Fungi

• Fungi is the plural word of FUNGUS, which is derived from the latin word
Fungour, which means to flourish.

• Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi.

Fungi classification based on Ainsworth (1973)
• The branch of botany that deals with the study of fungi is mycology and
the study of fungal diseases is mycoses.

• Fungi are a unique group of organisms, different from all others in their
behavior and cellular organization.

• Fungi also have an enormous range of activities – as pathogens of crop

plants or humans, as decomposer organisms, as experimental “model
organisms” for investigating genetics and cell biology, and as producers of
many important metabolites.

• About 80 000 to 120 000 species of fungi have been described to date,
although the total number of species is estimated at around 1.5 million.
 General characteristics
1. Nutrition: Heterotrophic (lacking photosynthesis), feeding by absorption
rather than ingestion.

2. Vegetative state. On or in the substratum, typically as a non-motile mycelium

of hyphae showing internal protoplasmic streaming. Motile reproductive
states may occur.

3. Cell wall: Typically present, usually based on glucans and chitin, rarely on
glucans and cellulose (Oomycota).

4. Nuclear status. Eukaryotic, uni- or multinucleate, the thallus being homo- or

heterokaryotic, haploid, dikaryotic or diploid, the latter usually of short
duration (but exceptions are known from several taxonomic groups).
5. Life cycle. Simple or, more usually, complex.

6. Reproduction. The following reproductive events may occur: sexual (i.e. nuclear
fusion and meiosis) and/or parasexual (i.e. involving nuclear fusion followed by
gradual de-diploidization) and/or asexual (i.e. purely mitotic nuclear division).

7. Propagules. These are typically microscopically small spores produced in high

numbers. Motile spores are confined to certain groups.

8. Sporocarps. Microscopic or macroscopic and showing characteristic shapes but

only limited tissue differentiation.
9. Habitat. Ubiquitous in terrestrial and freshwater habitats, less so in the
marine environment.

10. Ecology. Important ecological roles as saprotrophs, mutualistic symbionts,

parasites, or hyperparasites.

11. Distribution. Cosmopolitan.

 Structure of fungi
• The thallus (body) of a mold consists of long branching filaments of cells joined
together; these filaments are called hyphae (sing:hypha).

• Hyphae can grow to immense proportions. The hyphae of a single fungus can
grow to 3.5 miles.
Modifications of Hyphae
 Structure: Hyphae
• Septate hyphae : Hyphae of most molds contain cross-walls called septa which
divide them into distinct, uninucleate (one-nucleus) cell-like units: septate
fungi.

• Coenocytic hypae : Hyphae of few classes of fungi contain no septa and appear
as long, continuous cells with many nuclei. Cytoplasm passes through and
among cells of the hypha uninterrupted by cross walls --- coenocytic fungi.

• Even in fungi with septate hyphae, there are usually openings in the septa that
make the cytoplasm of adjacent “cells” continuous.

• Hyphae grow by elongating at the tips. Each part of hyphae is capable of

growth, and when a fragment breaks off, it can elongate to form a new hyphae.
• In the laboratory, fungi are usually grown from fragments obtained from a
fungal thallus.

• Portion of a hyphae that obtains nutrients is called the vegetative hyphae

Portion concerned with reproduction is the reproductive or aerial hypha, so
named because it projects above the surface of the medium on which the
fungus is growing.

• Aerial hypae often bear reproductive spores

 Mycellium
• When environmental conditions are suitable, the hypae grow to form a
filamentous tangled mass called a mycelium, which is visible to the unaided eye.
Characteristics of Fungal Hyphae: Septate versus Coenocytic
Mycellium: Large, visible mass of hyphae
 FUNGAL GROWTH
• Molds release countless tiny microscopic cells called spores, which spread easily
through the air and form new colonies where they find the right conditions.

• For molds to grow and reproduce, they need only a food source – any organic
material, such as leaves, wood, paper, or dirt – and moisture (relative humidity
> 60%).

• Development of fungi cultures usually begins with a spore.

• In the presence of moisture, the spore swells with water much like a
germinating Plant seed.
• Then the spore wall expands through a preformed weak spot [the germ pore]
to create a thin, balloon-like protuberance.

• This first extension of growth is called a hypha resembling long, worm-like

structures.

• With continued growth, the hyphae will branch and grow into a visible colony
called a "mycelium.“
HETEROTROPHIC BY ABSORPTION
 NUTRITION IN FUNGI
• All fungi are chemoheterotrophs, requiring organic compounds for energy and
carbon.

• Mostly saprophytes - obtain their nutrients from dead organic matter.

• Play an important role in the environment by decomposing and recycling

organic matter. Few are parasitic on plants causing major losses of crops.

• Others find their way into humans or other animals and cause serious
infections.
• The nutritional need of a fungus are facilitated by the enzymes cellulase
and/or chitinase.

• Acquire nutrients by absorption.

• Most are saprobes.

• Some trap and kill microscopic soil-dwelling nematodes.

• Haustoria allow some to derive nutrients from living plants and animals.

• Most are aerobic; some are anaerobic; many yeasts are facultative anaerobes.
 Cultural Characteristics
• Some molds look velvety on the upper surface.

• Some look dry and powdery.

• Some wet or gelatinous.

• Some molds are loose and fluffy.

• some are compact.

• Some are hard.

• Some possess pigments in their mycelium (red,yellow, blue- green, brown,
black, pink, orange etc).

• Mold growth on surfaces can often be seen in the form of discoloration The
appearance of the molds indicates its genus.
 Physiological Characteristics
Temperature requirement:
• Most molds grow well at ordinary temperature, Mesophilic and psychrotrophic
range.

• Optimum temperature: 25 to 30oC, but few grow well at 35 to 37 oC or above

(Aspergillus sp).

• A number of molds grow well at refrigeration and freezing temperatures : -5 to

-10 oC.

• Few are thermophilic - can grow at a high temperature.

Moisture requirement – Aw of 0.6 -0.65.
• Filamentous fungi require less moisture to grow than yeast and bacteria.

• If dried food has a moisture content below 14 to 15%, it will prevent or delay
mold growth.

• Xerophilic molds use the humidity in the air as their only water source; other
molds need more moisture.

• Oxygen Requirement: Molds are aerobic require oxygen for their growth.
Fungi are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, anaerobic.

• pH :Grow over a wide range of pH(2-8.5). Majority are favored by an acid pH.
 REPRODUCTION
• Fungi reproduce by the production of spores Fungal spores can be either
asexual or sexual.

• Filamentous fungi can reproduce asexually by fragmentation of their hyphae.

Mold reproduce using both sexual and asexual reproduction methods.

• Molds reproduce through producing very large numbers of small spores, which
may contain a single nucleus or be multinucleate.

• Spores are formed from aerial hyphae.

• Mold spores can be asexual (the products of mitosis) or sexual (the products of
meiosis).
• Many species can produce both types. Spores are of considerable importance in
the identification of fungi.

• At the end of the hyphae are the reproductive structures that produce spores.

• Spores are produced on different structures depending on species.

 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction in fungi
Telemorphs:
• The sexual fungi (perfect, meiotic), they produce sexual spores.

• Anamorph: The asexual fungi (imperfect, mitotic).

• Holomorph: the whole fungus, including anamorphs and teleomorph.

• Many fungi can have both, especially Ascomycota-- most have either one or the
other
 Asexual Spores
• Asexual spores are called conidia (sing: conidium).

• When these spores germinate, they become organism that are genetically
identical to the parent cell.

• Asexual spores are produced by the hypae of an individual fungus through

mitosis and subsequent cell division.

• There is no fusion of the nuclei of cells.

 FUNGI ASSOCIATION
Lichen:
• These are small organisms of composite nature that consist of two dissimilar
organism, an alga-phycobiont and a fungus-mycobiont, living in a symbiotic
association.

• Generally, the fungal partner occupies the major portion of the thallus and
produces its own reproductive structures.

• The algal partner manufactures the food through photosynthesis which

probably diffuses out and is absorbed by the fungal partner.
Mycorrhizae:
• This is a beneficial association between fungal mycelia and roots of higher
plants.

• The fungal mycelia mantled on the root of higher plants.

• The autotrophic host plants act as the carbon source for the fungus while the
fungus supplies mineral nutrients exchange between the partners
 Differences between Fungi and Algae
S/NO ALGAE FUNGI
1. Algae possess chlorophyll Fungi lack chlorophyll
2. They are autotrophic They are heterotrophic
3. The algal thallus is composed of The fungal thallus is composed of false
true parenchyma cells tissue, pseudoparenchyma
4. The cell wall in algae consists of The cell wall generally consist of chitin
cellulose
5. The food reserve is chiefly in the The food reserve is invariably
form of starch
6. The algae grow in water or damp The fungi grow in a wide variety of habitats;
soil and sometimes as epiphytes, as parasites in the tissues of plants and
rarely as endophytes animals causing diseases, as saprophytes in
decaying organic matter in soil or water.
 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
1. Medicine: Fungi are used in the production of some drugs and examples of
such fungi are Penicillium notatum, Claviceps purpurea, Saccharo myces
cerevisiae, Aspergillus proliferous.
2. Foods: Fungi are used as food by humans from a long time ago. Some fungi
have been used directly as food and some are used in food processing.
3. Fungi in Industry: Many fungi are used in the production of alcohol, bread,
cheese, enzyme and organic acids.
4. Biological Research: Fungi like Neurospora, Yeast etc., have been used in
genetical and cytological studies. Physarum polysephalum has been used to
study DNA-synthesis.
5. Biological control:The antagonistic activity of some fungi like Trichoderma sp.
showed that it is parasitic on many soil-borne and foliage pathogens.
Trichoderma sp. is being used to control plant diseases in sustainable
diseases management systems