Chapter three

Mycology
Learning objectives
• After the end of this chapter the student expected to:
 Define the term Mycology?
 Describe characteristics of fungi.
 Discuss classification of fungi
 Describe morphology of medically-important fungi
 Discuss ecology of fungi
 Discuss reproduction of fungi
 Identify disease caused by fungi
Introduction
• The term "mycology" is derived from Greek word
"mykes" meaning mushroom. Therefore mycology is
the study of fungi.

• Medical Mycology: is the study of fungi that infect

humans.

• Water, soil and decaying organic debris are natural

habitats for the fungi.
Characteristics of fungi
1.They are eukaryotic; cells contain membrane bound
cell organelles including nuclei, mitochondria, golgi
apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes etc.

2.Have a rigid cell wall and are therefore non-motile, a

feature that separates them from animals. cell walls
are mainly composed of: polysaccharides like chitin
and mannan. glycoprotein and lipids.
Characteristics of fungi cont’d

3. Have ergosterols in their membranes and possesses 80S

ribosomes.

4. Fungi are chemoheterotrophs (require organic

compounds for both carbon and energy sources) and

fungi lack chlorophyll therefore not autotrophic. They

obtain their nutrients by absorption.

6.They obtain nutrients as saprophytes (live on decaying

matter) or as parasites (live in living matter).
Characteristics of fungi cont’d
7. All fungi require water and oxygen and there are no

obligate anaerobes.

8. Typically reproduce asexually and/or sexually by

producing spores.

9. They grow either reproductively by budding or non

reproductively by hyphal tip elongation.

10. Food storage is generally in the form of lipids and

glycogen.
Ecology of fungi
Beneficial Effects of Fungi:

i. Decomposition - nutrient and carbon recycling.

ii. Biosynthetic factories. The fermentation property is used for

the industrial production of alcohols.

iii.Important sources of antibiotics, such as Penicillin.

iv.Model organisms for biochemical and genetic studies. Eg:

Neurospora crassa

v.Saccharomyces cerviciae is extensively used in recombinant

DNA technology
Beneficial Effects of Fungi cont’d
vi. Some fungi are edible (mushrooms).

vii. Yeasts provide nutritional supplements such as vitamins and

cofactors.

viii. Ergot produced by Claviceps purpurea contains medically

important alkaloids that help in inducing uterine contractions,

controlling bleeding and treating migraine.

viiii. Fungi (Leptolegnia caudate and Aphanomyces laevis) are

used to trap mosquito larvae in paddy fields and thus help in

malaria control
Harmful Effects of Fungi:
I. Destruction of food, lumber, paper, and cloth.

II. Animal and human diseases, including allergies.

III. Toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms and

within food (Mycetism and Mycotoxicosis).

IV. Plant diseases.

V. Spoilage of agriculture product such as vegetables

and cereals.
 Classification of fungi
Based on reproduction:
I. Zygomycetes: which reproduce through the production of
zygospores.
II.Ascomycetes: which produce endogenous spores called
ascospores in cells called asci.

III.Basidiomycetes: which produce exogenous spores called

basidiospores on cells called basidia.

IV.Deuteromycetes (Fungi imperfecti): fungi that are not known to

produce any sexual spores. This is a heterogeneous group of fungi
where no sexual reproduction has yet been demonstrated.
Classification of fungi cont’d
Based on Morphology:
1) Moulds (Molds): Filamentous fungi Eg: Aspergillus spp,
Trichophyton rubrum
2) Yeasts: unicellular Eg: Cryptococcus neoformans,
Saccharomyces cerviciae
3) Yeast like: Similar to yeasts but produce pseudohyphae Eg:
Candida albicans
4) Dimorphic: Fungi existing in two different morphological
forms at two different environmental conditions.
• They exist as yeasts in tissue and in vitro at 37ºC and as
moulds in their natural habitat and in vitro at room
temperature. Eg: Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces
dermatidis, Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis, Coccidioides
immitis
Morphology of medically-important fungi

Medically important fungi exist into three

morphological forms:

a) Mold

b) Yeast

c) Dimorphic fungi
a)Mould
• Filamentous, multi-cellular forms mostly found outside the
body and at room temperature.

• The thallus of mould is made of hyphae, which are cylindrical

tube like structures that elongates by growth at tips. It is the
hypha that is responsible for the filamentous nature of mould.

• Hyphae is Responsible for the fluffy or cotton-ball appearance

of the macroscopic mold colony. A mass of hyphae is known
as mycelium.
Mold cont’d
• Hyphae are septate or aseptate.

• Branched or unbranched.

Septate hyphae

• Filaments with cross-walls or septa that partition the

hyphae in to individual cellular compartments.

• pores that allow the migration of cytoplasm and

many organelles.
Mold cont’d

Aseptate hyphae
• not divided by septa
• are coenocytic (multinucleate).
Mold cont’d
Mycelium are of three kinds:

I.Vegetative mycelium are those that penetrates the surface of

the medium and nutrient-absorbing and water-exchanging
portion of the mold.

II.Aerial mycelium are those that grow above the agar surface

III.Fertile mycelium are aerial hyphae that bear reproductive

structures such as conidia or sporangia.
Mold cont’d
• Since hypha is the structural unit of mould, the
mycelium imparts colour, texture and topography to
the colony.

• Those fungi that possess melanin pigments in their

cell wall are called phaeoid or dematiaceous and
their colonies are coloured grey, black or olive.

• Those hyphae that don't possess any pigment in their

cell wall are called hyaline.
Mold cont’d
Hyphae may have some specialized structure or appearance that aid in
identification. Some of these are:

a. Spiral hyphae: These are spirally coiled hyphae commonly seen in

Trichophyton mentagrophytes.

b. Pectinate body: These are short, unilateral projections from the hyphae that
resemble a broken comb. Commonly seen in Microsporum audouinii.

c. Favic chandelier: These are the group of hyphal tips that collectively
resemble a chandelier or the antlers of the deer (antler hyphae). They occur
in Trichophyton schoenleinii and Trichophyton violaceum.

d. Nodular organ: This is an enlargement in the mycelium that consists of

closely twisted hyphae. Often seen in Trichophyton mentagrophytes and
Microsporum canis.
 Morphology cont’d
e. Racquet hyphae: There is regular enlargement of one end of each segment
with the opposing end remaining thin. Seen in Epidermophyton floccosum
&Trichophyton mentagrophytes.
f. Rhizoides: These are the root like structures seen in portions of vegetative
hyphae in some members of zygomycetes.
Morphology cont’d
b)yeasts:
Yeasts are unicellular spherical to ellipsoid cells. Structure mostly
found inside tissue or at body temperature. They reproduce by
budding, which result in blastospore (blastoconidia) formation. In
some cases, as the cells buds the buds fail to detach and elongate
thus forming a chain of elongated hyphae like filament called
pseudohyphae. This property is seen in Candia albicans.
Yeast cont’d
• Some yeast such as Cryptococcus and the yeast form of
Blastomyces dermatatidis produce polysaccharide capsule.
Capsules can be demonstrated by negative staining methods
using India ink or Nigrosin.

• Some yeasts are pigmented. Rhodotorula species produces

pink colonies due to carotenoid pigments while some yeasts
such as Piedraia hortaeare dematiaceous, producing brown to
olivaceous colonies.
c)Dimorphic fungi
• Dimorphic fungi exist as yeast in the host tissue and in
the cultures at 37ºC and exist as mold forms in the soil
and in the culture at RT (22- 25ºC).
• Ex. Sporothrix schenckii, histoplasma capsulatum,
• Most of the more dangerous human pathogenic fungi
are dimorphic.
Reproduction in fungi:
• Fungi reproduce by asexual, sexual and parasexual means.
• Asexual reproduction is the commonest mode in most fungi
with fungi participating in sexual mode only under certain
circumstances.
• The form of fungus undergoing asexual reproduction is
known as anamorph (or imperfect stage) and when the
same fungus is undergoing sexual reproduction, the form is
said to be teleomorph (or perfect stage). The whole fungus,
including both the forms is referred as holomorph.
Reproduction in fungi cont’d
1. Asexual reproduction:

• Asexual propagules are termed either spores or conidia depending on

their mode of production. Asexual spores are produced following
mitosis where as sexual spores are produced following meiosis.

• The asexual spores of zygomycetes, which are known as

sporangiospores form within sac like structure known as sporangia.

• The sporangiospores result from the mitotic cleavage of cytoplasm in

the sporangium. The sporangia are borne on special hyphae called
sporangiophore. This endogenous process of spore formation within a
sac is known as sporogenesis.
Reproduction in fungi cont’d

Conidia arise either by budding off conidiogenous hyphae or by differentiation of

preformed hyphae. These develop following mitosis of a parent nucleus. This
exogenous process is known as conidiogenesis, a process that occurs both in
yeasts and moulds. Conidia are borne on specialised structures called
conidiophore.
Reproduction in fungi cont’d
2. Sexual Reproduction:

• Sexual propagules are produced by the fusion of two nuclei

that then generally undergo meiosis.

• The first step in sexual methods of reproduction involves

plasmogamy (cytoplasmic fusion of two cells). The second
step is karyogamy (fusion of two compatible nuclei), resulting
in production of diploid or zygote nucleus. This is followed
by genetic recombination and meiosis.

• The resulting four haploid spores are said to be sexual spores,

e.g. zygospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
Reproduction in fungi cont’d
• For sexual reproduction to occur, two compatible isolates are
required. Zygospores, which are the sexual spores of
zygomycetes. Ascomycetes produce sexual spores called
ascospores in a special sac like cell known as ascus. In
basidiomycetes the basidiospores are released from basidium,
which is the terminal cell of a hyphae.

3. Parasexual reproduction:
• Parasexual reproduction, first seen in Aspergillus is known to
occur in basidiomycetes, ascomycetes and deuteromycetes.
The process involves genetic recombination without the
requirement of specific sexual structures.
Pathogenesis of fungal diseases (Mycoses):
• Most fungi are saprophytic or parasitic to plants and are
adapted to their natural environment. Infection in humans is a
chance event, occurring only when conditions are favourable.
Except for few fungi such as the dimorphic fungi that cause
systemic mycoses and dermatophytes, which are primary
pathogens, the rest are only opportunistic pathogens.

• Human body is a hostile environment and offers great

resistance to fungal invasion. The complex interplay between
fungal virulence factors and host defence factors will
determine if a fungal infection will cause a disease.
 Fungal Pathogenicity (virulence factors):

Infection depends on inoculum size and the general immunity of the

host.

 Ability to adhere to host cells by way of cell wall glycoproteins

 Production capsules allowing them to resist phagocytosis

 Ability to acquire iron from red blood cells as in Candida albicans
 Ability to damage host by secreting enzymes such as keratinase,
elastase, collagenase

 Ability to secrete mycotoxins

 Exhibiting thermal dimorphism

 Ability to block the cell-mediated immune defences of the host.

Host defence factors:

o Physical barriers, such as skin and mucus membranes

o The fatty acid content of the skin

o The pH of the skin, mucosal surfaces and body fluids

o Epithelial cell turnover

o Normal flora

o Natural Effector Cells (polymorphonuclear

leucocytes) and the Professional Phagocytes
(monocytes and macrophages). ).
Factors predisposing to fungal infections:
 Prolonged antibiotic therapy
 Underlying disease (HIV infection, cancer, diabetes,
etc.)
 Age
 Surgical procedures
 Immunosuppressive drugs
 Irradiation therapy
 Indwelling catheters
 Obesity
 Drug addiction
 Transplants
 Occupation
Diseases caused by fungi (Mycoses, mycosis)
1. Superficial mycoses (dead layer of skin, hair, nail)
2. Cutaneous mycoses (Keratinized areas, skin, nail,
hair)
3. Subcutaneous mycoses (living tissue, dermis, fatty
layer)
4. Systemic mycoses (Internal organs and tissues)
5. Opportunistic mycoses (Immunocompromised host)
1. Superficial mycoses
• Superficial mycoses are fungal infections confined to
the outer most dead layers of skin, hair and nails.

• Superficial mycoses do not initiate immune response

• Symptoms include scaling or de-pigmentation of the

skin.

• Infections are generally painless.

Superficial mycoses cont’d
Tinea versicolor(Pityriasis versicolor): Caused by Malassezia
furfur. superficial fungal disease characterized by fawn to
brownish colored desquamating macules. Malassiza furfur is
lipophilic and grows in areas where sebum and skin oil
accumulates
Superficial mycoses cont’d
• Tinea nigra palmaris: Caused by Exophiala
werneckii

• Fungal infection that usually involves the palms of

the hand resulting in black to brown scaly patches.

• The infection is asymptomatic

Superficial mycoses cont’d
• Piedra (Tinea Nodosa, Trichomycosis Nodularis) fungal
infection of hair.

• Characterized by the presence of stony hard nodules along the

hair shaft.Caused by Piedraia hortae (black piedra)

• Trichosporon beigelii (white piedra).

Cutaneous Mycoses
• The diseases are caused by Dermatophytes

• Fungi of the dermatophyte group invade only cutaneous skin

and its appendages

• Dermatomycoses are caused by species of three closely related

genera of keratin- metabolizing filamentous fungi namely:

 Trichophyton,

 Microsporum and

 Epidermophyton.
Cutaneous mycoses cont’d
• Cutaneous mycoses are the most common fungal
infection of humans

• Usually referred as tinea (Latin for “worm” or “ring

worm”).

• Classification is based on the part of the body

infected
Cutaneous mycoses cont’d
These are :
• Tinea capitis
• Tinea pedis
• Tinea corporis
• Tinea cruris
• Tinea barbae
• Tinea unguium
Subcutaneous mycoses

• Subcutaneous mycoses are infections confined to the

subcutaneous tissue.

• Most infections are resulted from puncture wounds

by objects contaminated with fungal species found in
soil or decayed vegetations
Subcutaneous mycoses cont’d

• Sporotrichosis: It is a chronic granulomatous

inflammation caused by Sporothrix schenckii.

• The fungus is introduced into skin by trauma.

• The lesions can be pustule, abscesses or ulcers, and

the lymphatics leading from them become thickened.
Subcutaneous mycoses cont’d

• Chromoblastomycoses (Chromomycoses): Is a
slowly progressive granulomatous infection of the
skin caused by the group called the black molds.

• The fungi are introduced to the skin of legs or feet by

trauma. Causative agents: Cladophialophora carrionii,
Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Phialophora verrucosa
Subcutaneous mycoses cont’d
• Mycetoma is a localized swollen lesion of the foot
caused by variety of fungi and aerobic Actinomycetes.

• The soil fungi are implanted in the subcutaneous tissue by

trauma in those who do not wear shoes.

• Diseases caused by bacteria are called actinomycetoma

• Diseases caused by fungi are called maduromycosis or

madura foot.
Subcutaneous mycoses cont’d
• Rhinosporidosis; It is a chronic infection
characterized by development of polypoid masses of
the nasal especially in children and young adults

• The nose is the most commonly affected site.

• Is caused by Rhinosporidium seeberi.

Systemic (Deep) Mycoses

• Coccidiodomycosis is respiratory infection caused by

Coccidioides immitis.

• Infection is acquired through inhalation of air born

arthroconidia.
Systemic (Deep) Mycoses cont’d
• Histoplasmosis is an intracellular mycosis caused by

Histoplasma capsulatum. Infection is acquired

through the respiratory tract by inhalation of conidia.

• Severe, disseminated histoplasmosis develops in

infants, elderly and immunosuppressed individuals

Systemic (Deep) Mycoses cont’d

• Blastomycosis is caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis

• Infection is acquired via inhalation of the conidia.

• Pulmonary infiltration with symptoms like fever,

malaise, night sweats, cough and myalgia are
observed.
Systemic (Deep) Mycoses cont’d

• Paracoccidioidomycosis causative agent is

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.

• Infection is acquired via inhalation and early lesions

occur in the lung.

• Dissemination occurs primarily to the spleen, liver,

mucus membrane and skin.
Opportunistic mycoses

• Opportunistic mycoses are infections caused by fungi

that do not normally cause disease but do so only in
altered host defense mechanism.
Opportunistic mycoses cont’d
• Candidiasis caused by candidia albicans
• Cryptococosis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans,
• Aspergilosis caused by Aspergillus fumigatus,
• Mucormycosis:causative agents are saprophytic
Zygomycetes of the order Mucorales (includes Mucor
and Rhizopus).
• Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia
Summery
1. Define the term Mycology?
2. Describe characteristics of fungi.
3. Discuss classification of fungi based on reproduction
4. Describe morphology of medically-important fungi
5. Ecology of fungi
6. Disease caused by fungi