CABLE LENGTH
Section Rout Duct Trenc Cable Shrinka No. of Extra Extra Spare Tot
e Lengt h in Lengt ge 2% Joint/ length Length Cable al
Leng h in Lengt h in on for Joint/ for for Cab
th in km. h in km. Cable Splice leading Mtce. le
Km. km. Length Splice M/Stn. 2% Len
Kms. Kms. gth
(40 mtr Km
per joint) s.
JABAL 106 106 106.0 108 2.16 54 No. 2.160 1.0 2.16 115
PUR- Km. Km. Km. Km. .48
NARSI Km. Km.
NGHPU Km
R .
Say
116
.0
Km
.

SURVEY REPORT
LINE DIAGRAM

TX Module FSO COMMUNICATION
12 FSO COMMUNICATION
12.1 OBJECTIVE
 Concept of FSO
 Advantages of FSO
 Application areas of FSO
 Limitation of Free Space Optical Communication
12.2 INTRODUCTION
Free Space Optics (FSO) communication technology can be deployed in
many enterprise applications including building-to-building connectivity, disaster
recovery, mobile carrier backhaul, network redundancy and temporary connectivity
for applications such as data, voice and data, video services, fixed-line carrier bypass
etc. The technology does not require any spectrum licensing and protocol-
independent so will happily carry Ethernet, SDH, ATM signals etc. FSO technology
delivers cost-effective optical wireless connectivity and a faster return on investment
(ROI) for Service providers. ITU-T is also going to publish the first ITU-T
Recommendation in the area of free-space optics.
Communications using light is not a new technology. Historically, the first

Free Space Optics (FSO) or optical wireless communications occurred more than
120 years ago and was demonstrated by Alexander Graham Bell with his
"Photophone" (prior to his demonstration of the telephone!). Bell's "Photophone"
was used for voice communications only by converting voice sounds into telephone
signals and transmitted them between receivers through free space along a beam of
light for a distance of some 600 feet.
12.3 WHAT IS FSO?

Free-space optics (FSO), also called free-space photonics (FSP), is a line-of-
sight (LOS) technology that transmits a modulated beam of visible or infrared light
through the atmosphere. Like fiber, Free Space Optics (FSO) uses lasers to
transmit data, but instead of enclosing the data stream in a glass fiber, it is
transmitted through the space and can function over distances of several
kilometers. As long as there is a clear line of sight between the source an d the
destination, and enough transmitter power, Free Space Optics (FSO)
communication is possible. Free Space Optics (FSO) works on the same basic
principle as Infrared television remote controls. Free Space Optics (FSO) is
protocol independent and transmits any higher-layer protocol including Ethernet,
SDH, ATM and TCP/IP.
Free space optical communications offer data rates comparable to fiber

optical communications at a fraction of the deployment cost while extremely narrow

laser beam widths provide no limit to the number of free space optical links that may
be installed in a given location. Commercially available systems offer capacities
in the range of 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps, and demonstration systems report data
rates as high as 160 Gbps.
12.4 HOW FSO WORKS?

FSO systems comprise paired transmitter and receiver and working in the full
duplex mode as shown in Fig.. At transmitter Network traffic is converted in to
pulses of infrared light representing 1‘s and 0‘s. Transmitter projects the carefully
aimed light pulses into air. A receiver at the other end of the link collects the light on
a receiving lens connected to a high sensitivity receiver through an optical fiber.
Received signal are converted back in to fibre and connected to the network. Reverse
direction data is transported in the same way.
The transmitted light beam is not perfectly collimated (i.e., parallel). Rather,
it naturally spreads out from the transmitting terminal at a divergence angle and may
well be several meters wide by the time it reaches theat receiving
3 A receiver the other end of theterminal as shown in
2
Fig. 1. Therefore, Transmitter
only projects
a the
small carefully
amount of the transmitted light signal strikes the
link collects the light using lenses
aimed lightthe
receive aperture, with pulsesbalance
into the air of the signal being wasted.
and/or mirrors
Transceiver Transceiver
5 Reverse direction data transported

the same
Fullway.
Duplex Network
Network
• Full duplex
1 Network traffic
Fig : 118 Principle of Working of4 FSO Received signal
converted into pulses
converted back into
12.5 OPERATING of invisible light WAVELENGTH FOR FSO
fiber or copper and
representing 1‘s and
FSO networks connected to the or 1,550-nm laser
are based on either 780-nm to 850-nm
0‘s
wavelength systems, which have very different power and networkdistance characteristics.
Lasers of much higher power can safely by used with 1,550-nm systems than with
780-to-850-nm systems. This is because wavelengths less than about 1,400 nm are
focused by the cornea into a concentrated spot falling on the retina, which can cause
damage to eyes while 1550-nm systems are less likely to cause damage to the eye,
even at much higher power levels.
12.6 WHY FSO COMMUNICATION?

Only very few percentage of commercial buildings in our country have fiber
optics to their door, although most are within a mile of a fiber-optic connection. This
"last mile" is proving to be a major bottleneck to expanding broadband and other
high bit rate services to many potential customers. Free-space optics (FSO) systems
could be a viable option for many applications as well as supplement to the fiber

optic connectivity. They can be installed along any line of sight up to a little more
than a mile.
While bandwidth is available on most metro fiber rings, carriers often can‘t
justify laying fiber to each and every building in an area, which can limit revenue
potential, and frustrate business customers. FSO technology allow service
providers to increase their fiber ring revenue base by installing lateral links to off-
net buildings, responding quickly and cost efficiently to the need of any customer.
The technology is protocol-independent. Transceivers can be located on a

rooftop, on a corner of a building or indoors behind a window. The range for optical
wireless systems varies depending upon local weather conditions. FSO operates in
an unregulated section of the spectrum, so no spectrum licenses are required.
Because there's no need to dig trenches to lay cable, so the deployment is very fast.
The business advantages of FSO technology for network extensions include

deployments at an average of one-fifth the cost of fiber-optic cable and in one-tenth
the time. Optical wireless systems are a flexible investment that can be re-deployed
to meet changing customer needs.
12.7 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE OF FSO

A common configuration involves a central hub, or node, positioned on the
roof of a high-rise building with good look down for achieving line-of-sight to
buildings of lesser stature within the coverage area. The hub building can be
connected to the service provider's backbone via FSO or point-to-point microwave.
Transceivers can be located on a rooftop, on a corner of a building or indoors behind
a window.
Roof top Roof top

Transceiver Transceiver
Transceiver
mounted
behind the
window BTS
Provider’s fibre
optic backbone
Hub
FSO Link Building
Fig : 119 FSO Configuration
More commonly the hub building is a node of the backbone fiber optic network
as shown in Fig.. The buildings served by the high-speed FSO links may be single
user or multi-user and even mixed use in nature. Within the building, the bandwidth

can be subdivided to serve individual users or user groups. BTS can also be
connected through the FSO link to the hub building. The network can even assume a
mesh or partial mesh configuration, perhaps in consideration of redundancy and
media diversity, which yields considerably enhanced network resiliency.
12.8 TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANTAGES OF FSO

FSO and fiber are the two optical technologies today that deliver high-speed
optical bandwidth to meet market needs. The FSO offers several technological
advantages.
 Because of cost-effective and high-bandwidth qualities, FSO technology is

an alternative transport technology to interconnect high capacity networking
segments.
 Free Space Optics (FSO) is protocol independent and transmits any

higher-layer protocol including Ethernet, SDH, ATM and TCP/IP
 Use of infrared light for communication means no interference issues.
 FSO is unaffected by EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference). This is a great

advantage when compared with RF systems, which definitely suffer from
EMI.
 Data rates comparable to optical fiber transmission can be carried by

Free Space Optics (FSO) systems with very low error rates, while the
extremely narrow laser beam widths ensure that there is almost no
practical limit to the number of separate Free Space Optics (FSO) links
that can be installed in a given location.
 Can transmit at distances around 4 km (almost 2 and one half miles).
 FSO technology and fiber can utilize the same system components such as
lasers, receivers and amplifiers.
 FSO technology can transmit digital information using a range of protocols.
 Since Free Space Optics (FSO) transceivers can transmit and receive
through glass windows, it is possible to mount Free Space Optics (FSO)
systems inside buildings, reducing the need to compete for roof space,
simplifying wiring and cabling, and permitting Free Space Optics (FSO)
equipment to operate in a very favorable environment.
 Free Space Optics (FSO) technology is highly secured as the laser

beams generated by Free Space Optics (FSO) systems are narrow and
invisible, making them harder to find and even harder to intercept and
crack as well as data can be transmitted over an encrypted connection
adding to the degree of security available in Free Space Optics (FSO)
network transmissions.

 Highly reliable, some manufacturers claiming 99.999% availability.
 Because there's no need to dig trenches to lay cable, the permits associated
with digging up streets, disrupting traffic and the like also are eliminated, and
installation normally is complete in a few days.
 FSO systems can be deployed in a wide variety of network architecture

applications, including point-to-point, ring architecture and mesh systems.
They can be installed roof to roof, window to window or window to roof.
12.9 APPLICATIONS OF FSO

As a transmission technology, FSO systems are agnostic when it comes to
the underlying applications supported. Voice, fax, data, video, image and even
multimedia all can ride over the system. FSO systems can effectively be used in
short-haul, bandwidth-intensive applications where cabled systems either are not
available or are too costly.
FSO technology can be used for different type of applications:
 Interconnect high-speed LAN segments

 Metro network extension
 Fiber backup
 Enterprise connectivity
 Building to building computer data links; supporting very high data rates.
 In local loop applications as an alternative to RF-based systems to extend the
reach of optical fiber.
 Ship to ship communications; high data rates with complete security.
 Disaster recovery applications, and for temporary connectivity
 Campus wide computer networks
 Inter-office data links etc.
12.10 LIMITATION OF FREE SPACE OPTICAL
COMMUNICATION
The fundamental limitation of free space optical communications arises from
the environment through which it propagates. Although relatively unaffected by rain
and snow, free space optical communication systems can be severely affected by fog
and other environmental factor as shown in Fig 3. The main design challenges in
free space optical communications are as follows:
1. Fog
Fog is vapor composed of water droplets, which are only a few hundred
microns in diameter but can modify light characteristics or completely hinder the
passage of light through a combination of absorption, scattering, and reflection

which causes a decrease in the power density of the transmitted beam and hence
decreasing the effective distance of a free space optical link.
2. Physical Obstruction
Since light can't penetrate trees, hills or buildings or any physical obstruction. As
the clear Line-of-sight is an absolute requirement between the light transmitter and
the receiver for FSO so any physical obstruction will completely absorb, deflect,
reflect and otherwise render the signal useless.
3. Scintillation
Scintillation is the variation in light intensity caused by atmospheric turbulence.

Such turbulence is caused by temperature gradients that create air pockets of varying
temperature, density, and index of refraction. These air pockets act like lenses with
time-varying properties and can lead to sharp increases in the bit-error-rates of free
space optical communication systems but not complete outage, particularly in the
presence of direct sunlight.
4. Beam Wander
Beam wander arises when turbulent wind current (eddies) larger than the
diameter of the transmitted optical beam cause a slow, but significant, displacement
of the transmitted beam. Beam wander may also be the result of seismic activity that
causes a relative displacement between the position of the transmitting laser and the
receiving photo-detector.
5. Low Clouds
The effect is very much similar to fog and may accompany rain and
snow.
6. Rain
Relatively unaffected by rain as drop sizes of water larger than fog and
wavelength of light but extremely heavy rain (can‘t see through it) can take a
link down. (Severe rain may have up to 100 dB/km attenuation)
7. Heavy Snow
A heavy ice build-up on windows may cause a link failure.
8. Building movement
Movement of the building due to thermal expansion, wind, and vibration can
affect a FSO transceiver‘s alignment and interrupt communication.
Each of these factors can “attenuate” (reduce) the signal. However,

there are ways to mitigate each environmental factor

Building RAIN
Motion
Alignment
Fog
Window
Attenuation
Obstructions
Scintillation
Low Clouds
Range
Fig : 120 Environmental factors
12.11 ITU-T DEVELOPMENT IN FSO

ITU-T will publish the first ITU-T Recommendation in the area of free-space
optics. FSO is an area dominated by proprietary solutions, the new Rec. means that
users of FSO systems will be able to co-locate FSO solutions provided by different
manufacturers for the first time. FSO systems use lasers or LEDs to transmit data
between two points with line of sight up to 2 km. Typically this means between the
top of buildings. Data rates of up to 1.25 Gbps are available
As well as use in fixed settings like between tall office buildings, FSO
systems have proven useful in disaster relief where telecoms infrastructure has been
damaged and a quick fix is necessary. Equally FSO systems are used where there is
no existing infrastructure as a way of avoiding disruptive and expensive cable
laying. They are spectrum license free and protocol independent so will happily
carry Ethernet, SDH signals etc. The ITU-T Rec. G.640 will allow the co-location
of FSO systems without interference with each other.
12.12 Li-Fi Communication

Li-Fi is a new way of wireless communication that uses LED lights to transmit data
wirelessly. Transmission of data is one of the most important day to day activities in
the fast growing world. The current wireless networks that connect us to the Internet
are very slow when multiple devices are connected. Also with the increase in the
number of devices which access the Internet, the availability of fixed bandwidth
makes it much more difficult to enjoy high data transfer rates and to connect a secure
network. Radio waves are just a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum available
for data transfer. Li-Fi has got a much broader spectrum for transmission compared
to conventional methods of wireless communications that rely on radio waves. The
basic ideology behind this technology is that the data can be transferred through
LED light by varying light intensities faster than the human eyes can perceive. This

technology uses a part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is still not greatly
utilized- The Visible Spectrum, instead of Gigahertz radio waves for data transfer.
12.12.1 Working of Li-Fi

Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) technology is a wireless communication system based on
the use of visible light between the violet (800 THz) and red (400 THz). Unlike Wi-
Fi which uses the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, Li-Fi uses the optical
spectrum i.e. Visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The principle of Li-
Fi is based on sending data by amplitude modulation of the light source in a well-
defined and standardized way. LEDs can be switched on and off faster than the
human eyes can detect since the operating speed of LEDs is less than 1 microsecond.
This invisible on-off activity enables data transmission using binary codes. If the
LED is on, a digital ‗1‘ is transmitted and if the LED is off, a digital ‗0‘ is
transmitted. Also these LEDs can be switched on and off very quickly which gives
us a very nice opportunity for transmitting data through LED lights, because there
are no interfering light frequencies like that of the radio frequencies in Wi-Fi. Li-Fi
is thought to be 80% more efficient, which means it can reach speeds of up to 1Gbps
and even beyond. Li-Fi differs from fibre optic because the Li-Fi protocol layers are
suitable for wireless communication over short distances (up to 10 meters). This puts
Li-Fi in a unique position of extremely fast wireless communication over short
distances.
Fig : 121 Li-Fi Transmission

The working of Li-Fi is very simple. There is a light emitter on one end i.e. an
LED transmitter, and a photo detector (light sensor) on the other. The data input to
the LED transmitter is encoded in to the light (technically referred to as Visible
Light Communication) by varying the flickering rate at which the LEDs flicker
‗on‘ and ‗off‘ to generate different strings of 1s and 0s. The onoff activity of the
LED transmitter which seems to be invisible (The LED intensity is modulated so
rapidly that human eye cannot notice, so the light of the LED appears constant to
humans), enables data transmission in light form in accordance with the incoming
binary codes: switching ON a LED is a logical '1', switching it OFF is a logical '0'.
By varying the rate at which the LEDs flicker on and off, information can be
encoded in the light to different combinations of 1s and 0s. In a typical setup, the
transmitter (LED) is connected to the data network (Internet through the modem)

and the receiver (photo detector/light sensor) on the receiving end receives the
data as light signal and decodes the information, which is then displayed on the
device connected to the receiver. The receiver (photo detector) registers a binary
‗1‘ when the transmitter (LED) is ON and a binary ‗0‘ when the transmitter (LED)
is OFF. Thus flashing the LED numerous times or using an array of LEDs
(perhaps of a few different colours) will eventually provide data rates in the range
of hundreds of Mbps. The Li-Fi working is explained in a block diagram.
FIG : 122 Block diagram of Li-Fi Sub System
12.13 CONCLUSION
Free-space optical networking provides easy, fast deployment and lower
link costs for service providers spell better service to homes and businesses. Many
of the benefits are experienced through better, faster, more ubiquitous service.
Free-space optical networking provides freedom from licensing requirements and
government regulations, freedom from digging restrictions and freedom from
waiting for fiber. Indeed, waiting for bandwidth can become a thing of the past as
the path with the advent of FSO systems.

An Intro to Network Analyzers
References:
•“Introduction to Wiresharkl”, Dr. Farid Farahmand, Fall 2014
•"Packet analyzer", Wikipedia, March 2013..
•“Wireshark User’s Guide”, For Wireshark 1.99.
•“Wireshark Installation & packet Chapter”, August 2011.
Network Analysis & Sniffing
• Process of capturing, decoding, & analyzing
network traffic
– Why is the network slow
– What is the network traffic pattern
– How is the traffic being shared between nodes
• Also known as
– traffic analysis, protocol analysis, sniffing, packet
analysis, eavesdropping*, etc.
*Listen secretly to what is said in private! 2

Network Analyzer
• A combination of hardware & • Common network analyzers
software tools what can detect, – Wireshark / Ethereal
decode, & manipulate traffic on – Windump
the network – Etherpeak
– Passive monitoring (detection) - – Dsniff
Difficult to detect
– & much more….
– Active (attack)
• Available both free &
commercially
• Mainly software-based (utilizing
OS & NIC)
– Also known as sniffer
Read: Basic Packet-Sniffer
– A program that monitors the Construction from the Ground Up!
data traveling through the by Chad Renfro
network passively Checkout his program: sniff.c
3
Network Analyzer - Components
• Hardware • Capture driver
– NIC Card – capturing the data
– Buffer – or disk-based
memory • Real-time analysis
– Special hardware devices – analyzing the traffic in real
CRC & Parity Errors time; detecting any
Monitoring voltage intrusions
fluctuation • Decoder
Jitter (random timing – making data readable
variation)
Jabber (failure to handle
electrical signals) Capturing the data is easy!
The question is what to do with it!
4
Who Uses Network Analyzers
• System administrators – Mapping the target
– Identify system network
problems & – Traffic pattern discovery
– Analyze performance – Actively break into the
network (backdoor
• Malicious individuals techniques)
(intruders)
• Test engineers
– Capture cleartext data
– Protocol analyzers can
– Passively collect data on
also generate traffic &
vulnerable protocols
thus act as the reference
• FTP , HTTP, IMAP, POP3,
rlogin, SNTP, etc. device
• Capture VoIP data
5
Basic Operation
• Ethernet traffic is broadcast to all nodes on the same
segment
• Sniffer can capture all the incoming data when the
NIC is in promiscuous (not restricted to one port) mode:
– ifconfig eth0 promisc
– ifconfig eth0 –promisc
– Default setup is non-promiscuous
• restricted - only receives the data destined for the NIC
– Note: hub receives all the data!
• If switches are used the sniffer must perform port
spanning
– Also known as port mirroring
– The traffic to each port is mirrored to the sniffer
6
Port Monitoring
• Assume the sniffer (@ port
5) is to monitor the data on
computer A (port 1).
• Port 5 needs first to be
spanned to port 1 (port
spanning).
• The sniffer can now
monitor the data destined
to Computer A.
7
Review: Hub, Switch, & Span Port
• If you want to capture Ethernet traffic that is sent
by host A to host B, & both are connected to a
HUB,
• Just attach a sniffer to this hub.
• All other ports see the traffic between hosts A & B.
• On a SWITCH, after the host B MAC address is

learned, unicast traffic from A to B is only
forwarded to the B port.
• Therefore, the sniffer DOES NOT see this traffic:
• An extra feature is necessary that artificially copies

unicast packets that host A sends to the sniffer
port.
• Here, the sniffer is attached to a port that is
CONFIGURED to receive a copy of every packet
that host A sends. This port is called a SPAN port.
8
Protecting Against - Sniffers
• Spoofing the MAC is often referred to changing the MAC
address (in Linux:)
– ifconfig eth0 down
– ifconfig eth0 hw ether 00:01:02:03:04:05
– ifconfig eth0 up
– Register the new MAC address by broadcasting it
• ping –c 1 –b 192.168.1.1
• To detect a sniffer (Linux)
– Download Promisc.c)
– ifconfig -a (search for promisc)
– ip link (search for promisc)
• To detect a sniffer (Windows)
– Download PromiscDetect Remember:
00:01:02:03:04:05 MAC
address (HWaddr)=
Vender Address + Unique NIC
#
Protecting Against Sniffers
• Using switches can help Remember: Never use
• Use encryption unauthorized Sniffers at work!
– Making the intercepted data unreadable
– Note: in many protocols the packet headers are clear text!
• VPNs use encryption & authorization for secure
communications
– VPN Methods
• Secure Shell (SSH): headers are not encrypted
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL): high network level packet security;
headers are not encrypted
• IPsec: Encrypted headers but does not use TCP or UDP
What is Wireshark?
• Formerly called Ethereal – free with many features
• An open source program • Decodes over 750 protocols
Remember: You must have a network before you use
good understanding of the Sniffers effectively!
• Compatible with many other sniffers
• Plenty of online resources are available
• Supports command-line & graphical user interfaces (CLI, GUI)
– TSHARK (CLI) has three components
• Editcap
– similar to “Save As” to translate the format of captured packets
• Mergecap
– combines multiple saved captured files
• Text2pcap
– ASCII Hexdump captures & writes the data into a libpcap output file
11
Installing Wireshark
• Download the Wireshark program from
– www.wireshark.org/download.html , OR
– UBUNDU 14.04 Webpage
– Requires to install capture drivers
• monitor ports & capture all traveling packets
12
Installing Wireshark
• If you did not succeed, do the • If you could not see any
following. interface for capturing, with the
• On UBUNTU screen go to the current configuration, you need
“Dash board” “root” privileges to capture
traffic with Wireshark (or
– Search for “Wireshark” & Install,
OR
dumpcap, for that matter).
– Go to Firefox in UBUNTU & • Here are the commands
Google “Wireshark for Ubuntu sudo -s
14.04” & follow the instruction. usermod -a -G wireshark your-user-
• You can also download it using a name
“Terminal” by command: chgrp wireshark /usr/bin/dumpcap
sudo apt-get install wireshark chmod 4750 /usr/bin/dumpcap
You can safely run Wireshark to inspect, edit or filter packet dumps without
root privileges, e.g., wireshark -i eth0 -c 5
13
Wireshark Window
Menu Bar
Tool Bar
Filter Bar
Packet List
Frame view
Frame bytes
(content)
14
Packet number 8 –
BGP (Boarder
Protocol Tree Window: Details Gateway Prot)
of the selected packet (#8)
Raw data (content

of packet # 8)
15
Filtering BGP
packets only
16
Ethernet & IEEE 802.3
• Ethernet - most popular protocol
standard to enable computer
communication
– 2nd Layer protocol
– Based on shared medium &
broadcasting
– Close to IEEE 802.3
• Ethernet address is called MAC
address FSC = Frame Check Sequence
– 48 bit HW address coded in the SOF = Start of Frame Delimiter
RON of the NIC card MAC = Medium Access Control, 6-byte hardware address
– 1st 24 bits represent the vender
– 2nd 24 bits represent the NIC
• Use: “arp –a”
– To get the Hardware address
from IP address
17
TCP/IP Stack
• Application
• Transport
– Provides reliable end-to-end transport
– Can be connectionless (UDP) or
connection oriented (TCP)
– Connection oriented requires ACK
• Network
– Logical addressing (IP, Internet protocol)
• Link *
– Frames & carries IP packets between
adjacent network devices
• Physical
* Data Link Layer (IEEE) has 2 sublayers:
• MAC (Medium Access Control): Physical
addressing, moves packets from one NIC
card to another
• LLC (Logical Link Control): Flow control,
error control
19
Internet Packet (IP) Format
Physical &
L3 (Internet) L4 (Transport) L5 (Application)
Link Data (digitized data, voice, video)
Header header header
Header
Headers
20
More on Installing Wireshark
• Download the program from
– www.wireshark.org/download.html
• Requires to install capture drivers (monitor ports & capture all traveling
packets)
– Linux: libpcap
– Windows: winpcap (www.winpcap.org)
• Typically the file is in TAR format (Linux)
• To install in Linux
– rpm –ivh libpcap-0.9.4-8.1.i.386.rpm (install libpcap RPM)
– rpm –q libpcap (query libpcap RPM)
– tar –zxvf libpcap-0.9.5.tar.gz
– ./config
– make
– sudo make install
21
Appendix - Installing Wireshark
• Log in as the ‘root’ user
• Insert Fedora Code 4 Disk #4
• Navigate to the following folder in the disk /Fedora/RPMS
• Locate packages
– ethereal—0.10.11.-2.i386.rpm
– ethereal-gnome-0.10.11-2.i386.rpm
• Copy the above packages to your system
• Change directory to the packages location
– cd <package_dir>
• Install Ethereal
– rpm –ivh ethereal—0.10.11.-2.i386.rpm
• Packages that are needed for
• Install Ethereal GNOME user Interface Installation
– rpm –ivh ethereal-gnome-0.10.11-2.i386.rpm • Ethereal (available in Fedora Core
4 disk #4)
– ethereal—0.10.11.-2.i386.rpm
• Ethereal GNOME User Interface
– ethereal-gnome-0.10.11-
2.i386.rpm
22
Appendix: Some Helpful References
• Wireshark capture
– https://wiki.wireshark.org/CaptureFilters
• Wireshark screenshots
– https://www.google.com/search?q=display+wireshark+screenshots&biw=1234&bih=92
0&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0CBwQsARqFQoTCLPO5uKGmMgCFdI7iA
odbY0ABw#imgrc=LTv96BTj4FElYM%3A
• Wireshark for TCP
– https://wiki.wireshark.org/Transmission_Control_Protocol
• Wireshark for TCP
– https://www.wireshark.org/docs/wsug_html_chunked/ChapterWork.html
• Wireshark for TCP & UDP
– https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wireshark/UDP
• Wireshark YouTube on filter
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__SR6JO6l-A
23
Remote Fiber Monitoring System
Remote Fiber Monitoring System provides a comprehensive real time fiber optic physical layer
monitoring platform. RFMS analyses any threat to fibers like data security, transient events,
cable break, long term degradation of fibers, predicts any degradation of splices, connectors etc.
Events can be located with accuracy better than +/-10m along the entire link. The system is
suited for both point to point links as well as FTTH networks. It comes with an Element
Management System (EMS), which alert the operators and managers about events through
instantaneous alarm notifications
 Web based, Secure Network Management System

 Alarms Monitoring of Fiber Intrusion, Fault, Degradation and other Network Events
 Remote Management, Provisioning and configuration of Network Elements
 Alarm forwarding via SMS and E-mail, Multi level Alarm Escalation workflow
 On demand and periodic Fiber testing
 Fiber Link Route Management
 Extensive Reporting - Performance/Security/Fault reports for various user groups
 Scheduled reporting of critical reports to the configured users via e-mail
 Highly configurable, profile based user access to the functionalities and system entities
(User access on Region /Element level etc) for authentication and security
 Integration with 3rd party NMS/OSS via SNMP and XML/SOAP protocols
 IPV6 Support, SNMP V3 support (and V2 for backward compatibility)
 System configuration via Local Port
What Is a Remote Fiber Testing System?
A remote fiber testing system, commonly known as a fiber monitoring system, provides the
most efficient solution for monitoring the integrity of fiber optic cables in a network. Given
the vast number of optical fibers deployed in networks today and the time and cost it would
take for humans to routinely and manually test each fiber, a remote fiber testing system
allows for continuous and automated monitoring of fiber cables for breaks, degradations, and
malicious tampering incidents.
Deploying a fiber monitoring system provides the advantage of continuous assurance of

optimal service while alerting field technicians in real-time when issues arise to allow for
faster repairs and issue resolution. Thus, it not only maximizes performance for the network
users but also saves the service provider significant operational costs and time when they can
identify and locate issues quickly.
Added benefits include the ability for service providers to identify trends and issue areas,
along with tracking important fiber performance metrics over time.
How Does a Remote Fiber Testing System Work?
The Technology
While there are a number of manufacturers around the world that design and build these types
of devices with varying degrees of capabilities and performance specifications, most systems
utilize a similar technology approach.
To detect a physical issue or event that may arise in an optical fiber, these systems often
include an OTDR. This is a device that sends a light pulse and evaluates the signal reflections
for identifying light loss/attenuation events in an optical fiber, which can include serious
issues like a break to simply the end of the cable. Thus, the OTDR is able to precisely
determine where in a fiber the event(s) occur and provide that data to the user, making it a
highly valuable tool. While most OTDRs are designed to be handheld units that fiber optic
technicians carry as part of their testing toolkit, some are manufactured for use in systems
like these.
The OTDR monitoring signal, while in some systems is adjustable, will be a light wavelength
that is different from the wavelengths carrying data, so that the monitoring signal will not
interfere with data transmission. As an example, many monitoring systems use a non-
intrusive wavelength of 1625nm or 1650nm, since single-mode networks transmit data in the
1310nm to 1610nm range.
For fiber monitoring applications, the OTDR is typically paired with both management
software, a 1xN optical switch, and some other components depending on the system.
Additionally, some systems integrate everything into an all-in-one solution, while others
combine separate modular pieces of hardware together. This grouping of technology provides
the ability to test and monitor a number of connected fibers on a routine basis, then send
alerts in real-time when an issue arises.
Once acquired by a service provider and connected to network fibers, the management
software included allows the user to configure these units in a wide variety of ways,
depending on their unique monitoring needs. In addition to setting the performance
parameters of the OTDR, a user may be able to adjust things like system sensitivity, the types
of alerts generated and who they are sent to, configurations for dark vs lit fibers or P2P vs
PON fibers, and monitoring fibers at specific and/or periodic time intervals. Lastly, some
systems include or integrate with 3rd party mapping software, helping to provide a visual
representation of the monitored network and where an issue occurs to the benefit of the field
technicians making repairs.
Fiber Monitoring Best Practice: When evaluating potential fiber monitoring systems for a
network, it is always a good idea to determine the primary goals and objectives related to
your needs, then evaluate multiple systems to determine which will deliver maximum benefit.
For example, do you need basic fiber monitoring capabilities to quickly identify issues or a
more comprehensive fiber management platform that may include other non-fiber monitoring
capabilities? Is available rack space an issue? Do you anticipate future network growth and
require a system that will scale efficiently as more fibers are installed and activated? What
level of vendor support is included with the system should you have questions after
installation? Don’t hesitate to ask questions - a knowledgeable vendor or system provider
should be able to answer your technology questions in a helpful and timely manner.
What Types of Issues Can You Detect With a Remote Fiber Testing System?
Fiber issues generally fall into one of just a few types of categories:
 Accidental (ex: a fiber is broken during a construction project)

 Malicious (ex: someone purposely cuts or tampers with a fiber)
 Random or uncontrollable environmental event (ex: earthquake)
Within these categories, remote fiber testing systems can help to detect a wide range of
detrimental events, some of which are not always top of mind in terms of issues that can
arise:
 Animals causing damage to cables and fiber strands

 Fire damage
 A hacker tapping a fiber attempting to steal data
 Downed telecom poles and fiber cables from storms, severe winds, or ice
 Submerged cables and network equipment during a flood
 Excessive bends or breaks during network installation or service connections
 Splices degrading over time or damaged accidentally during other handling and
repairs
 Fibers spliced back together to incorrect fibers in a cable during repairs
 Hunters using aerial cables for target practice
In any of these instances, the damage may be minor or severe. For example, a cable may be
crushed to a degree but not totally broken, and data still flows but with a high level of signal
loss. Or, a fiber may be severed entirely, causing a complete outage.
In summary, the negative consequences of virtually any situation that service providers
regularly face that results in a fiber being damaged or broken can be mitigated or even
eliminated using active remote monitoring.
Primary Benefits of a Fiber Testing & Monitoring System
As we've mentioned, some of the biggest frustrations and challenges for service providers
and network operators include broken fibers and degrading cables. Besides making it easier
for technicians to find and repair issues, there are several benefits to using a remote fiber
testing system.
Time Savings / Reduced MTTR
The "Mean Time to Repair" or MTTR, which is a standard way of measuring how long it
takes to resolve an issue from the time it occurs until it is fixed, is an important metric to
network operators. Without a way to accurately locate a physical fiber issue, simply finding
the issue point can take 6-8 hours or sometimes even longer, depending on the complexity of
the network and engaging the appropriate technician teams. The longer this portion of the
process takes, the more money is spent in terms of labor hours, which can be even greater
during nights, weekends, and holidays. Furthermore, the longer the MTTR, the more
frustrating it is for users, so extended downtimes can result in a loss of customers and
revenue.
By installing a remote fiber monitoring system, a network operator will be automatically

notified in real-time when an issue occurs, along with receiving the precise location (down to
a few meters) of the event. As a result, the MTTR can be reduced significantly along with
related costs when repair crews can be dispatched directly to the right place, sometimes
before the user even notices there is a problem.
Reduces or Eliminates Costly Repair Labor and Tasks
Each time a repair crew needs to be dispatched to a fiber break, the operational expense
account increases. Industry estimates show that for most service providers, the cost of simply
starting up and rolling out a truck to investigate a fiber event can cost between $100 and
$500. For some large telco carriers, a single fiber break may involve rolling multiple trucks
and crews, further multiplying these operational costs. For smaller network operators, they
may rely on 3rd party contractors for truck rolls and repairs, which can be even more costly
per instance. Considering this is before the added time and labor costs to travel to the
location and resolve the issue, it is very expensive to repair fiber problems.
By installing and utilizing a fiber monitoring system, truck rolls are reduced or completely
eliminated. Time spent finding the location of the issue is drastically minimized, saving large
sums of money and labor hours on an annual basis, not to mention maximizing network
uptime for users and customers.
Improved Performance Monitoring and Advanced Warnings
An installed fiber testing system can help to provide a level of performance monitoring in the
sense that potential issues may be identified in advance of becoming a more serious issue. By
routinely checking fibers, the system can spot increased signal loss in the fiber, like a
degrading splice or where a fiber may have been mishandled or has become slightly crimped
during other network maintenance. This allows a repair team to make the necessary repairs or
improvements before it becomes a larger issue.
Establish Baseline Fiber Performance References
Because these systems typically start by taking a baseline measurement of any connected
fiber and then monitor continuously against that baseline, it then provides an improved
understanding of the expected performance for a given fiber. Once the baseline has been
established along with other “known” elements in the fiber (splices, connection points, etc.),
the network operator has a better sense of where performance should be on a regular basis.
Furthermore, since most monitoring systems allow for the adjustment of sensitivity
thresholds for alarms, if it turns out that too many false alarms are being generated against the
initial baseline, the user can adjust the sensitivity to a more ideal setting that establishes a
revised baseline taking into account these other false alarm-causing variables.
Identifying Frequent Problem Areas
Once monitoring network fibers via a regular test procedure, are specific cable segments or
links experiencing more issues and alarms than others? Utilizing this type of system can help
to better spot areas of the network that may be experiencing more issues than others, allowing
the network operator to improve safeguards or shift repair team resources to better address
recurring problem areas.
Who Should Use Remote Fiber Monitoring Systems?
It's hard to imagine a situation in which remote fiber monitoring would not be useful. Large
telecom and data center enterprises that have thousands of fibers installed require more
efficient solutions for determining where and when a break happens. Smaller companies that
simply don't have the budget for a dedicated technical crew can install a remote monitoring
system to make call-outs simpler and faster—simply knowing where and when breakages
occur reduces the hourly cost you'll have to pay a contractor.
But what about cities and electric utilities?
With fiber serving as the backbone of virtually all communications networks, cities and
utilities are similarly expected to maintain their networks and keep a high level of
availability/uptime. The large areas typically covered by a single metro means that the list of
environmental issues that can happen is vast. Additionally, critical communications
infrastructure like 9-1-1 emergency services and electric utilities must be operational at all
times, so for these types of services, availability is not just desirable; it is absolutely critical.
As investment in infrastructure grows at a state and local level, more and more emphasis will
be placed on uptime and network performance.
A single unexpected event can have a disastrous impact on your network, whether a bad
driver knocks down a pole, a squirrel chews through a cable, or someone maliciously tampers
or attempts to cut communications. Resource expenses and OpEx grow rapidly when
technicians are forced to waste hours of time across miles of fiber infrastructure to find a
single break. With many municipalities operating under budget constraints, a fiber
monitoring system is a small investment that will pay for itself very quickly.
Remote fiber monitoring is also important for rural applications. If you consider that most
rural installations have less support and resources than their major city counterparts, fiber
monitoring systems help to keep people connected while saving service providers time that
would otherwise be spent on troubleshooting.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION, VSAT, DSPT &
INMARSAT
Long distance communication using conventional techniques like coaxial

cable or microwave radio relay links involves a large number of repeaters. For radio
relay links of repeater spacing is limited by line of sight and is of the order of tens of
Kms. As the number of repeaters increase system performance and reliability are
degraded. Troposcatter propagation can cover several hundred Kms. but the channel
capacity is limited and costs are high due to necessity of large antennas and high
transmit power. HF communication is subject to fading due to ionospheric disturbances
and channel capacity is severely restricted due to limited bandwidth available. Large
areas could be covered if the height of microwave repeater could be increased by
putting it on board an artificial earth satellite .A Communications satellite (sometimes
abbreviated to COMSAT) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purpose of
telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including
geostationary orbits, otherelliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits.
For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a

microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of submarine communication
cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships,
vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which
application of other technologies, such as cable, is impractical or impossible. In
October 1945 Clarke published an article titled ―Extra- terrestrial Relays‖ in the British
magazine Wireless World. The article described the fundamentals behind the
deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits for the purpose of relaying
radio signals. Thus Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the
communications satellite.
GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT
A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based
observer. A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at a constant speed once
per day over the equator. This satellite revolves above the equator round the earth at a
height of 35,786 km. Its period of revolving round the earth is same as that of the earth
rotation on its own axis. The geostationary orbit is useful for communications
applications because ground based antennas, which must be directed toward the
satellite, can operate effectively without the need for expensive equipment to track the
satellite‘s motion. Especially for applications that require a large number of ground
antennas (such as direct TV distribution), the savings in ground equipment can more
than justify the extra cost and onboard complexity of lifting a satellite into the relatively
high geostationary orbit.
In October 1945 Clarke published an article titled ―Extra-terrestrial Relays‖ in

the British magazine Wireless World. The article described the fundamentals behind the
deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits for the purpose of relaying
radio signals. Thus Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the
communications satellite.
The first truly geostationary satellite launched in orbit was the Syncom 3,
launched on August 19, 1964. It was placed in orbit at 180° east longitude, over the
International Date Line. It was used that same year to relay experimental television
coverage on the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan to the United States, the first
television transmission sent over the Pacific Ocean.
A geostationary satellite is launched above the equator 36,000 km high above

the earth. Its period round the earth coincides with that of the earth rotation. Therefore,
the satellite looks as if it is stationary from the earth. If three (3) communication
satellites are launched equidistantly above the equator, it can serve almost all
communication network round the world.
For a geostationary satellite, the following orbital conditions must be satisfied:
 Period of revolution should be same as period of the earth‘s rotation

which is 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds.
 The altitude of the satellite should be 35786 km as per the Kepler‘sthird

law.
 The orbit should be in equatorial plane of the earth.
 The satellite should move in the easterly direction same as thedirection of

rotation of the earth.
Geostationary orbits
This satellite is advantageous because:
(1) Its large antenna at an earth station is easy to track.
(2) Twenty–four (24) hours communication can be made with even

onlyone satellite.
(3) The satellite looks at the earth as if it were stationary, and it

radiateshighly effective wave power.
(4) Visibility from one satellite is very wide, and global

communicationcan be made using only three satellites.
Its drawback, however, is its delay caused in long distance transmission.

But, the system is economical and accordingly, it is widely used for both
international andregional domestic communications.
ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
(i) Large coverage : Almost one–third of the earth with exception of polar
regions is visible from geostationary orbit. It is, thus, possible to cover
about 10,000 kms. distance irrespective of intervening terrain with a
single satellite.
(ii) High quality : Satellite links can be designed for high quality
performance. The link performance is highly stable since it is free from
ionospheric disturbances, multipath effects or fading.
(iii) High reliability : Reliability is high since there is only one repeaterin in
the link.
(iv) High capacity : With microwave frequencies, wide bandwidths are

available and large communication capacity can be obtained.
(v) Flexibility : In a terrestrial system, communication is tied down to the

links installed. On the other hand, satellite communication is well suited
for changing traffic requirements, locations and channelcapacities.
(vi) Speed of installation : Installation of earth terminals can be achievedin a

short time as compared to laying of cables or radio relay links.
(vii) Mobile, short–term or emergency communications: With ariliftable or

road transportable terminals, short–term or emergency communications
can be quickly provided. Reliable long distance landmobile, maritime
mobile and aeronautical mobile services are feasibleonly by means of
satellite.
(viii) Satellite communication is ideally suited for point to multipoint

transmission on broadcasting over large areas. Application of satellites
for TV broadcasting, audio and video distribution and teleconferencing,
facsimile, data and news dissemination is, therefore,increasing rapidly.
APPLICATIONS AREAS:
(a) TELEPHONY
The first and historically most important application for communication

satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony. The fixed Public
Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to
an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite. The
downlink follows an analogous path. Improvements in submarine
communications cables, through the use of fiber-optics, caused some decline in
the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century, but they still
serve remote islands.
(b) SATELLITE TELEVISION
Television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous

delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a
more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats.
(c) FIXED SERVICE SATELLITE
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku bands.
They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and
local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated
programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance
learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV),
Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications. FSS satellites
are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends.
(d) DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITE
Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the

microwave Ku band. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-
Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH TV etc. Operating at
lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a dish for
reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3.6m) or
larger for C band).
(e) SATELLITE RADIO
Satellite radio offers audio services in some countries. Mobile services

allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming
anywhere.
(f) SATELLITE INTERNET
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a

means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections. This can be very
useful for users who are located in very remote areas, and cannot access a
broadbandconnection.
(g) NAVIGATION
One of the fascinating applications of satellites is GPS (Global Positioning

System). Its primary application is navigation. Receivers on the earth pick up
transmissions from four satellites simultaneously. The receiver uses the
microprocessor to compute and display the exact position, in terms of latitude and
longitude.
BASIC COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE COMPONENTS

Every communications satellite in its simplest form (whether low earth or
geosynchronous) involves the transmission of information from an originating
ground station to the satellite (the uplink), followed by a retransmission of the
information from the satellite back to the ground (the downlink). The downlink
may either be to a select number of ground stations or it may be broadcast to
everyone in a large area. Hence the satellite must have a receiver and a receive
antenna, a transmitter and a transmit antenna, some method for connecting the
uplink to the downlink for retransmission, and prime electrical power to run all of
the electronics. The exact nature of these components will differ, depending on
the orbit and the system architecture, but every communications satellite must
have these basic components. This is illustrated in the drawing below.
Basic Components of a Communications Satellite Link
The communication satellite essentially consists of
 Payload
 Support subsystems
Payload refers to the equipment used to provide the service for which the
satellite has been launched. In communication satellites, payload consists of
transponders which carry out the repeater function and the transmit and receive
antennas. Support subsystems include altitude and orbit control equipment, power
subsystem, telemetry and tele-command (TTC) subsystem, etc.
FREQUENCY BANDS:
Frequency bands in use for satellite communication are given below:-
C- Band :
U/L : 5.925 – 6.425 GHz.
D/L : 3.7 – 4.2 G Hz. Total 500 M Hz BW.
Extended C- Band :
U/L : 6.725 – 7.025 GHz.
D/L : 4.5 – 4.8 G Hz. Additional 300 MHz BW
Ku band :
U/L : 14.0 - 14.5 G Hz.
D/L : 10.95 – 11.2 and 11.45 - 11.7 GHz.
A total of 500 MHz BW in Ku band
TIME DELAY ISSUE IN SAT. COMMUNICATION
Transmission path of a communication link through a satellite is about
72000 km long (36000 km uplink path and 36000 km downlink path).
Electromagnetic waves travelling at 3 x 105 km/sec take about 240 msec. from
one end to the other. Such large propagation delay is at the limit of
psychologically tolerable values in telephony. The propagation delay results in
―echo in a telephony channel. A special equipment called echo suppressors is
incorporated in the earth station to counteract the echo. Propagation delay also
restricts the number of satellite hops for building up a telephony circuit to one as
the resulting propagation delay will be much beyond the acceptable value for more
than one hop. Kinds and Systems of Communication Satellite
ORBITS FOR SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:-
Orbit Definition Altitude Range (km) Period (Hours)

LEO(Low Earth Orbit) 150 to 1,000 1.5 to 1.8
MEO( Medium Earth Orbit) 5,000 to 10,000 3.5 to 6
Geosynchronous 36,000 mean altitude 24
GEO (Geostationary) 36,000 Precisely in 24
plane of the equator
Geo stationary Satellite: Precisely 35,786 km in the plane of the

equator .
SATELLITE FOOTPRINT
The footprint of a satellite is the ground area that
its transponders offer coverage.
D/L EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) is 32 dbw at Beam center.
Primary Coverage Area - 3 db contour EIRP 32 dbw .

Secondary Coverage Area - 6 db contour EIRP 29 dbw
Tertiary Coverage Area - 9 db contour EIRP 26 dbw
V-SAT
VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. VSAT is a device (also
known as an ―earth station‖) that is used to send and receive wireless transmissions by
satellite. Millions of VSATs are in use around the world, allowing people to send and
receive two-way data, voice or video transmissions by bouncing signals off of satellites
in orbit.
The "very small" component of the VSAT acronym refers to the size of the
VSAT ―antenna‖ or ―dish‖ - typically about 2 to 5feet (0.55-1.8 meters) in diameter for
Ku-band systems - that is mounted on a roof, attached to a wall or placed on the ground
and is capable of both receiving and sending satellite signals. VSAT systems can be
designed to serve both broadcast and interactive applications whether data, voice or
video, which are now being served by terrestrial lines and can be operated in either
single or multi-user environment
VSAT Equipment is mainly consist of-
 ODU ( Outdoor Unit )

 IDU ( Indoor Unit )
VSAT Network
Outdoor Unit (ODU):
The outdoor unit system is specifically optimized for use with the Indoor Unit
andconsists of:
 Transmit / Receive Dish (Antenna) (0.75m - 1.8m)
 Block Up-converter (BUC) (1W-2W)
 Low Noise Block-Down-converter (LNB)
 Feed Assembly
 BUC: - Block up-converter converts incoming I.F. (from IDU) to R.F.

transmitting frequency, amplifies it and passes it to feed.
 LNB: - LNB amplifies incoming R.F.(Radio Frequency) from feed

usinglow noise amplifier, converts it to I.F. and passes it to IDU
IDU (Indoor Unit):
 On receiving side, converts I.F. (Intermediate Frequency) from ODU to

base band signals which may be data, video or voice. On transmitting side,
converts base band signals to I.F. and passes them to ODU. I.F. is
generally in L band. R.F. can be in C, Ku or Ka bands.
 The indoor unit may be a small desktop box, or it may be (as in this
case) a network module integrated with a router providing VSAT
network
connectivity just as any other network module and provide flexible Interfaces
like Ethernet 10/100 BaseT (RJ45), USB with maximum download speed of up
to 4 Mbps and maximum upload speed of up to 2 Mbps.
ODU IDU
SAT Tx
SAT RX
Dish
Dish
USB
LNBLNB Ethernet 10/100 BaseT (RJ-45)
Telephone Jack for VoIP (RJ-11)
BUC
100-240 VAC
BUC (Optional -48VDC)
Feed
horn
Why V-SAT Broadband networking?
V-SAT is generally a very cost-effective medium for broadband data

communications, and has particularly strong advantages in ubiquity (VSAT is
available at any location) and multicast support (sending the same data to tens or
thousands of locations at once). One key advantage of VSAT broadband connections
is that service availability is not limited by the reach of terrestrial telephone or cable
infrastructure. A VSAT earth station can be placed anywhere - as long as it has an
unobstructed view of the satellite. This type of Internet connection is great for areas
that are rural or are perhaps underserved by reliable Internet Service Providers. In
areas like this, new Internet service capabilities are often not cost-effective. Many of
these areas cannot afford to have Internet service that does not have outages. Internet
services in these types of areas can also be expensive and the ISPs do not often have
the latest technology to offer to their subscribers. VSAT broadband is a way to have
the latest technology without having to go through a local ISP. This also serves to
make VSAT an ideal choice for WAN backup and disaster recovery. Because VSAT
completely avoids the local area wire-line infrastructure, it is effectively able to avoid
even large-scale local outages or disasters.
A satellite network can be installed and made operational within a week since
miles of cable need not be installed. And V-SATs are available in remote locations
since it dose not need the infrastructure of a telephone exchange to be present.
―Suppose a Railway department needs to expand its business by deploying

100 new reservation counter within a week, can you imagine the time it will take to
wait for leased lines? In such case, V-SAT Broadband connectivity is the best
Option.‖
Features Broadband V-SAT system of BSNL:-
 Maximum Trans / Receive Data up to 2 Mbps / 4 Mbps with 10/100

MbpsBase-T Ethernet interfaces.
 Supports all IP V4 protocols

 Shared and customized Bandwidth for customers requirements (i.e.
dedicatedor shared Bandwidth)
 Supports Video Conferencing
 Built in GRE Tunneling
 Dynamic Link Allocation (DLA) technology which automatically

adjusts modulation, coding, and gain based on the link environment
(such as during rain) to achieve maximum availability
 VPNs can be created with VSAT Network, MLLN nodes, MPLS

nodes ofBSNL
 VoIP telephony with add on ATA (Analog Telephone Adaptor)
 Transparent to IP Sec protocols
 Embedded CPU Turbo Product Coding
 Dynamic Link Allocation (DLA) Support ( unique to BSNL Gateway,

whichno other VSAT service provider can support in India as on date)
 Connectivity to Broadband Internet
BROADBAND V-SAT ARCHITECTURE:

V-SAT networks can be arranged in point to point, star, mesh,
star/mesh, and broadcast configurations. The preferred arrangement depends on
the kind of information flow the network will service. A point to point network
allows two-way communications between two VSAT sites. A star network
allows any number of VSAT sites to have two-way communication with a
central hub. A mesh network allows two-way communications between any
VSAT sites in a network. A central hub is not necessary. Each site
communicates to another site with a single satellite hop.
VSAT Broadband (Ku band VSAT) networks of BSNL designed in a

hub- and-spoke fashion as shown in fig., with customer locations connecting
directly over the air to a central ―hub‖ facility. The equipment at a
customer site is a VSAT receiver/router (similar to a DSL or cable modem),
attached to a small dish mounted on top of or outside the building. At the
central hub facility, a large dish and sophisticated hub RF components receive
and transmit to the remote sites, and route information to and from the Internet
or private networks via leased line.
Satellite
IDU HUB
VoIP
Ku band V-SAT ARCHITECTURE
Internet router is connected to BSNL National Internet Backbone using multiple

2 Mbps leased line. All Remote VSAT locations are having private IP so that remote
VSAT users can connect to Internet.
MLLN customers will connect directly to this routers using lease line and they
will be able to access the VSAT remote terminals. Customers may take 64 kbps or
multiple of it for their main office connectivity.
MPLS: It will be connected to BSNL MPLS cloud using multiple 2 MB lease lines.
MPLS router will work as CE routers for the MPLS cloud.
BSNL‘s Ku Band HUB (Earth Station) at BANGALORE consists of :
• Satellite antenna of 8.1 m – Cassegrain feed type.
• Ku Band RF equipment and its control systems.
GATEWAY Networking Equipment with interfaces to Terrestrial Networks like

MLLN, MPLS and NIB.
V-SAT SERVICES OFFERED
The V-SAT Broad VSAT network allows secure, reliable and cost effective
data, voice and video transmission and enables an organization to deploy nationwide
different services over IP using the shortest time span.
• LEASED LINES Through V-SAT on IP PLATFORM:

4Kbpsonwards
• High speed Broadband Internet
• VPN Networking
• VOIP Telephony
• Facsimile
• Telemedicine
• E-learning
• IP multicasting
• Video conferencing
• Video streaming
• Distance Education
• Banking
• On-demand services for WAN backup/disaster recovery etc.
Architecture for High Speed Broadband Access using Kuband

VSAT
 As shown in fig. V-SAT (User Terminals) are capable to provide similar
broadband and high speed Internet capabilities available on terrestrial lines
anywhere in India i.e. download speed of up to 4 Mbps and maximum upload
speed of up to 2 Mbps.
 It delivers bandwidth on demand allowing efficient use of bandwidth making

it ideal for broadband access rollout to Small and Medium Enterprises,
Internet Cafes, apartments and individual users. It allows dedicated or shared
bandwidth to match the user‘s requirement. It fully supports standard Internet
connection and any IP applications. VSAT broadband offers top of the line
VPN encryption for the security of your personal information and data. They
also offer full services for things like web hosting, net meeting, etc. A public
IP address is assigned to both the VSAT network module and the router
satellite interface. Network Address Translation (NAT) is implemented on
the Ethernet interface of the router, so that multiple clients can be connected
and use the service.
 It delivers bandwidth on demand allowing efficient use of bandwidth making
it ideal for broadband access rollout to Small and Medium Enterprises,
Internet Cafes, apartments and individual users. It allows dedicated or shared
bandwidth to match the user‘s requirement. It fully supports standard Internet
connection and any IP applications. VSAT broadband offers top of the line
VPN encryption for the security of your personal information and data. They
also offer full services for things like web hosting, net meeting, etc. A public
IP address is assigned to both the VSAT network module and the router
satellite interface. Network Address Translation (NAT) is implemented on
the Ethernet interface of the router, so that multiple clients can be connectedand use
the service.
Satellite
INTERNET
Ku User Terminal
Band
HUB
Station
User Terminal
I
User Terminal
n
t
e
r
n
e
t
C
a
f
e
s
ADVANTAGES OF VSAT
 Availability: VSAT services can be deployed anywhere having a clear view
of the Clarke Belt
 Diversity: VSAT provides a wireless link completely independent of the

local terrestrial/wire line infrastructure - especially important for backup or
disaster recovery services
 Deployability: VSAT services can be deployed in hours or even minutes.
 Homogeneity: VSAT enables customers to get the same speeds and service
level agreements at all locations across their entire network regardless of
location
 Acceleration: Most modern VSAT systems use onboard acceleration of

protocols such as TCP ("spoofing" of acknowledgement packets) and HTTP
(pre-fetching of recognized HTTP objects); this delivers high-quality Internet
performance regardless of latency (see below)
 Multicast: Most current VSAT systems use a broadcast download scheme

(such as DVB-S) which enables them to deliver the same content to tens or
thousands of locations simultaneously at no additional cost.
 Security: Corporate-grade VSAT networks are private layer-2 networks over

the air
DISADVANTAGES IN VSAT
 Latency: Since they relay signals off a satellite in geosynchronous orbit

36,000 km (22,300 miles) above the Earth, VSAT links are subject to a
minimum latency of approximately 500 milliseconds round-trip. This makes
them a poor choice for "chatty" protocols or applications such as online
gaming.
 Encryption: The acceleration schemes used by most VSAT systems rely

upon the ability to see a packet's source/destination and contents; packets
encrypted via VPN defeat this acceleration and perform slower than other
network traffic.
 Environmental concerns: VSATs are subject to signal attenuation due to

weather ("Rain Fade"); the effect is typically far less than that experienced by
one-way TV systems (such as Direct TV, DISH TV etc) that use smaller
dishes, but is still a function of antenna size and transmitter power and
frequency band
 Installation: VSAT services require an outdoor antenna installation with a

clear view of the sky; this makes installation in skyscraper urban
environments or locations where a customer does not have "roof rights"
problematic.
DIGITAL SATELLITE PHONE TERMINAL (DSPT)
Digital Satellite Phone Terminal System (DSPT system or DSPS)
project involves setting up a VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) Based
network for BSNL. The system consists of HUB Station and Remote Digital
Satellite Phone Terminals working in Ku-Band (Transmit Frequency is 13.75-
14.5 GHz and Receive is 10.7-12.75 GHz). DSPT Network provides PSTN
connectivity to rural, remote, inaccessible and hilly areas via INSAT (Indian
National Satellite) or leased transponder for DTS network. The VSAT system
works in a star topology using DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)
technology. For BSNL VSAT network the Hub shall be located at
Sikanderabad (U.P.), adjoining Delhi, in Uttar-Pradesh and there shall be 15000
DSPT remotes located over several states in India with higher proportions
being in North, North East and East states.
OVERVIEW OF DSPT HUB:
The Hub of DSPT system will be composed of Indoor and Outdoor facilities.
The outdoor facility is a complete Antenna and RF path while the indoor
comprises the Hub Base-band and the other equipment‘s: The Hub of DSPT
system comprises of Indoor facilities and Outdoor facilities.
Indoor facilities: Indoor facilities has following components,
a. Hub Base-band
b. Transit switch.
In the Indoor facility consists of redundant Hub-base band unit, a Transit switch
to provide connectivity to PSTN network, associated Data-Base servers, Billing
system consisting of Billing system Hardware and software, the data networking
equipment consisting Firewall, web-server, Authentication server and router to
provide backend connectivity to the Internet. The base-band and remotes have a
NMS and its databaseto configure and manage the entire VSAT-based network.
Typical Network Configuration of DSPT systemOutdoor facilities:
a. Antenna (8.1 Meter antenna assembly)
b. RF path: RF path consists of Transmit chain and Receive chain.Transmit chain

consists of:-
• ULPC (Up Link Power Control),
• Up Converter and
• SSPA (Solid State Power Amplifier) andReceive chain consists of

• Trance reject filter
• Radar reject filter
• LNA (Low Noise Amplifier)
• Power divider and Down converter
(ix) Overview of DSPT HUB

INMARSAT
INMARSAT is the world leader in global, mobile satellite
communications. It owns and operates the world‘s best global portfolio of satellite
networks, specifically designed for customer mobility, and holds a multi-layered,
global spectrum portfolio, covering L-band, Ka-band and S-band, enabling
unparalleled breadth and diversity in the solutions it provides.
INMARSAT‘s long-established global distribution network includes not
only the world‘s leading channel partners but also its own strong direct retail
capabilities, enabling end to end customer service assurance. The company has an
unrivalled track record of operating the world‘s most reliable global mobile satellite
networks, sustaining business and mission-critical safety & operational applications
for 40 years. It is also a major driving force behind technological innovation in
mobile satellite communications, sustaining its leadership through a substantial
investment and a powerful network of technology and manufacturing partners.
INMARSAT operates across a diversified portfolio of sectors with the
financial resources to fund its business strategy and holds leading positions in the
Maritime, Government and Aviation Satcoms markets, operating consistently as a
trusted, responsive and high-quality partner to its customers across the globe.
BSNL is the Indian Telecommunication Partner of INMARSAT. BSNL
is holding valid license issued by Department of Telecommunications, Government
of India on 25.08.2014 for providing In Flight and Maritime Connectivity (IFMC).
BSNL is now approved to offer IFMC services, which will include

Inmarsat‘s Global Xpress (Ka-band) and Swift Broadband and Fleet Broadband (L-
band) services, to Indian airlines operating within and outside India, as well as
foreign airlines transiting through Indian airspace, and shipping companies operating
within Indian waters.
Inmarsat owns and operates the award-winning GX Aviation service, which
enables passengers to browse the internet, stream videos, check social media and
much more during their flights, with connectivity comparable to mobile broadband
services on the ground. It is the world‘s first and only global, high-speed inflight
internet service, delivered through a single, wholly-owned and operated network of
high-throughput satellites.
In the maritime sector, Inmarsat operates its award-winning (Ka-band) Fleet
Xpress service with unlimited Fleet Broadband (L-Band) back-up, which is now
installed on over 6,000 vessels and has emerged as the market-leading pathway to
digitalisation in the shipping industry and is helping world-leading shipowners and
managers deliver improved vessel and fleet efficiency, boost profitability and
enhance seafarer wellbeing.
BSNL has installed and commissioned Gateway for Inmarsat GSPS services
(Global Satellite Phone Service) at ALTTC Ghaziabad, UP and has started providing
GSPS services since 24.05.2017.
BSNL C- Land Earth Station, LES for GMDSS services is at Ghaziabad, Uttar
Pradesh. Earlier GMDSS services were provided by TCL through their LES at Pune.
BSNL‘s GSPS (Global Satellite Phone Service) also called satellite phone service,
provides voice communication and messaging from any part of the globe. However,
presently, the services will be available within India only. It is a ubiquitous service,
hence can be used from all part of the country including territorial water. It is being
provided through world‘s most advanced satellite communications network working
on INMARSAT I-4 F2 satellite located at 63.90 degree East. It is suitable for persons
working in remote areas or disaster affected areas – defence, border security
organizations, disaster management bodies, trekkers, fishermen, maritime
applications.
Now, the services are available to Government Agencies, General Public,

Private Enterprises and existing users of satellite Phone services including Mini-M
users.
BSNL‘s GSPS system provides telecommunication services to predominately

mobile users through an enhanced GMR-2 air interface (GMR-2+) over the Inmarsat-
4 (I-4) satellite like Telephony Voice, Supplementary services, Circuit switched
Data/Fax services (for specific applications), SMS point-to-point, SMS-to- E-mail, E-
mail-to- SMS.
The coverage is accessible to GSPS users at or above 20 degree antenna
elevation angle.
The GSPS system is intended to provide a modernized, resource efficient and
extensible platform for long term support of telecommunication services optimized
for the characteristics of the I-4 satellite.
The GSPS system supports Satellite Phone Services served by a single

Network Control Center-Gateway (NCC-GW) located at Ghaziabad.

Core NW

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Core NW

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Core NW

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TX Module Concept of Optical Fiber Communication

1. Concept of Optical Fiber Communication 2

2. Optical Fiber Splicing 21

3. Fault Localization in OF Network using OTDR, Power 38

6. SDH and NGSDH 103

7. DWDM Technology-an overview 121

8. CPAN and OTN Technology overview 130

9. Terrestrial Radio Links 147

10. MLLN 161

11. Transmission media equipment planning and Installation 170

12. FSO & Li-Fi Communication 193

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 1 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

1 CONCEPT OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

 Basic optical fiber communication system:

 The Structure of an Optical Fiber

 Principle of Operation – Theory

An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 2 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

With increase in population struggle for survival increased Its impacts on

1.3 Fiber-Optic Applications

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 3 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

 Long distance communication backbones

 Computer data communication (LAN, WAN etc.)

 High EMI areas

 Non-communication applications (sensors etc…)

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

 Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 4 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

1.5 Fiber Optics Basics: Principles of Optical communication

(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.

(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.

(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.

(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.

- Inexpensive light sources available.

Fig : 1 Fiber Optic System

1.5.1 Principle of Operation - Theory

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 5 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

Fig : 2 Snell’s law

1.5.2 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 6 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

Cladding (n2) Cladding

Core (n2) Jacket

Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depends on many

- The size of the fiber.

- The composition of the fiber.

The light injected into the fiber

1.5.3 Geometry of Fiber

SDE to AGM (LICE) Page 7 of 194

For Restricted Circulation

The diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.

Core (m) Cladding ( m)