EEG543 LECTURE NOTE

ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

1: Antenna Basics

1.1 Explain Radiation pattern

A radiation pattern defines the variation of the power radiated by an antenna as a function of the
direction away from the antenna. This power variation as a function of the arrival angle is observed in
the far field.

This is an example of a donut shaped or toroidal pattern. In this case, along the z-axis, which would
correspond to the radiation directly overhead the antenna, there is very little power transmitted. In the
x-y plane (perpendicular to the z-axis), the radiation is maximum. These plots are useful for visualizing
which directions the antenna radiates.

1.2 Explain Field Regions

A pattern is "isotropic" if the radiation pattern is the same in all directions. These antennas don't exist
in practice, but are sometimes discussed as a means of comparison with real antennas. Some antennas
may also be described as "omnidirectional", which for an actual means that it is isotropic in a single
plane (as in Figure 1 above for the x-y plane). The third category of antennas are "directional", which
do not have a symmetry in the radiation pattern.
The far field region is the most important, as this determines the antenna's radiation pattern. Also,
antennas are used to communicate wirelessly from long distances, so this is the region of operation for
most antennas. We will start with this region.

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 (i) Far Field (Fraunhofer) Region
The far field is the region far from the antenna, as you might suspect. In this region, the radiation
pattern does not change shape with distance (although the fields still die off with 1/R^2). Also, this
region is dominated by radiated fields, with the E- and H-fields orthogonal to each other and the
direction of propagation as with plane waves. If the maximum linear dimension of an antenna is D, then
the far field region is commonly given as:

This region is sometimes referred to as the Fraunhofer region, a carryover term from optics.
In the immediate vicinity of the antenna, we have the reactive near field. In this region, the fields are
predominately reactive fields, which means the E- and H- fields are out of phase by 90 degrees to each
other (recall that for propagating or radiating fields, the fields are orthogonal (perpendicular) but are in
phase).
The boundary of this region is commonly given as:

(ii) Radiating Near Field (Fresnel) Region

The radiating near field or Fresnel region is the region between the near and far fields. In this region,
the reactive fields are not dominate; the radiating fields begin to emerge. However, unlike the Far Field
region, here the shape of the radiation pattern may vary appreciably with distance.
The region is commonly given by:

Note that depending on the values of R and the wavelength, this field may or may not exist.
Finally, the above can be summarized via the following diagram:

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1.3. Explain DIRECTIVITY
Directivity is a fundamental antenna parameter. It is a measure of how 'directional' an antenna's
radiation pattern is. An antenna that radiates equally in all directions would have effectively zero
directionality, and the directivity of this type of antenna would be 1 (or 0 dB).
An antenna's normalized radiation pattern can be written as a function in spherical coordinates:

Because the radiation pattern is normalized, the peak value of F over the entire range of angles is 1.
Mathematically, the formula for directivity (D) is written as:

This equation might look complicated, but the numerator is the maximum value of F, and the
denominator just represents the "average power radiated over all directions". This equation then is just
a measure of the peak value of radiated power divided by the average.

1.4. Explain EFFICIENCY AND GAIN

The efficiency of an antenna relates the power delivered to the antenna and the power radiated or
dissipated within the antenna. A high efficiency antenna has most of the power present at the antenna's
input radiated away. A low efficiency antenna has most of the power absorbed as losses within the
antenna.

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The losses associated within an antena are typically the conduction losses (due to finite conductivity of
the antenna) and dielectric losses (due to conduction within a dielectric which may be present within an
antenna). Sometimes efficiency is defined to also include the mismatch between an antenna and the
transmission line, but this will be discussed in the section on impedance.
The efficiency can be written as the ratio of the radiated power to the input power of the antenna:

The term Gain describes how much power is transmitted in the direction of peak radiation to that of an
isotropic source. Gain is more commonly quoted in a real antenna's specification sheet because it takes
into account the actual losses that occur.
A gain of 3 dB means that the power received far from the antenna will be 3 dB (twice as much) higher
than what would be received from a lossless isotropic antenna with the same input power.
Gain is sometimes discussed as a function of angle, but when a single number is quoted the gain is the
'peak gain' over all directions. Gain (G) can be related to directivity (D) by:

The gain of a real antenna can be as high as 40-50 dB for very large dish antennas (although this is
rare). Directivity can be as low as 1.76 dB for a real antenna, but can never theoretically be less than 0
dB. However the peak gain of an antenna can be arbitrarily low because of losses. Electrically small
antennas (small relative to the wavelength of the frequency that the antenna operates at) can be very
inefficient, with gains lower than -10 dB (even without accounting for impedance mismatch loss).

1.5. Explain BEAM WIDTH AND SIDE LOBES:

The main beam is the region around the direction of maximum radiation (usually the region that is
within 3 dB of the peak of the main beam). The main beam in Figure 6 is centered at 90 degrees.
The sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the main beam. These sidelobes are usually
radiation in undesired directions which can never be completely eliminated. The sidelobes in Figure 6
occur at roughly 45 and 135 degrees.
The Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is the angular separation in which the magnitude of the
radiation pattern decrease by 50% (or -3 dB) from the peak of the main beam. From Figure 2, the
pattern decreases to -3 dB at 77.7 and 102.3 degrees. Hence the HPBW is 102.3-77.7 = 24.6 degrees.
Another commonly quoted beamwidth is the Null to Null Beamwidth. This is the angular separation
from which the magnitude of the radiation pattern decreases to zero (negative infinity dB) away from

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the main beam. From Figure 2, the pattern goes to zero (or minus infinity) at 60 degrees and 120
degrees. Hence, the Null-Null Beamwidth is 120-60=60 degrees.
Finally, the Sidelobe Level is another important parameter used to characterize radiation patterns. The
sidelobe level is the maximum value of the sidelobes (away from the main beam). From Figure 6, the
Sidelobe Level (SLL) is -14.5 dB.

1,6. Explain Antenna's impedance

An antenna's impedance relates the voltage to the current at the input to the antenna. Letan antenna has
an impedance of 50 ohms. This means that if a sinusoidal voltage is input at the antenna terminals with
amplitude 1 Volt, the current will have an amplitude of 1/50 = 0.02 Amps. Since the impedance is a
real number, the voltage is in-phase with the current.
Let's say the impedance is given as Z=50 + j*50 ohms (where j is the square root of -1). Then the
impedance has a magnitude of

and a phase given by

This means the phase of the current will lag the voltage by 45 degrees. To spell it out, if the voltage
(with frequency f) at the antenna terminals is given by

then the current will be given by

So impedance is a simple concept, which relates the voltage and current at the input to the antenna. The
real part of an antenna's impedance represents power that is either radiated away or absorbed within the
antenna. The imaginary part of the impedance represents power that is stored in the near field of the
antenna (non-radiated power). An antenna with a real input impedance (zero imaginary part) is said to
be resonant.

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1.7. Explain BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth describes the range of frequencies over which the antenna can properly radiate or receive
energy. Often, the desired bandwidth is one of the determining parameters used to decide upon an
antenna. For instance, many antenna types have very narrow bandwidths and cannot be used for
wideband operation.
Bandwidth is typically quoted in terms of VSWR. For instance, an antenna may be described as
operating at 100-400 MHz with a VSWR<1.5. This statement implies that the reflection coefficient is
less than 0.2 across the quoted frequency range. Hence, of the power delivered to the antenna, only 4%
of the power is reflected back to the transmitter. Alternatively, the return loss S11=20*log10(0.2)=-
13.98 dB.

1.8. Explain Polarization

Polarization is a fundamental characteristics of any antenna.
Linear Polarization
A plane electromagnetic (EM) wave is characterized by travelling in a single direction (with no field
variation in the two orthogonal directions). In this case, the electric field and the magnetic field are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction the plane wave is propagating. As an example, consider
the single frequency E-field given by equation (1), where the field is traveling in the +z-direction, the
E-field is oriented in the +x-direction, and the magnetic field is in the +y-direction.

In equation (1), the symbol ^

X is a unit vector (a vector with a length of one), which says that the E-field
"points" in the x-direction.

1.9. Explain ANTENNA TEMPERATURE

Antenna Temperature (TA) is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a
given environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna. Moreover, an
antenna does not have an intrinsic "antenna temperature" associated with it; rath

For an antenna with a radiation pattern given by , the noise temperature is mathematically
defined as:

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1.10. Explain EFFECTIVE APERTURE
A useful parameter calculating the receive power of an antenna is the effective area or effective
aperture. Assume that a plane wave with the same polarization as the receive antenna is incident upon
the antenna.
Then the effective aperture parameter describes how much power is captured from a given plane wave.
Let W be the power density of the plane wave (in W/m^2). If P represents the power at the antennas
terminals available to the antenna's receiver, then:

Hence, the effective area simply represents how much power is captured from the plane wave and
delivered by the antenna. This area factors in the losses intrinsic to the antenna (ohmic losses, dielectric
losses, etc.). This parameter can be determine by measurement for real antennas.
A general relation for the effective aperture in terms of the peak gain (G) of any antenna is given by:

Effective aperture will be a useful concept for calculating received power from a plane wave. To see
this in action, go to the next section on the Friis transmission formula.

1.11. Explain FRIIS transmission formula

Consider two antennas in free space (no obstructions nearby) separated by a distance R:
Assume

Assume that PT Watts of total power are delivered to the transmit antenna. For the moment, assume that
the transmit antenna is omnidirectional, lossless, and that the receive antenna is in the far field of the

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transmit antenna. Then the power p of the plane wave incident on the receive antenna a distance R from
the transmit antenna is given by:
If the transmit antenna has a gain in the direction of the receive antenna given by GT , then the power
equation above becomes:

The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a real antenna. Assume now that the receive
antenna has an effective aperture given by AER . Then the power received by this antenna () is given by
(PR)

Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also be expressed as:

The resulting received power can be written as:

This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It relates the free space path loss, antenna gains and
wavelength to the received and transmit powers. This is one of the fundamental equations in antenna
theory, and should be remembered (as well as the derivation above).

1.12. Explain Reciprocity

An antenna’s electrical characteristics are the same whether it is used for transmitting or receiving.
Because this is always true, throughout this lecture, we will consider antennas as transmitting antennas.

1.13. Explain Polarization

Polarization is the orientation of the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave produced by the
antenna. For most antennas, the orientation of the antenna conductor determines the polarization.
Polarization may be vertical, horizontal or elliptical.

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The diagram above shows vertical and horizontal polarization. If the radio wave's electric field vector
points in some other direction, it is said to be obliquely polarized.
If the electric field rotates in space, such that its tip follows an elliptical path, it is elliptically polarized.

1.14. Explain Wavelength

This is the length of one RF wave. It can be computed by either of the following formulas, depending
on the units required:
λ (in m) = 300/f(in MHz) or λ (in ft) = 984/f(in MHz)

2: Point Sources and Arrays

2.1. Explain Isotropic radiator

An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point source of waves which exhibits the same magnitude or
properties when measured in all directions. It has no preferred direction of radiation. It radiates
uniformly in all directions over a sphere centred on the source. It is a reference radiator with which
other sources are compared. Isotropic radiators obey Lambert's law.

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2.2. Explain ANTENNA ARRAYS
An antenna array (often called a 'phased array') is a set of 2 or more antennas. The signals from the
antennas are combined or processed in order to achieve improved performance over that of a single
antenna. The antenna array can be used to:
increase the overall gain
provide diversity reception
cancel out interference from a particular set of directions
"steer" the array so that it is most sensitive in a particular direction
determine the direction of arrival of the incoming signals
to maximize the Signal to Interference Plus Noise Ratio (SINR)
An antenna array is an antenna that is composed of more than one conductor. There are two types of
antenna arrays:
Driven arrays – all elements in the antenna are fed RF from the transmitter
Parasitic arrays – only one element is connected to the transmitter. The other elements are coupled to
the driven element through the electric fields and magnetic fields that exist in the near field region of
the driven element

2.3. Explain COLLINEAR ARRAY

The collinear array consists of λ/2 dipoles oriented end-to-end. The center dipole is fed by the
transmitter and sections of shorted transmission line known as phasing lines connect the ends of the
dipoles as shown below.

The length of the phasing lines are adjusted so that the currents in all the dipole sections are in phase, as
shown below.

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The input impedance of a collinear array is approximately 300 ohms. The directivity of a collinear array
slowly increases as the number of collinear sections is increased.

2.4. Explain BROADSIDE ARRAY

A broadside array consists of an array of dipoles mounted one above another as shown below. Each
dipole has its own feed line and the lengths of all feed lines are equal so that the currents in all the
dipoles are in phase.

Rows of broadside arrays can be combined to form a two dimensional array as shown below:

The two-dimensional array is used in high performance radar systems. The amplitude and phase of each
input current is adjusted so that the antenna radiates its RF in a narrow beam. By making changes to the
input phase and amplitude, the beam can be made to scan over a wide range of angles. Electronic
scanning is much faster than mechanical scanning (which uses a rotating antenna) and permits rapid
tracking of large numbers of targets.

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A special type of phased array consisting of 2 or more vertical antennas is widely used in AM
broadcasting. Consider an AM transmitter located in a coastal city such as Charleston, SC. It would
make no sense to radiate a signal in all directions; there is only water to the east of city. Two or more
antennas could be used to produce a directional pattern that would radiate most of the signal to the
west.
The design and analysis of phased arrays is quite difficult and will not be covered further in this unit.

3: Electric Dipoles and Thin Linear Antennas

3.1. Write a note on short dipole antenna and describe the fields of short dipole antenna
The short dipole antenna is the simplest of all antennas. It is simply an open-circuited wire, fed at its
center as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1
The words "short" or "small" in antenna engineering always imply "relative to a wavelength". So the
absolute size of the above dipole does not matter, only the size of the wire relative to the wavelength of
the frequency of operation. Typically, a dipole is short if its length is less than a tenth of a wavelength:

If the antenna is oriented along the z-axis with the center of the dipole at z=0, then the current
distribution on a thin, short dipole is given by:

The fields radiated from this antenna in the far field are given by:

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3.2. Explain the fields of thin linear antenna

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4: Loop, Slot, Patch and Horn Antenna

4.1. Describe LOOP ANT

All antennas discussed so far have used radiating elements that were linear conductors. It is also
possible to make antennas from conductors formed into closed loops. There are two broad categories of
loop antennas:
1. Small loops, which contain no more than 0.085 wavelengths (~λ/12) of wire
2. Large loops, which contain approximately 1 wavelength of wire.
SMALL LOOP ANTENNAS
A small loop antenna is one whose circumference contains no more than 0.085 wavelengths of wire. In
such a short conductor, we may consider the current, at any moment in time to be constant. This is quite
different from a dipole, whose current was a maximum at the feed point and zero at the ends of the
antenna. The small loop antenna can consist of a single turn loop or a multi-turn loop as shown below:

4.2. Explain the radiation pattern of small loop antenna

The radiation pattern of a small loop is very similar to a dipole. The figure below shows a 2-
dimensional slice of the radiation pattern in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the loop. There is no
radiation from a loop

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4.3. Explain slot antenna
A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate, with a hole or slot cut out. When the
plate is driven as an antenna by a driving frequency, the slot radiates electromagnetic waves in similar
way to a dipole antenna. The shape and size of the slot, as well as the driving frequency, determine the
radiation distribution pattern. Slot antennas are often used instead of line antennas when greater control
of the radiation pattern is required. Slot antennas are often found in standard desktop microwave
sources used for research purposes.
A slot antenna's main advantages are its size, design simplicity, robustness, and convenient adaptation
to mass production using PC board technology.
Slot antennas are used typically at frequencies between 300 MHz and 24 GHz. These antennas are
popular because they can be cut out of whatever surface they are to be mounted on, and have radiation
patterns that are roughly omnidirectional (similar to a linear wire antenna, as we'll see). The
polarization is linear. The slot size, shape and what is behind it (the cavity) offer design variables that
can be used to tune performance.

4.4. Explain Babinets principle

Babinet's principle relates two antennas. The first result states that the impedance of the slot (Z S) is
related to the impedance of its dual antenna (ZC) by the relation:

In the above η, is the intrinsic impedance of free space. The second major result of Babinet's/Booker's
principle is that the fields of the dual antenna are almost the same as the slot antenna (the fields
components are interchanged, and called "duals"). That is, the fields of the slot antenna (given with a
subscript S) are related to the fields of it's complement (given with a subscript C) by:

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Hence, if we know the fields from one antenna we know the fields of the other antenna. Hence, since it
is easy to visualize the fields from a dipole antenna, the fields and impedance from a slot antenna can
become intuitive if Babinet's principle is understood.
Note that the polarization of the two antennas are reversed. That is, since the dipole antenna on the right
in Figure 2 is vertically polarized, the slot antenna on the left will be horizontally polarized.

5. Explin Horn antenna

A horn antenna is used for the transmission and reception of microwave signals. It derives its
namefrom the characteristic flared appearance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, or
conical. The maximum radiation and responsecorresponds with the axis of the horn. In this respect, the
antenna resembles anacoustic horn. It is usually fed with a waveguide.

In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a certain minimum size relativeto the wavelength
of the incoming or outgoing electromagnetic field. If the horn istoo small or the wavelength is too large
(the frequency is too low), the antenna will not work efficiently.
Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in a dish antenna. The horn is pointed toward
the centerof the dish reflector. The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any other type of
antenna, atthe focal point of the dish minimizes loss of energy (leakage) around the edges of thedish

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reflector. It also minimizes the response of the antenna to unwanted signalsnot in the favored direction
of the dish.
Horn antennas are used all by themselves in short-range radar systems, particularlythose used by law-
enforcement personnel to measure the speeds of approaching or retreatingvehicles

6. Explain PATCH antenna

A patch antenna is a wafer-like directional antenna suitable for covering single-floor small offices,
small stores and other indoor locations where access points cannot be placed centrally. Patch antennas
produce hemispherical coverage, spreading away from the mount point at a width of 30 to 180 degrees.

Patch antennas are also known as panel, flat panel or microstrip antennas. They are formed by
overlaying two metallic plates, one larger than the other, with a dielectric sheet in the middle. This type
of antenna is usually encased in white or black plastic, not only to protect the antenna, but also to make
it easy to mount. Because they are flat, thin and lightweight, patch antennas are often hung on walls or
ceilings where they remain visually unobtrusive and blend easily into the background.
5 & 6: Antenna Types

1. Explain Helical antenna

A helical antenna is a specialized antenna that emits and responds to electromagnetic fields with
rotating (circular) polarization. These antennas are commonly used at earth-based stations in satellite
communications systems. This type of antenna is designed for use with an unbalanced feed line such as

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coaxial cable. The center conductor of the cable is connected to the helical element, and the shield of
the cable is connected to the reflector.
The length of the helical element is one wavelength or greater. The reflector is a circular or square
metal mesh or sheet whose cross dimension (diameter or edge) measures at least 3/4 wavelength. The
helical element has a radius of 1/8 to 1/4 wavelength, and a pitch of 1/4 to 1/2 wavelength. The
minimum dimensions depend on the lowest frequency at which the antenna is to be used. If the helix or
reflector is too small (the frequency is too low), the efficiency is severely degraded. Maximum
radiation and response occur along the axis of the helix.
The most popular helical antenna (often called a 'helix') is a travelling wave antenna in the shape of a
corkscrew that produces radiation along the axis of the helix. These helixes are referred to as axial-
mode helical antennas. The benefits of this antenna is it has a wide bandwidth, is easily constructed, has
a real input impedance, and can produce circularly polarized fields. The basic geometry is shown in
Figure .

The parameters are defined below

D - Diameter of a turn on the helix.
C - Circumference of a turn on the helix (C=pi*D).
S - Diameter of a turn on the helix.
α =- Circumference of a turn on the helix (C=pi*D).

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N - Number of turns on the helix.
H - Total height of helix, H=NS.

2. Explain LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY

The log periodic dipole array (LPDA) is one antenna that almost everyone over 40 years old has seen.
They were used for years as TV antennas. The chief advantage of an LPDA is that it is frequency-
independent. Its input impedance and gain remain more or less constant over its operating bandwidth,
which can be very large. Practical designs can have a bandwidth of an octave or more.
Although an LPDA contains a large number of dipole elements, only 2 or 3 are active at any given
frequency in the operating range. The electromagnetic fields produced by these active elements add up
to produce a unidirectional radiation pattern, in which maximum radiation is off the small end of the
array. The radiation in the opposite direction is typically 15 - 20 dB below the maximum. The ratio of
maximum forward to minimum rearward radiation is called the Front-to-Back (FB) ratio and is
normally measured in dB.

Log-Periodic Dipole Array

The log periodic antenna is characterized by three interrelated parameters, andas well as
the minimum and maximum operating frequencies, fMIN and fMAX. The diagram below shows the
relationship between these parameters.

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Unlike many antenna arrays, the design equations for the LPDA are relatively simple to work with. If
you would like to experiment with LPDA designs, click on the link below. It will open an EXCEL
spreadsheet that does LPDA design.

3. Explain YAGI-UDA ARRAY

The Yagi-Uda array, named after the two Japanese physicists who invented it, is the most common
antenna array in use today. In contrast to the other antenna arrays that we have already looked at, the
Yagi has only a single element that is connected to the transmitter, called the driver or driven element.
The remaining elements are coupled to the driven element through its electromagnetic field . The other
elements absorb some of the electromagnetic energy radiated by the driver and re-radiate it. The fields
of the driver and the remaining elements sum up to produce a unidirectional pattern. The diagram
below shows the layout of elements in a typical Yagi.

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Behind the driven element is a single element that is approximately 5% longer. This is the reflector. It
prevents radiation off the back of the array. In front of the director are a series of elements that are
shorter than the driven element. These are the directors. They help focus the radiation in the forward
direction. Together the reflector and directors can reduce the radiation off the back of the antenna to 25
- 30 dB below the forward radiation. As more directors are added, the forward gain increases.

4. Explain CORNER REFLECTORS

To increase the directivity of an antenna, a fairly intuitive solution is to use a reflector. For example, if
we start with a wire antenna (lets say a half-wave dipole antenna), we could place a conductive sheet
behind it to direct radiation in the forward direction. To further increase the directivity, a corner
reflector may be used, as shown in Figure . The angle between the plates will be 90 degrees.

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5. Explain LENS ANTENNAS
With a LENS ANTENNA you can convert spherically radiated microwave energy into a plane wave (in
a given direction) by using a point source (open end of the waveguide) with a COLLIMATING LENS.
A collimating lens forces all radial segments of the spherical wavefront into parallel paths. The point
source can be regarded as a gun which shoots the microwave energy toward the lens. The point source
is often a horn radiator or a simple dipole antenna.
Waveguide Type The WAVEGUIDE-TYPE LENS is sometimes referred to as a conducting-type. It
consists of several parallel concave metallic strips which are placed parallel to the electric field of the
radiated energy fed to the lens, as shown in figure 3-10A and 3-10B. These strips act as waveguides in
parallel for the incident (radiated) wave. The strips are placed slightly more than a half wavelength
apart. Figure.—Waveguide lens.

6. Explain Parabolic reflector

The most well-known reflector antenna is the parabolic reflector antenna, commonly known as a
satellite dish antenna. Examples of this dish antenna are shown in the following Figures.
Parabolic reflectors typically have a very high gain (30-40 dB is common) and low cross polarization.
They also have a reasonable bandwidth, with the fractional bandwidth being at least 5% on
commercially available models, and can be very wideband in the case of huge dishes (like the Stanford
"big dish" above, which can operate from 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz).

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The smaller dish antennas typically operate somewhere between 2 and 28 GHz. The large dishes can
operate in the VHF region (30-300 MHz), but typically need to be extremely large at this operating
band.
The basic structure of a parabolic dish antenna is shown in Figure It consists of a feed antenna pointed
towards a parabolic reflector. The feed antenna is often a horn antenna with a circular aperture.

Unlike resonant antennas like the dipole antenna which are typically approximately a half-wavelength
long at the frequency of operation, the reflecting dish must be much larger than a wavelength in size.
The dish is at least several wavelengths in diameter, but the diameter can be on the order of 100
wavelengths for very high gain dishes (>50 dB gain). The distance between the feed antenna and the
reflector is typically several wavelenghts as well. This is in contrast to the corner reflector, where the
antenna is roughly a half-wavelength from the reflector.

7. Explain Paraboloid
The parabola is completely described by two parameters, the diameter D and the focal length F. We
also define two auxilliary parameters, the vertical height of the reflector (H) and the max angle between
the focal point and the edge of the dish (θ 0). These parameters are related to each other by the following
equations:

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7 & 8: Radio Wave Propagation

1. Explain GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

Ground Waves are radio waves that follow the curvature of the earth. Ground waves are always
vertically polarized, because a horizontally polarized ground wave would be shorted out by the
conductivity of the ground. Because ground waves are actually in contact with the ground, they are
greatly affected by the ground’s properties. Because ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground
waves are attenuated as they follow the earth’s surface. This effect is more pronounced at higher
frequencies, limiting the usefulness of ground wave propagation to frequencies below 2 MHz. Ground
waves will propagate long distances over sea water, due to its high conductivity.
Ground waves are used primarily for local AM broadcasting and communications with submarines.
Submarine communications takes place at frequencies well below 10 KHz, which can penetrate sea
water (remember the skin effect?) and which are propagated globally by ground waves.

2. Explain SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION (june/july09)

Space Waves, also known as direct waves, are radio waves that travel directly from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna. In order for this to occur, the two antennas must be able to “see” each
other; that is there must be a line of sight path between them. The diagram on the next page shows a
typical line of sight. The maximum line of sight distance between two antennas depends on the height
of each antenna. If the heights are measured in feet, the maximum line of sight, in miles, is given by:

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Because a typical transmission path is filled with buildings, hills and other obstacles, it is possible for
radio waves to be reflected by these obstacles, resulting in radio waves that arrive at the receive antenna
from several different directions. Because the length of each path is different, the waves will not arrive
in phase. They may reinforce each other or cancel each other, depending on the phase differences. This
situation is known as multipath propagation. It can cause major distortion to certain types of signals.
Ghost images seen on broadcast TV signals are the result of multipath – one picture arrives slightly
later than the other and is shifted in position on the screen. Multipath is very troublesome for mobile
communications. When the transmitter and/or receiver are in motion, the path lengths are continuously
changing and the signal fluctuates wildly in amplitude. For this reason, NBFM is used almost
exclusively for mobile communications. Amplitude variations caused by multipath that make AM
unreadable are eliminated by the limiter stage in an NBFM receiver.
An interesting example of direct communications is satellite communications. If a satellite is placed in
an orbit 22,000 miles above the equator, it appears to stand still in the sky, as viewed from the ground.
A high gain antenna can be pointed at the satellite to transmit signals to it. The satellite is used as a
relay station, from which approximately ¼ of the earth’s surface is visible. The satellite receives signals
from the ground at one frequency, known as the uplink frequency, translates this frequency to a
different frequency, known as the downlink frequency, and retransmits the signal. Because two
frequencies are used, the reception and transmission can happen simultaneously. A satellite operating in
this way is known as a transponder. The satellite has a tremendous line of sight from its vantage point
in space and many ground stations can communicate through a single satellite.

3. Describe SKY WAVES

Propagation beyond the line of sight is possible through sky waves. Sky waves are radio waves that
propagate into the atmosphere and then are returned to earth at some distance from the transmitter. We
will consider two cases:
ionospheric refraction
tropospheric scatter

4. Explain IONOSPHERIC REFRACTION

This propagation mode occurs when radio waves travel into the ionosphere, a region of charged
particles 50 – 300 miles above the earth’s surface. The ionosphere is created when the sun ionizes the
upper regions of the earth’s atmosphere. These charged regions are electrically active. The ionosphere

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bends and attenuates radio waves at frequencies below 30 MHz. Above 200 MHz the ionosphere
becomes completely transparent. The ionosphere is
responsible for most propagation phenomena observed at HF, MF, LF and VLF. The ionosphere
consists of 4 highly ionized regions
The D layer at a height of 38 – 55 mi
The E layer at a height of 62 – 75 mi
The F1 layer at a height of 125 –150 mi (winter) and 160 – 180 mi (summer)
The F2 layer at a height of 150 – 180 mi (winter) and 240 – 260 mi (summer)
The density of ionization is greatest in the F layers and least in the D layer Though created by solar
radiation, the ionosphere does not completely disappear shortly after sunset. The D and E layers
disappear almost immediately, but the F1 and F2 layers do not disappear; rather they merge into a
single F layer located at a distance of 150 – 250 mi above the earth. Recombination or charged particles
is quite slow at that altitude, so the F layer lasts until dawn.

The critical frequency varies from place to place, and it is possible to view this variation by looking at a
real-time critical frequency map
The critical frequency varies from 1 to 15 MHz under normal conditions. Most communications is done
using radio waves transmitted at the horizon, to get the maximum possible distance per hop. The
highest frequency that can be returned when the takeoff angle is zero degrees is called the MUF,
maximum usable frequency. The MUF and critical frequency are related by the following formula:

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5. Write a note on ionospheric propagation
The ionosphere also attenuates radio waves. The amount of attenuation is roughly inversely
proportional to the square of the frequency of the wave. Thus attenuation is a severe problem at lower
frequencies, making daytime global communications via sky wave impossible at frequencies much
below 5 MHz.
The properties of the ionosphere are variable. There are 3 periodic cycles of variation:
diurnal (daily) cycle
seasonal cycle
sunspot cycle
The daily cycle is driven by the intensity of the solar radiation ionizing the upper atmosphere. The D
and E layers form immediately after sunrise, and the F layer splits into two layers, the F1 and F2. The
density of the layers increases until noon and then decreases slowly throughout the afternoon. After
sunset, the D and E layers disappear and the F1 and F2 merge to form the F layer. Take another look at
the real-time MUF map and notice the difference between the MUF numbers in the day and night
regions. If you aren't sure which region is the daytime region, it has a small yellow sun icon in its
center. The thick gray lines indicate the location of the terminator - the division between day and night.
Seasonal variation is linked to the tilt of the earth’s axis and the distance between the earth and sun.
The effects are complex, but the result is that ionospheric propagation improves dramatically during the
for the northern hemisphere during their winter, while seasonal variation in the southern hemisphere is
much smaller.
The 11 year sunspot cycle exerts a tremendous effect on the atmosphere. Near the peak of the cycle (the
last peak occurred in December 2001) the sun’s surface is very active, emitting copious amounts of UV
radiation and charged particles, which increase the density of the ionosphere. This leads to a general
increase in MUF’s and attenuation at lower frequencies. When the sun becomes extremely active, or a
major solar flare occurs, the ionosphere can become so dense that global ionospheric communications
are disrupted.

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The maximum distance that can be covered by a single hop using ionospheric propagation is about
2500 miles. Greater distances can be covered using multi-hop propagation, in which radio waves are
reflected by the ground back up to the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is not uniform and different regions refract RF differently. Multipath propagation is the
result. This leads to rapid variations in the received signal amplitude known as fading. One of the
consequences of ionospheric propagation is that reception of signals on the AM broadcast band varies
greatly from day to night.

6. Explain SPORADIC-E PROPAGATION

For reasons that are not clearly understood, clouds of densely ionized gases appear in the E -layer of the
ionosphere. The clouds are generally relatively small and can happen at any time of day. These clouds
are formed throughout the year, but are most common in the summer months. Because these clouds are
so densely ionized, they can support ionospheric propagation at frequencies well above the normal
MUF. Sporadic E propagation has been observed at frequencies as high as 144 MHz, and is relatively
common at 50 MHz.
The E-layer is lower than the F-layer and as a result, the distance covered by a sporadic-E hop is
approximately 1000-1300 miles, depending on the cloud's height. The sporadic-E clouds drift through
the E-layer, adding to the unpredictability of sporadic-E propagation. Sporadic-E propagation is not
generally useful because of its unpredictability. Its main impact is negative, causing VHF-TV and FM
broadcasters in different markets to interfere with each other.

7. Explain TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER

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Regional over the horizon communications are possible through a sky wave technique called
tropospheric scatter (troposcatter or just tropo). As shown in the diagram below, the troposphere, which
is the layer of the atmosphere closest to the ground, has pockets or cells of air within it that have a
different water vapor content and therefore a different refractive index for radio waves. As a result,
radio waves are scattered by the cells over the horizon. This scatter occurs at frequencies of 0.3 – 10
GHz. Operation above 10 GHz is not possible because water vapor in the air strongly absorbs the
signals This scattering process is not efficient and very little of the transmitted signal is scattered in the
direction of the receiver. High power transmitters and sensitive receivers are required.
The troposphere contains almost all of the earth’s weather patterns, which makes the troposphere’s
properties quite variable. This makes troposcatter communications subject to weather induced fading
and communications blackouts. To improve the reliability of troposcatter links, a technique called
diversity operation is used. There are three types of diversity:
Frequency Diversity – two frequencies simultaneously transmit the same signal Polarization Diversity –
radio waves of both polarizations are transmitted simultaneously Space Diversity – pairs of widely
separated antennas are used for transmitting and receiving Diversity operation greatly increases the
reliability of troposcatter links, but it comes at a significant cost, because at least double the amount of
equipment is needed at each installation.

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