NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF GEOLOGICAL, MINING AND METALLURGICAL

ENGINEERING

PROFESSIONAL CAREER MINING ENGINEERING

ISSUE:
ISSUE:
DESIGN
DESIGNAND
ANDCONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTIONOFOF
ROADS, RAMPS IN SURFACE MINING
ROADS, RAMPS IN SURFACE MINING

STUDENTS: FLORES HUACHO, NILTON JAIRO

VELAZCO IGREDA, PEDRO ALBERTO

VERASTEGUI SANCHEZ,ARTURO
 LIMA PERU

INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Road design parameters
2.1 Layout and Design Speed
2.2 Road Width
2.3 Earrings
2.4 Criterion for horizontal and vertical curves
2.5 Vertical curves
2.6 Cants and pumping
2.7 Parapets
2.8 Braking track
2.9 Crossings (Intersections)
2.10 Parking
2.11 Collation Points

2.12 Segregated Roadways

2.13 Road Design Scheme

2.14 Path Categorization

3. Construction and maintenance of mining roads

3.1 Execution of the planimetric design or layout
3.2 Construction
3.3 Earrings
3.4 Curves
3.5 Cants
3.6 Parapets
3.7 Roads near the loading front

3.8 Paths in Dumps

3.9 Rescue routes

3.10 Conservation

3.11 Irrigation

3.12 Traffic signs

3.13 Evaluation of the condition and reception of the roads

4. Bibliography
 1. INTRODUCTION

Mining roads are part of the daily and routine operation of any mine, being an
essential component from the point of view of operational efficiency. That is why
this manual has been prepared, with the aim of sharing knowledge about the
different parameters of road design, construction and maintenance, which will
allow us to obtain the best business result.
A mine is an integrated system of processes, where transportation plays a
fundamental role as it is the most expensive resource of the mine, thus having
great influence on the operating cost. On the other hand, it has great
implications in terms of safety and hygiene, which is why good design and
maintenance of mining trails is so important.
It is normal for the quality of the tracks to be impacted by many elements, and
each problem must be solved in a particular way, which is a bit different from
the solution applied in road engineering. On the one hand, the vehicles and the
demands transmitted are very different and on the other hand, the mining
operating tracks are generally temporary.
There is increasing awareness of the impact that the state of the roads has on
the transportation cycle, in terms of: equipment speeds, interruption times due
to inadequate design or construction, tire wear and damage, fuel consumption.
of fuel, adverse weather conditions and above all in terms of safety.
In Escondida, the design, construction and maintenance of mining roads has
not received the necessary attention according to its impact on costs and
compliance with production goals, therefore this manual aims to provide
guidelines to standardize and optimize this process according to the conditions.
techniques and equipment available in the pit.
This is the first version of a work of this nature and it is evidently susceptible to
being improved with the suggestions and contributions of users and all those
involved in the design, construction and maintenance of mining roads.

2. ROAD DESIGN PARAMETERS

2.1 LAYOUT AND DESIGN SPEED
The layout of each road obeys the need to transport the different types of materials, the
origin and destination, the geometry of the pit, the topography and a number of
variables that determine said layout, whether on a plane or in altimetry. . Within the
possibilities, excess curves and counter curves and sinuosity in the planimetric layout
must be avoided; If this is not possible on existing roads, these layouts must be softened
in order to make them as less perceptible to the driver and seeking maximum
productivity.
The design speed will be determined by the type of transport equipment, its particular
characteristics that determine the maximum possible speed in each instance, going
down loaded, traveling loaded on the plane or going up a ramp. This speed, in addition
to the equipment, is also determined by the geometry and the safety considerations
associated with the road.

2.2 PATH WIDTH

2.2.1 Geometry

2.2.1.1 In straight sections

To define the total width of a road, three components must be considered: width of the
transportation lane, the safety parapet and the central shoulder if required.
The criterion for defining the width of the lanes in straight sections is based on the
width of the largest equipment currently in use, which in the case of Escondida is 9.15
meters (Truck 797).
It is recommended that each transport lane should provide free space on both the left
and right equal to half the width of the largest equipment that will transit it.
Furthermore, it is recommended that for two-lane traffic the width of the road should
not be less than 3.5 to 4 times the width of the truck.
These recommendations were considered in the width design for two types of roads:

(a) On ramps and interior mine roads

(b) On main roads

On ramp and interior mine roads

On these tracks, the criterion of free space on each side of the truck equal to
half its width is considered. And the result is that the total width of the road must
be 3.5 times the width of the truck plus the parapet, as can be seen in Figures
N°1 and 2 and Formula N°1.
Formula No. 1 for the width of ramps and interior mine roads will be:

Where:
A = width of the largest truck in operation
B = width of the berm with safety parapet
Applying the formula in our mining operation, we have to:
A = 9.15 meters (Truck 797)
B = 5.7 meters
AC = 3.5 * A + B
AC = 3.5 * 9.15 + 5.7
AC = 37.7 m. ≈ 38 m.
On main roads

On these routes, the criterion of free space on each side of the truck equal to
half its width is considered. And the result is that the total width of the road must
be 4 times the width of the truck plus the parapet plus the intermediate
shoulder, as can be seen in Figures N°3 and 4 and Formula N°2.

Where:
A = width of the largest truck in operation
B = wide berm with safety parapet
Bi = intermediate berm width
Applying the formula in our mining operation, we have to:
A = 9.15 meters (Truck 797)
B = 5.7 meters Bi = 5.7 meters
AC = 4 * A + Bi + B
AC = 4 * 9.15 + 5.0 + 5.7
AC = 47.3 m. ≈ 47 m.
2.2.1.2 In sections with curvature

The required road width in curves takes into account the overhang that occurs on the
equipment at the front and rear when cornering. The procedure to determine the width
of the road in curves that considers the effect just mentioned, the lateral free space
between the transport tracks and the extra width that allows to accommodate difficult
conditions when driving in curves is shown in Figure No. 5.

Where:
U = width of team track (from center to center of tires)
F A = projecting front width of the equipment
F B = outgoing rear width of the equipment
C = total lateral clearance
Z = extra width allocated due to cornering difficulties
Since the road width in curves varies for equipment according to different
weight categories and different radii of curvature, the widths given in Table No.
1 are recommended. This table should be used as a guide to establish the
minimum road width along horizontal curves.
As the extraction trucks that operate in Escondida are in a weight range
>180,000 Kg. They belong to equipment category N°4 (See Table N°1).

Therefore, in Table No. 2 you must look for the turning radius of the curve in meters,
then look for the road width for 1,2, 3 or 4 lanes and finally take the value located in
equipment category N. °4.

As a reference, the minimum turning radii for the extraction trucks that Escondida
currently operates with are those shown in Table N°3.

2.3 PENDING
2.2.1 Calculation of the Slope of a road
To calculate the slope of a road, the formula in Figure N°6 is used.

2.2.2 Recommendations and Standards

The longitudinal profile of the road must consider in the layout of the grade a
compensation between the cutting and filling to be carried out to satisfy the
needs of the design. Along a grade there are different values for the slopes (%),
with the maximum value allowed in Escondida being 10% for mining roads and
main ramps; and for auxiliary ramps it is a maximum of 8%.
An 8% or less slope is recommended when it does not cause excessive
stripping or when the path layout is too complicated. This slope provides greater
flexibility in the road construction stage and is appropriate in some sectors of
the mine such as the entrance to a bank, approaches to dumps or where it is
deemed pertinent due to the characteristics of the operation.

2.4 CRITERIA FOR HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

The ability of the equipment operator to see ahead of him at a distance at which
he can stop the equipment is the first consideration. Equipment braking
distance is a component that must be evaluated for each type of equipment in
the transportation fleet to allow the designer to establish horizontal and vertical
road alignment. Associated with the braking distance of the equipment is the
operator's sight distance. It is imperative that everywhere along the road the
sight distance be sufficient to allow the equipment to travel at such a speed that
it can stop before reaching an obstacle or hazardous situation ahead of the
road. The distance measured from the driver's eye to the hazard in front of him
(sight distance) must ALWAYS be equal to or greater than the distance required
to safely stop the equipment (braking distance) , i.e.:
Braking distance → Must be calculated for each piece of equipment and the
road alignment adjusted to the pieces of equipment with the greatest braking
distance.
Visibility distance → It must be greater than or equal to the braking distance of
the equipment. This criterion must be considered in both vertical and horizontal
curves.
For horizontal curves, the visibility distance is limited by very high parapets,
pronounced rock cuts, structures, etc. Case C in Figure N°7 shows a horizontal
curve with a visibility distance restricted by trees and steep rocks. Case D
shows that by removing the trees and placing them behind the slope, the sight
distance can be lengthened and equal to the braking distance, thus meeting the
necessary criterion.

At the crest of vertical curves the sight distance is limited by the road surface. Case A in
Figure N°8 shows an unsafe condition. The sight distance is restricted by the vertical
curve and the equipment cannot stop in time to avoid danger. Case B shows the
remedied risky condition. The vertical curve has been lengthened, thus creating a sight
distance equal to the required braking distance.
The calculation parameters involved in this item must consider the smallest
vehicle (trucks) in terms of visibility distance and the greatest length of braking
distance in larger equipment (trucks), then whichever is greater must prevail to
preserve the better traffic safety conditions.
To determine the braking distance, there is evidence that indicates that for equipment
with a Gross Weight between 180,000 and 300,000 Kg, which is our case with
extraction trucks, the braking distance considering an initial speed of 32 kph would be
53 meters. You can also use curves that have investigated the behavior of this index,
such as those in Figure N°9.
2.5 VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical curves are used to provide a smooth transition from one slope to another. The
length of these curves must be adequate for comfortable driving and also provide ample
visibility distances in the design. Generally the length of vertical curves is greater than
desirable and results in large sight distances. However, excessive lengths can result in
long flat sections that prevent good drainage and often lead to soft spots and potholes.
The length of the vertical curves that will provide adequate visibility distances are
described in Figure N°10.

Where:
L = Length of the vertical curve (meters)
S = Achievable braking distance of the equipment (meters)
A = Algebraic difference between the slopes (%)
h1 = height of the driver's eye above the ground (meters)
h2 = height of the object above the road surface (meters)
Figures N°11 and 12 show the minimum lengths of vertical curves versus braking
distances for various algebraic differences in slopes (%). Another piece of information
must also be considered, which is the height of the driver's eye, which for the 797 trucks
is 6 meters and for the 793 it is 5 meters.
Figure N°13 presents the formulas for determining a Vertical Curve, which shows how
all the geometric elements that make it up are calculated ( Source Manual Caminos
BHP).
2.6 CANTS AND PUMPING

2.6.1 Superelevation of a curve

When a piece of equipment travels through a curve it is forced outward by
centrifugal force; however, when the equipment travels on a flat surface this
effect is counteracted by the weight of the equipment and the friction between
the road surface and the tires.
For a proper combination of speed and radius, if the Centrifugal Force equals or
exceeds the Resisting Force (towards the inside of the road), then the
equipment will skid out of the road. To help teams when negotiating curves, the
road should frequently be inclined. This inclination is called cant. The value of
the superelevation must be such that it cancels the Centrifugal Force.
For a first approximation to the value of the superelevation of a curve, Table No. 4 is
available.

To make the transition from a normal area to an area with superelevation, there
is a safe distance called Runout superelevation. The objective is to give the
operator ease both inside and outside the curve.
According to this, it is recommended that part of the transition be located on the straight
part of the road and part on the curve. The design criteria indicates that it be 1/3 in the
curved part and 2/3 in the straight part of the road. This method can be seen in Figure
N°14.
2.6.2 Calculation of superelevation in the curve

Below are described several formulas that will allow us to obtain each of the
points of the curve to which the superelevation will be applied, where it is
essential to know its transition distances. (These formulas come from the
Highway Manual Vol.3).

1) Calculation of Theoretical Superelevation

P = Cant (%)
Vd = Design speed (km/hr).
R= radius of curvature (mts).

2) Calculation of Transition Length

L = Transition length (m.)

P = Cant (%)
B = Pumping (%)
A = Road width (m.)
3) Calculation of Curve Development

D = Development of the curve (m.)

R = Radius curvature (m.)
α = curve angle (°)

4) Turn rate calculation

Tg = Turning rate every 1% (m.)

P = Cant (%)
b = Pumping (%)
L = Transition length (m.)

5) Relative edge slope

Each of the parameters corresponding to the previous formulas are described in Figure
N°15.
In addition, the values and location of each of the points on the curve must be defined,
which are shown in Figure N°16.
According to Figure N°16, you have to:
PT = Transition Principle
FT = Transition End
PC = Beginning of curve
FC = End of curve
Pmax = Maximum cant (applies only to the curved part)
1/3L = one third of the transition length (located on the curved part of the curve)
2/3L = two-thirds of the transition length (located on the straight part of the
curve)
T = intermediate points defined by the rate of rotation.

2.6.3 Methodology for calculating superelevation and its transition in

horizontal curves

The following steps will allow the superelevation of a curve to be materialized

on the ground, through the description of the order in which the calculations
must be carried out.

1) You have the curve layout. The axes of this are drawn along the straight
sections, which when intersected will form the vertex of the curve.
 2) Then the best circle that represents the curve and fits the lines just
described is drawn.

3) Calculate the Radius of this circle, which will represent the Radius of
Curvature (R).

4) Calculate the angle α.

5) Define the rest of the input parameters for the design:

6) Apply formulas 1 to 4: Maximum Cant, Transition Length, Curve

Development and Turn Rate.

7) The output parameters will be obtained, which are:

8) Take the values obtained to Figures N°15 and N°16 and deliver a plan
and table with distances and elevations of the curve and its
superelevation to the field person.

9) Whoever is responsible for carrying out this work on the ground must be
guided by Table No. 8 below.

Finally, as an example, there are the following figures that represent the transition of the
superelevation when materializing it on the ground.
2.6.4 PUMPING (Cross slope)
Although until now pumping has not been considered on the roads inside the
Escondida mine due to the climatic characteristics of the sector (desert climate
with very occasional rains throughout the year), the damage caused to the
roads as a result of the few rains and snow that have been present make us
look for recommendations regarding this design parameter, at least to be taken
into account in the new roads.
Cross slope is the difference in elevation between the crest and edge of the
road, and must be considered during the design and construction of a road.
One objective is to reduce steering effort on the part of the driver to a more
beneficial level, but if the objective is also adequate drainage then this
parameter must be considered. To combine drainage and addressability, a
balance must be established between both, that is, we must look for the
pumping rate that will allow the rapid drainage of water from the surface without
negatively affecting vehicle control.
Although the majority of the studies have been conducted in relation to rural and urban
roads, the criteria are equally applicable to mining roads. The recommended pumping
rate (cross slope) for surfaces built on mining roads is of the order of 1%-4%, as shown
in Figure N°19.
2.7 handrails

2.7.1 Safety parapet

2.7.1.1 Geometry and Position
The standard for Parapets on Interior Mine Roads indicates that with high
tonnage truck traffic, there must be a safety side parapet with a minimum height
of 1.80 meters. Figure N°17 shows the design of the security parapet used in
Escondida.
The safety parapet will be built on the external sides of the roads, to demarcate
the edge of the ramp or bank and serve as a reference for trucks to travel in a
safe area. The height of the parapet (see Figure N°20) is equivalent to the
average height of a 797 truck wheel (the largest size that travels in the mine).
This parapet has a resistance that could be surpassed by an uncontrolled truck,
which reinforces that in these cases the operators must direct the vehicle
towards the “box” or wall of the bank.
The construction of the core of the parapet must be with thick material, from
normal mining extraction. Chusca, gravel, or rubble should never be used to
build the core. The width of the parapet at the top will be 50 cm. in the central
part. The base of the parapet will be 5.2 meters and a minimum height of 1.80
meters. Its trapezoidal shape will be built with a backhoe, following established
operational procedures.
To avoid damage to the tires and to allow electrical cables to be installed at a
safe height, the parapet made of thick material will be covered with another
made of thin material, towards the inside of the road, with a width of
approximately 50 cm. and a maximum height of 1.5 meters, which will be
compacted with a backhoe (see Figure N°20).
The parapets must be built on firm ground on the sides of the roads. Otherwise,
the base of the bench must be reinforced with thick material filling on the slope,
or build the parapet in the resistant area towards the interior of the road.
The construction and design of roads must consider these regulations for parapets, in
order to have a safety reference for the normal movement of high-tonnage trucks inside
the mine.
In the event that leaching rubble is used in these parapets, the design would change,
remaining according to Figure N°22, with a core of thick material covered by a layer of
rubble of about 10 cm. giving verticality and therefore greater stability to the parapet.
2.7.2 Intermediate containment parapets

2.7.2.1. Design of intermediate parapets

The main functionality of the intermediate parapets is in some sectors of the
mine to provide trucks traveling on the tracks with the possibility of reducing
speed and stopping when they have lost control, due to failure of their brakes or
have had some type of emergency. . These constructions are necessary on
long stretches where trucks travel loaded or empty down ramps. The height of
these parapets is designed to stop (grasp) the truck chassis in its lower part and
thus prevent the vehicle from suffering major damage to its structure and
reducing speed. There is no need to build a large barrier that will ultimately
provide just another collision risk.
These parapets should be built with medium-sized granulated material and
preferably fine and partially loose material on the outside. The procedure to
build these parapets is as follows: the position will be in the axis and center of
each portion of 150 meters of ramp at 10% with a maximum length of 60
meters, leaving 45 meters. free of obstacles up and down in order to allow free
access to the benches.
Figure N°23 shows the proposed design and dimensions for these intermediate parapets.
Figure N°24 shows the height of the chassis of the largest extraction truck that travels in
Escondida (797), which guides us in determining the height of the parapet:
The dimensions have been defined according to the guidance provided by Tables No. 10
and Table No. 11, which indicate the recommended values for the parameters S, A, B
and C indicated in Figure No. 23.
Finally, it is necessary to mention that driver training to interact with these berms in
case they lose control of their trucks is as important, or even much more, than the
design of the berm itself.

2.8 BRAKING TRACK

Under certain conditions, emergency ramps or braking lanes may be built. The
main advantages are the effectiveness of stopping vehicles by incorporating a
strong gradient and the use of loose material (gravel) that offers great
resistance to the movement of the vehicle and is easy to dispose of on the
ground. The disadvantages are that they are expensive and consumption
additional space in the exploitation geometry.
The dimensions are developed based on speeds and slopes, the main figure of which is
the following:
2.9 CROSSINGS OR INTERSECTIONS

In Escondida, a Six Sigma Project was developed called “Main Crossroads and
Roads in the Mine” that was responsible for standardizing this concept, from
which we can extract the points that were defined within the Instructions
“Standard of Construction and Maintenance of Road Crossings”:

1. Height of Parapets.
The height of the parapets must be at least 1.8 meters. In addition, adequate
visibility for light vehicles with a height of 1.2 meters must be considered at the
intersection of the crossings. so that the driver can easily see from the light
vehicle.

2. Signage.
Transit according to Mina standard.
3. Mine information signage.
Indicate, through information signs, the approach to a dangerous intersection or
main road.

4. Roundabouts or light vehicle exits.

They should be approximately 100 meters away. distance from a main
intersection, duly signposted in a mandatory manner for light vehicles and
having a visibility of no less than 100 meters. of the vehicle you are going to
face on the road.

5. Light vehicle exits may not be designed within curved areas.

6. Roundabouts and light vehicle exits must always intercept the mining road
perpendicularly.

7. Light vehicles must be warned with informative signs about 70 meters from
the main intersection.

8. All main intersections must be properly illuminated, allowing good visibility of

the signage.

9. Irrigation must be maintained according to Mina's internal procedure at the

intersections so as not to impact the safety of drivers approaching the
intersections and the exits of light vehicles.

10. In case of work with motor graders in road maintenance.

There should be no curbs that impede the normal traffic of light vehicles at
intersections and roundabouts.

11. In the maintenance of roads with motor graders.

There should not be a secondary cord left on the edges of the berms.

12. Modifications or new designs of intersections, roundabouts, main roads or

others.
They must be communicated at least 24 hours. before making them effective to
ensure a complete understanding of the users of these crossings and roads.
These can be via intranet, email, or another.

13. Ears or Roundabouts.

Under no circumstances should an ear or roundabout be designed for two-way
traffic of light vehicles.

Figure N°27 shows an intersection with an angle less than 70 degrees, which is not
advisable due to the visibility needed at intersections, therefore the recommendation is a
junction between 70 and 90 degrees.
Furthermore, intersections must be made on land that is as flat as possible;
they should not be built on top of a ramp, for example. You should also avoid
placing an intersection near the crest of a vertical curve or a very pronounced
horizontal curve. As stated, the intersections should be as flat as possible, so
that the sight distance is considered in all four quadrants.
Each case of intersections must be analyzed in detail, guided by the aforementioned
project and with the aim of providing safe crossings for the operation.
2.10 PARKING

Parking lots should be built on the exit roads from the dump, more specifically
on the empty return route, in a position that is preferably outside the blast
radius. They must have access for light vehicles with segregated roads,
bathrooms and lighting, a waiting booth and clearly identified entrances and
exits, allowing movement in a single direction and with the positions in which
the units must be fully demarcated, with their ditch. placement of the front
positions in each of the individual parking lots.
Figure N°28 shows the different elements of the parking lot.

Truck access to bathroom shed maintenance area

Diagram of a truck parking lot, in which the entrance is through the rear of the unit
parking lot and the exit is through the front. In this way, the operator is prevented from
backing up with his unit and there is also a segregated lane for light vehicles and a
maintenance area. The widths described are useful folder widths, therefore the width of
the separating parapets must be considered.
2.11 COLLECTION WITHDRAWAL POINTS

The snack pick-up points must be located, like the parking lots, on the empty truck
return lanes, for reasons of safety and efficiency. These must be arranged in such a way
as to allow the units to pass freely through it, with the already known delivery platforms
in the safest possible delivery position. The entry and exit method must be one-way, in
order to avoid confusion and optimize the flow of trucks in the transportation profile.
2.12 SEGREGATED PATHWAYS

Light vehicles represent an important factor to take into account in safety within
the operation, which is why, to the extent possible, roads should be built
separate from the flow of high-tonnage trucks. The position of these roads will
be determined by the design of the mine, facilities, accesses, road crossings,
etc.
The planner must always ensure that the incorporation of these segregated roads does
not imply an additional safety risk, but must fully comply with the purpose of
minimizing the risk exposure of light vehicles, maintaining the aforementioned
parameters. In the case of a one-way segregated road, a useful area of 4 m must be
considered. minimum and in the case of a bidirectional track a useful folder of 8 m. to
allow fluid movement. Figure N°31 shows the segregated road in the area of Collation
Point N°1, with the purpose of preventing the entry of light vehicles to the access
crossing to the crushers.

2.13 ROAD DESIGN SCHEME

Figure N°32 presents a scheme for the design of a road, where the 12 steps to
follow are described below.

1. Determine origin and destination of the path.

2. Determine the most economical route from the topographic plan or model.
3. Field inspection of possible routes and select the most favorable ones.

4. Checking slopes and speeds to optimize truck performance according to

road construction costs.

5. Check the TKPH of the tires according to the expected speeds and modify
these if necessary.

6. Design horizontal and vertical curves and check stopping distances and
visibility.

7. If the road will have lighting or specialized vehicles, check the geometry of
the road to ensure the efficient use of these vehicles.

8. Check the dimensions of the trucks and tire performance on the entire
route, if necessary, repeat steps 4,5 and 6.

9. Survey the route and stake out the axis lines, design dimensions and
widths, slopes and profiles, and drainage if necessary.

10. Test the soil properties across the route and design the construction
accordingly.

11. Design superelevations on curves and widening on horizontal curves.

12. Make the final cost calculation to complete the road design.
2.14 CATEGORIZATION OF ROADS

There are various ways to categorize or evaluate the state of a road, in order to detect
the need for repair, there are priorities according to the flow of material and the date on
which it is required to be operational.
The previous figure shows the typical sectors of a mine, which has been divided
into sections to evaluate the path. This process is advantageous on long roads,
with clearly identifiable positions and that need to be repaired due to the flow
they have.
Once the sections have been identified, functional defects are classified, such
as potholes, grooves, grooves, loose material (soft), dust, rocks in the surface,
spills, cracks and skids, using a suggested booklet. on the next page.
Subsequently, a (numerical) evaluation is carried out, with all the pertinent information
and according to the problems detected, the corresponding repair is suggested.
3. CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS

3.1 EXECUTION OF THE PLANIMETRIC DESIGN OR PLANT LAYOUT

Once the design has been carried out by Engineering, it must be presented to
the LLGG responsible for its execution for a joint analysis of the feasibility and
convenience of carrying out what is proposed on the ground. In this analysis,
the most convenient transportation profile and the estimated execution time of
the work must be considered as a priority, according to whether the road is in
use.
Then the layout will be topographically re-planned with their respective design
parameters previously calculated by the planner. New or repaired road designs
must meet the design parameters (width, slopes, superelevations, etc.)
described above.
As much as possible, you should avoid starting with undesigned road work, although it
is possible to make obvious improvements on the ground, both for a preliminary stage
and for the initial execution and those that have significance from the point of view of
operation safety.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A ROAD

While the construction of a road is being carried out, whether horizontal or

ramped, the LLGG must restrict access to this area, using cones until it is
completely enabled, allowing passage only to involved personnel and with the
corresponding radial warnings.
During construction, permanent topographic staking must be used for the corresponding
alignments and grades to maintain the design slopes, in order to avoid redoing work
with the respective cost associated with this. In those cases where the team has a
computer system (own or modular), this should be used as the first source of
information. The responsible LLGG should preferably use this equipment, in order to
free up surveying and allow other work to be carried out in the mine. However,
topographic support must be required for verifications.
The material to be used must be that generated by the extraction equipment
and its quality characteristics must be taken into account, in order not to dilute
the grade in the mineralized sectors. You should avoid using thick material in
the folder unless the layer of thin material is 40 cm. thick or more and in which
there are no rocks larger than 10 cm, since in the short term thick material
always begins to emerge, posing a danger to tires and light vehicles.
Although the literature recommends obtaining compaction with compaction
rollers and carrying out tests to verify this, in our case, due to the nature of
being temporary roads and the dynamics of the mine, this compaction will be
obtained with the transit of high-tonnage trucks. , after fine-tuning the surface
with a motor grader and the corresponding irrigation.
In addition, care must be taken with the use of the ripper and control over the balls that
begin to emerge.

3.3 PENDING

The slope must be as required by design, although for transportation roads this must not
exceed 10% for any reason. On roads such as auxiliary access ramps, these should not
exceed 8%, depending on the equipment and recommendations established for this
purpose.
3.4 CURVES

The curves, whether horizontal or vertical, must be calculated, restated and

controlled by design. The LLGG responsible for the execution of the work must
clarify any doubts with the field engineer, ensuring that said design elements
comply on the ground with the purpose of maintaining the fluidity and safety of
vehicular flow. The combination of horizontal and vertical curves is not
recommended, but the use of said combination depends on the particular
geometry of the area; the important thing is to maintain the visibility and safety
parameters associated with the equipment.
To carry out these works in the field, you must first seek to carry out the work
with the High Precision GPS of the equipment, and if it is not possible to have it
for some reason, request topographic support.
If the condition requires it, it is advisable to use mirrors on interior curves in the pit.

3.5 CANTS
The superelevations must also be calculated, restated and controlled according
to the design, the LLGG responsible for the work must maintain monitoring
during their execution and at the end of the work must carry out at least one test
as a co-pilot in a truck to "feel" the effect of superelevation and its possible
improvement. On terrain, banking should not be carried out on tracks (such as
the one in Figure N°38), since these represent a risk for driving.
To carry out these works in the field, you must first seek to carry out the work with the
High Precision GPS of the equipment, and if it is not possible to have it for some
reason, request topographic support.
The use of banks across the entire width of the road is recommended, since if necessary,
trucks can change lanes without altering their speed and maintaining safety conditions.
Figure N°39 shows the transverse profile as the superelevation develops.

3.6 handrails
The standard for Parapets on Interior Mine Roads indicates that with high
tonnage truck traffic, there must be a safety side parapet with a minimum height
of 1.80 meters. However, in those places that the responsible LLGG deems
appropriate, it may exceed this standard, which is the minimum acceptable for
the operation. It is recommended on those paths with a risk of falls to another
level or overturning, to make a 2.5 meter parapet. high and at least 6 meters.
wide at the base. It is also advisable at crossings and intersections to lower
these parapets to leave them at 1m. high in a longitudinal extension of 5
meters. To allow better positioning of traffic signals and improve visibility for
light vehicles circulating in the mine.
The execution of these parapets on curves must be carried out once the
superelevation has been achieved, since otherwise you could have a
substandard parapet in the external area of the curve.
During the maintenance of roads by equipment such as pneumatic tractors or
motor graders, material should not accumulate at the base of the parapets,
since these materials can damage tires or serve as a springboard for vehicles
to pass over the parapets. It is recommended to accumulate these materials in
places that do not represent unsafe traffic flow and that can be removed with
front loaders.
In those cases where the wall is unstable or due to exploitation of the upper
banks, it is recommended to make parapets on the upper wall of the banks
adjacent to the road, in order to provide greater safety to traffic.
In the following photographs you can see two model parapets to be built in the mine,
they were made neatly and with a geometry that shows quality work, in which the
material is appropriate and was fully used, in the case of the intermediate parapets They
were positioned as recommended and with topographic assistance.
3.7 ROADS ON BANKS NEAR THE LOADING FRONTS

As the loading equipment advances on the bank being exploited, the path must be
placed preferably towards the leg of the bank, in order to allow the preparation of the
drilling areas and define a path no longer than 42 meters. wide that allows its
conservation efficiently and not spending resources unnecessarily.

3.8 PATHS IN EMPTYING AREAS

In dumps or stocks, it should also be considered to define a path no longer than 42
meters. In order not to spend development team resources more than is prudent, it is
recommended in dumps to take a similar measure, generating a roundabout or similar to
define the entry and exit of vehicles.

Sectorization of the dumps is also recommended so as to have specific areas to carry out
maintenance, as seen in Figure N°44.

3.9 RESCUE PATHS

Rescue roads are mainly for light vehicles that allow access to places where equipment
may fall due to accidents, such as the foot of dumps and stocks. These must be clearly
marked on a visible plane in each area that has access to the mine, and on the ground by
signs that allow their identification in an expeditious manner. The slope should not
exceed 14%.

3.10 CONSERVATION
One of the most important stages once a path with all its elements has been
defined is its conservation over time. In fact, multiple problems appear due to
the effect of degradation once in use, such as: deformations (due to clay
material, transversal, longitudinal), potholes (holes), outcropping rocks,
impermeability, excess dust, all of these in the folder, loss wide due to
accumulation of material, degradation of parapets, etc.
The basic objectives pursued by road conservation are: Maintain the level of
production with the available machinery, reduce production costs and have
optimal safety and efficiency conditions.
It is important to emphasize that good road maintenance has a direct impact on
productivity, transportation speed, fuel consumption, tire life, equipment life,
safety, and the environment. and in driver fatigue.
One of the most efficient forms of conservation is with a program defined and
controlled by Mine Operations that ensures periodic maintenance of the roads.
During conservation, the responsible Group Leader must define the alternative route or
whether it will be allowed to be used in at least one direction or both if the width of the
road allows it.
3.11 IRRIGATION

Irrigation is one of the most critical activities associated with the conservation of
roads and must be carried out in accordance with established procedures, to
avoid either a lack or excess of humidity, generating dust or slipping of
equipment. Only water should be used in sulfide leaching heaps, without
additives (salts) that hinder the subsequent process.
This also applies to dumps and stock.

3.12 TRAFFIC SIGNS

Traffic signs play a role in helping different preferences and mandates on roads and the
main objective is to generate a safe flow without room for interpretation. By design,
they must be positioned according to the different elements of the road and according to
the flows determined by the planners: at the intersections there must be traffic
regulation (mandatory) signs, such as Stop and Yield, on straight lines and curves the
signs of maximum speeds and approach warnings, those of information and frequency
changes. Obviously these signs must follow the basic principles of any road in terms of
operability, uniformity, understandability, location and visibility.

Traffic signs must be arranged in accordance with what the design indicates, in addition
to all those that are necessary to allow maximum safety in the vehicular flow. They
must be placed on the ground in such a way that they do not cause risks due to falls or
other circumstances; preferably those that have bases that allow better stability should
be used. At intersections they must be located in such a way as to facilitate visibility,
especially for light vehicles. In the following photographs you can see some signs
arranged inside the mine.
Furthermore, in the mine, the stock and dumps must be marked, indicating the area to
be unloaded and identifying their names.
3.13 EVALUATION OF THE CONDITION AND RECEPTION OF THE ROADS

There are multiple ways to evaluate a circulation track, depending on the

characteristics of each mine, especially with regard to climatic conditions, the
form of evaluation described in the road categorization point has been
proposed.
Once the repair, maintenance or conservation of the road is completed, the
width of the road, the slope, the condition of the surface, the banks, the
parapets and the traffic signs must be checked.
The following is a proposed booklet that is used to determine status of work progress
and/or final reception of a road, whether new or under repair.

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Feedback must be constantly requested from the operators regarding the work in
progress and once completed, to perceive their acceptance and degree of satisfaction in
each of the stages. However, the initiatives generated by them must be controlled, since
they must be inserted within the comprehensive improvements, in order to avoid
excessive or unnecessary work.

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BHP Engineering. “Mine Road Design Manual”. 1998.
W. Hustrulid, M. Kuchta. “Open Pit Mine Planning and Design” Vol.1
Fundamentals.
Walter W. Kaufman, James C. Ault. United States Department of the Interior.
Bureau of Mines. “Design of Surface Mine Haulage Roads – A Manual”.
Dwayne D. Tannant, Bruce Regensburg. School of Mining and Petroleum
Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Alberta. “Guidelines for Mine Haul Road Design.” 2001.
RJ Thompson. Professor Department of Mining Engineering, University of
Pretoria. ATVisser Professor Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Pretoria. “The Functional Design of Surface Mine Haul Roads.”
Martin Whitham, Rod Williams. “Haul Road Design, Construction and
Maintenance Guidelines”. February 2003.
Highway Manual Volume N°3 “Instructions and Design Criteria”. Directorate of
Roads Ministry of Public Works.
Francisco Ayala Caicedo. “Manual for the design, construction and maintenance of
mining trails.” Geological and Mining Institute of Spain.