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Weathering effects on discontinuity properties in sandstone in a tropical

environment: case study at Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia

Article  in  Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment · May 2014

DOI: 10.1007/s10064-014-0625-5

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Bull Eng Geol Environ
DOI 10.1007/s10064-014-0625-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Weathering effects on discontinuity properties in sandstone

in a tropical environment: case study at Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah Malaysia
Frederick Tating • Robert Hack • Victor Jetten

Received: 13 June 2013 / Accepted: 6 May 2014

Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract The formation of mechanical discontinuities Keywords Discontinuity  Weathering  Discontinuity

(i.e., bedding, joint planes) is one of the main effects of spacing  Discontinuity development  Discontinuity
weathering in rock masses. It is also highly important for formation  Integral discontinuity
forecasting the geotechnical properties of a rock mass in
the future. The effect is well known in most rock types, but
the mechanisms of forming discontinuities and the result- Introduction
ing variation of mechanical discontinuities throughout a
rock mass especially in sedimentary rocks such as sand- Rock mass discontinuities are one of the most important
stone in a tropical environment, are often still poorly parameters to be assessed for engineering construction in
understood. The aim of this research is to study and and on rock masses. The discontinuities determine the
understand the discontinuity formation process in a tropical overall structure (block characteristics) of the rock mass
environment. In sandstone in Sabah, Malaysia, disconti- and also control its mechanical behaviour. Weathering
nuity spacing decreases with higher weathering grades as processes affect the number of discontinuities in a rock
expected. Three main discontinuity sets are formed and the mass as well as their geometric relationships and geo-
spacings of the discontinuity sets formed in the thickly technical characteristics. In some climatic conditions, rock
bedded sandstone reduced. The discontinuity development masses respond very rapidly to weathering actions, thus
is related to weathering processes and governed by pre- causing rock masses to deteriorate before the end of the
defined, i.e., incipient or internal, planes of weakness that lifetime (say 50 or 100 years) of an engineering structure
originate during early stages of rock formation and in on or in the rock mass. In some finer-grained rock masses,
response to the past and present three-dimensional stress i.e., fine-grained, sand-sized or finer, significant deteriora-
field(s). The paper is motivated by the need to evaluate the tion due to the rapid formation of mechanical discontinu-
engineering implications of mechanical discontinuity sets ities may happen within weeks or months after excavation.
that are not apparent in rock at lower grades of weathering Understanding the effect of weathering on discontinuities
but that will be formed as a consequence of on-going in rock masses improves the options for better predicting
weathering processes. the future geomechanical characteristics of the rock mass.
Hence, the design of structures in or on rock masses can be
adjusted such that the structure will remain stable over the
full design lifetime or that suitable remedial measures can
F. Tating  R. Hack (&)  V. Jetten
be applied to overcome adverse performance.
Earth Systems Analysis Department, Faculty of Geo-Information
Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, The main characteristics of a discontinuity are the ori-
P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands entation, spacing, persistence, aperture, surface roughness
e-mail: [email protected] of discontinuity walls (in some literature also referred to as
‘‘irregularities’’ or ‘‘asperities’’), and the presence and type
F. Tating
Mineral and Geoscience Department, of infill material. Engineering standards for characteriza-
Locked Bag 2042, 88999 Kota Kinabalu Sabah, Malaysia tion are given in standards such as BS 5930:1999 (1999),

123
 F. Tating et al.

ASTM D5878-08 (2008), and ISO 14689-1:2003 (2003), discontinuities in thickly to very thickly bedded sandstone
and publications by the International Society for Rock in a humid tropical environment. The results of this study
Mechanics (ISRM) (Ulusay and Hudson 2007). The term are likely to have major implications on design and man-
‘‘discontinuity’’ refers to a wide range of mechanical agement of cut slopes, as the behaviour of the rock mass in
breaks, separation planes or planes of weakness in a rock the future, i.e., during the lifetime of the engineering
mass without any specific reference to their natural or structure, can be better predicted. The dataset for the study
artificial origin (Price 1990). It includes joints, bedding was collected from cut slopes with different excavation
planes, cracks, blasting cracks and fractures, faults and dates, which ranged from \1 year to more than 40 years
other planar surfaces that have a reduced strength, stiffness, ago, in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. The rocks con-
strain softening, or higher permeability relative to the cerned are of sedimentary origin and consist of thick
surrounding rock mass (Schultz and Fossen 2008). In past sequences of sandstone and red/grey shale beds. The data
literature the term ‘‘joint’’ is often used interchangeably collection was mostly done on slopes from road cuts.
with discontinuity; however, in this article the term dis-
continuity is used throughout to define a plane, separation,
or break in a rock mass that may or may not have visible Rock mass discontinuities and weathering
displacement.
Natural discontinuities can be the result of periodic Integral versus mechanical discontinuities
sedimentation (i.e., bedding planes), tensile stresses
(caused by cooling, desiccation, tectonic-related tension, or Discontinuities can be classified into two basic types based
relaxation), shear stresses (caused by uplifting, faulting, on their appearance and visibility within a rock mass: (1)
folding), and metamorphism processes (such as slaty mechanical and (2) integral or incipient discontinuities
cleavage, foliation, and schistosity). Some discontinuities, (Hack 1998; Hencher 2013; Slob 2010). Mechanical dis-
especially shear discontinuities, are normally fully devel- continuities are flaws or planes of weakness in a rock mass
oped and visible in exposures and borehole cores, which that have low or no tensile strength and lower shear
allows characterization and measurement of parameter strength compared to the surrounding intact rock material
properties to be incorporated in engineering design. How- (Ulusay and Hudson 2007). Most mechanical discontinu-
ever, a vast number of discontinuities, especially those ities develop from integral discontinuities as a response to
resulting from periodic sedimentation and from metamor- changes in stress environment or due to weathering pro-
phism processes, may be not fully developed and only cesses (Price et al. 2009). As such, mechanical disconti-
visible as a flaw in a rock mass. These types of disconti- nuities are visible in the rock mass especially if they are
nuities will be only become fully developed after the rock open with or without infill. Integral discontinuities have not
mass is affected by weathering and changes in stress been subjected to opening and their mechanical properties
environment due to, for example, excavation and stress may differ only slightly from the surrounding intact rock.
relief (Hencher and Knipe 2007). These types of disconti- They are inherent inhomogeneities within intact rock, such
nuities are referred to as ‘‘integral or incipient discontinu- as bands of different mineralogical or chemical content,
ities’’, which have yet to exhibit a visible break or plane of variability in mineral orientation (Slob 2010), or some
weakness (Hack 1998; Hencher 2013; Price et al. 2009). partial break or series of breaks forming a weakness pattern
Integral discontinuities, their possible change into (Hencher 2013). There are circumstances in which
mechanical discontinuities, and the influence of the origin mechanical discontinuities become integral discontinuities,
of the discontinuities on the change from integral into for example by the mineralization or cementation of the
mechanical, are often not properly appreciated in site sur- discontinuity.
veys (Hencher and Knipe 2007).
In Malaysia, most of the studies on rock mass weath- Discontinuity formation
ering action concern the influence of weathering on the
geotechnical properties of the intact rock in engineering Rock mass discontinuities are formed as a consequence of
applications, and the development of weathering profiles rock mass genesis, the effect of varying stress conditions in
and soil layers over long (geological) time spans (Komoo and at the earth’s surface due either to tectonism or the
1985; Mohamed et al. 2007; Tating et al. 2013). At present, removal of overburden by erosion or excavation. They are
there is no known study on the effects of weathering or also due to external forces imposed by tectonic processes
time-related weathering processes on discontinuity prop- or overburden weight or from internal forces, such as
erties of thickly bedded sedimentary rock sequences of cooling of igneous rocks (Rawnsley et al. 1990). Therefore,
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. The purpose of this research is to the formation of discontinuities is not a random process
determine the effect of weathering on the development of (Aydan and Kawamoto 1990). It is governed by set

123
Weathering effects on discontinuity properties

geological conditions, i.e., sedimentation sequence same set and it is usually reported as the mean or charac-
(McConaughy and Engelder 2001), stress, fluid pressure, teristic spacing of a discontinuity set. Discontinuity per-
temperature, and fluid–rock interactions during the for- sistence is the extent of a discontinuity along the strike and
mation and the geological history of the rock formation up dip directions of a discontinuity. Three types of disconti-
to the recent conditions in which the rock mass is exposed nuity persistence are distinguished: (1) Persistent discon-
to weathering action at or near the ground surface (Hencher tinuities that are continuous across the exposed rock mass
and Knipe 2007). This is the reason that discontinuities or geotechnical unit; (2) Abutting discontinuities that ter-
exhibit characteristics such as regular geometric patterns minate against other discontinuities; and (3) Non-persistent
and properties. By origin, Aydan and Kawamoto (1990) discontinuities that terminate within intact rock. Movement
classify discontinuities into four main groups, to which along a non-persistent discontinuity can only take place
Anon (1995) add a fifth: after the intact rock (i.e., a ‘‘rock bridge’’) is broken.
Studies regarding the determination of discontinuity
1. tensional discontinuities,
geometry by different methods are presented by Hack
2. shear discontinuities,
(1998), Lemy and Hadjigeorgiou (2003), Priest (2004).
3. discontinuities due to periodic sedimentation,
4. discontinuities due to metamorphism, and
Discontinuity shear strength
5. discontinuities that develop as a consequence of
chemical decomposition and/or physical disintegration
Discontinuity roughness (or unevenness or size and number
due to weathering processes (section Effect of weath-
of ‘‘asperities’’) refers to the degree of irregularity of the
ering processes on geomechanical properties of rock
discontinuity surface. It greatly influences the shear
masses).
strength of discontinuities. Roughness can be classified into
various classes depending on scale. A commonly used
Discontinuity sets and properties classification is for large-scale (on surfaces of the order of
metre size), small-scale (on surfaces of the order of cen-
Discontinuities are normally grouped in sets (or families), timetre size), and material roughness (invisible) (Hack
where this is a series of discontinuities that have the same et al. 2003). Roughness affects the shear strength of the
genesis, broadly the same geometry, and much the same discontinuity and the large-scale roughness (also named
geotechnical characteristics. Shear zones and faults may waviness or shape of the discontinuity) may affect the
also, and often do, occur in a set, but on the scale of initial direction of shear displacement (Ulusay and Hudson
engineering works, they usually occur as a single structure. 2007). The role of roughness in controlling the shear
The general methodology for quantitative description of strength of discontinuities has been the subject of extensive
discontinuities is presented by the International Society for research (such as Bandis 1990; Barton 1973; Hack and
Rock Mechanics (Ulusay and Hudson 2007). Discontinuity Price 1995; Kulatilake et al. 1999; Patton 1966; Ulusay and
properties important in relation to weathering in the context Hudson 2007; Yang et al. 2001), which has resulted in the
of this paper are geometry (orientation, spacing, and per- development of various shear strength criteria for rock
sistence) and shear strength (roughness and infill), where discontinuity roughness, such as SSPC system (Hack et al.
both are discussed in more detail below. 2003) that has been used in this research.
Discontinuity infill refers to the material that separates
Discontinuity geometry and pattern the adjacent rock walls of discontinuities (Ulusay and
Hudson 2007). Infill material influences the shear resis-
Orientation, spacing, persistence, and number of disconti- tance of a discontinuity by: (1) reducing the micro-rough-
nuity sets are the main properties determining the geometry ness (reducing the effect of surface textural interlocking),
of discontinuities in a rock mass (Hack 1998; Price et al. (2) changing the basic frictional properties of the shear
2009; Ulusay and Hudson 2007; Wyllie and Mah 2004). surface based on the relative values of particle friction of
These determine the size and shape of discontinuity the infill and the discontinuity wall material, and (3)
bounded rock blocks and the possibilities for relative reducing the effective roughness by changing the mor-
movement along discontinuities. The orientation of dis- phology of the shear surface (Papaliangas et al. 1993). The
continuities relative to the direction of imposed stresses is shear strength of discontinuities with infill is completely or
important in engineering. Its importance increases with the largely determined by the thickness of the infill and by the
presence of other conditions conducive to failure such as material properties of both infill and material of the dis-
low shear strength and suitable discontinuity sets. Dis- continuity wall as well as its roughness (i.e., the height and
continuity spacing is defined as the perpendicular distance shape of the asperities). Several studies have been done to
between two adjacent discontinuities that belong to the determine the influence of infill on discontinuity shear

123
 F. Tating et al.

strength, for example, Amin et al. (2008); Indraratna et al. coastal plains, valleys, small isolated foothills, and,
(2010); Papaliangas et al. (1993); Pereira (1990); Phien- towards the east, linear belts of hills parallel to the Crocker
wej et al. (1990); Zare et al. (2008). Generally, these Range. The coastal plains and valleys vary from 2 to 5 km
studies have shown that shear strength of filled disconti- in width while the linear belt of hills is about a kilometre
nuities is dependent mainly on the thickness of infill in wide. The coastal terrains and valleys are underlain by
relation to the amplitude of the roughness, the height and Quaternary deposits that consist of unconsolidated to semi-
shape of asperities, and on the geotechnical properties of consolidated sedimentary layers of sand, silt, clay, and
the infill material; i.e., the thicker the infill, the lower the peat. The north–northwest trending parallel ridges range
shear strength, and presence of materials with low shear from 30 to more than 600 m in height toward the eastern
strength such as clay or talc, that result in a low shear part of the area, where the highest peak of the ridge is about
strength. On the other hand, an infill comprising quartz 800 m above mean sea level (MSL). The accessibility
grains would probably possess relatively high shear within the study area is quite good as sealed and unsealed
strength. roads connect most of the towns and villages. The western
part of the area has undergone rapid urban development,
Effect of weathering processes on geomechanical where many hilly areas are cleared of bush and woodland,
properties of rock masses and most of the lowland and swampy areas are reclaimed
and filled for new housing developments and infrastructure.
Generally, weathering of rock masses causes reduction of This development provided many well-exposed rock faces
intact rock strength, the breakdown into smaller fragments of different ages for detailed study. These exposures were
of larger blocks of intact material, and the forming of infill excavated by conventional excavation machines, i.e., sho-
material in discontinuities. The breakdown into smaller vel, excavator, and in stronger rock masses, by ripper and
fragments of larger blocks of intact material is usually due hydraulic or pneumatic hammer.
to integral discontinuities becoming mechanical (Ehlen
2002; Fell et al. 2012; Hack and Price 1997; Hencher Climate
2013). Fresh intact rock upon exposure to weathering
agencies will undergo two main processes of alteration: The area is subjected to a typical tropical climate, which
discoloration and decomposition by chemical weathering has a uniform temperature and high humidity throughout
and disintegration by physical weathering. Often, biologi- the year; it is classified as ‘‘equatorial-fully humid (Af)’’
cal processes are considered an additional agency, but this following the Köppen-Geiger updated climate classifica-
is disputable because the influences are also chemical and/ tion (Kottek et al. 2006). The daily temperature ranges
or physical. Decomposition processes may produce from 22° to 33 °C (average 27 °C), and the temperature
weathered material with a composition entirely different variation throughout the year is small. The average
from the original rock and it may also result in pronounced humidity ranges from 79 to 85 % and the annual rainfall
colour changes to rock and rock surface. On the other hand, ranges from 1,920 to 3,190 mm (average 2,075 mm) where
disintegration may result in the breakdown of rock material temperature and rainfall are influenced by two prevailing
into progressively smaller fragments without any notice- monsoons: The Northeastern monsoon during November to
able change in mineral constituents (Selby 1993). The March, which results in cooler temperatures and less
effects of weathering action on the geomechanical prop- rainfall, while temperatures and rainfall are higher during
erties of various rock types have been studied by many the Southwestern monsoon from May to September (MMD
researchers, such as Ehlen (2002); Gupta and Rao (2001); 2013).
Hack and Huisman (2002); Hack and Price (1997); Jeong
et al. (2005); Ündül and Tuğrul (2011). Geology

Most of the study area is underlain by a thick sequence of

Description of the study area sedimentary strata of the ‘‘Crocker Formation’’ (Collenette
1958). These strata consist of grey to bluish grey, fine- to
The dataset for the research was collected from the medium-grained sandstone, and red and/or grey shale beds
northern part of Kota Kinabalu area in Sabah, East of Eocene–Oligocene age. Recent deposits and Quaternary
Malaysia (Fig. 1). It is about 140 km2 of land located layers cover the lowland areas especially along the coast
approximately between longitude E116°060 –E116°140 and and main rivers. The sequence can be divided into three
latitude N006°020 and N006°070 which lies between the main lithological units as given in Table 1 and used here,
South China Sea to the west and the mountains of the based on the bedding thickness, ratio of sandstone to shale
Crocker Range to the east. It consists of swampy areas, beds, sedimentary structure characteristics, rock type, and

123
Weathering effects on discontinuity properties

Fig. 1 Location of the area

(modified after Tating 2003)

Table 1 Description of lithological rock units (modified after Tating 2003)

Formation Units Description

Crocker (Eocene to Thickly to very thickly Bedding spacing from 0.6 to over 2 m with some bedding spacings exceeding 8 m. Grey
Oligocene) bedded sandstone (SST) to bluish grey in color. Fine- to coarse-grained with locally sparse pebbles at the base.
Intercalated with thin pelitic layers with ratio of 9:1
Interbedded sandstone, Interbedding of sandstone, siltstone, and shale beds. Bedding spacing from 0.01 to 0.6 m.
siltstone, and shale (IB) Sandstone to pelitic layer ratio varies. Divided into three subunits based on ratio of
sand/siltstone to shale: Classical type (ratio 1:1), Shaly type (ratio 1:3), and Sandy type
(ratio 9:1)
Red/grey shale (SH) Red and Grey shale bands. Thickness from 0.6 to over 25 m. Red shale characterized by
distinctive red to brownish red color and homogeneity. Occasionally interbedded with
siltstone. Grey shale consists of thinly interbedded grey shale with siltstone or fine-
grained sandstone (1–20 cm). Shale to sandstone ratio from 3:1 to 10:1

colour (Tating 2003). The stratigraphic succession of the southwest (SW) and dip steeply either southeast or north-
thick sedimentary strata in Kota Kinabalu is further divided west. The tectonic activities subsequently caused the
into two main sequences based on the lithological domi- imbrication of the sedimentary strata into a series of thrust
nance; i.e. ‘‘Sandy sequence’’ and ‘‘Shaly sequence’’, as fault slices that has resulted in repetition of lithological
shown in Fig. 2 (Tating 2003; Tongkul 1990). The Sandy units (Fig. 2).
sequence consists predominantly of sandstone from the
‘‘Thickly to very thickly bedded sandstone (SST)’’ and
‘‘Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and shale (IB)’’ units, Methodology
whereas the Shaly sequence consists mainly of the ‘‘Red/
grey shale (SH)’’ units of Table 1. Tectonic activity during This study is primarily based on field data, the quality of
the Late Oligocene to Early–Middle Miocene Periods which is dependent on how systematically the conditions
caused extensive folding and faulting that has resulted in were observed, collected, and arranged. Discontinuity data
the development of a series of northeast trending parallel has been collected and organized following the systematic
ridges in the western part of Sabah (Tongkul 1990). Gen- approach of the slope stability probability classification
erally, the sedimentary strata strike northeast (NE)– (SSPC) methodology (Hack et al. 2003) that encompasses

123
 F. Tating et al.

field assessment of slope stability and quantified rock mass Data analysis
properties. In view of the rock conditions and types, the
strata were divided into different homogenous geotechnical All discontinuities (joints and bedding planes) were plotted
units that are defined as rock mass portions that exhibit as poles on an equal-area stereogram using Dips (2012)
uniform geological and lithological characteristics, uniform software, contoured on density, and analysed using Fisher
mechanical properties of intact material and discontinuities, distributions. The weathering grade was then assigned to
and the same degree of rock mass weathering following the each discontinuity set and each discontinuity in a set to
guidelines of BS 5930:1981 (1981) and ISO 14689-1:2003 facilitate analyses of the relationships between weathering
(2003). Each unit was characterized in terms of intact rock and variation of discontinuity spacing.
strength, number of discontinuity sets, and the orientation,
spacing, persistence, roughness, infill, and evidence for
karst processes affecting surfaces for each set. The method Results
of excavation (ME) and the degree of rock mass weathering
(WE) were also recorded in quantified values. Extensive Discontinuity sets
definitions for each property or characteristic were used to
ensure systematic and accurate recording of these details. The discontinuity sets are split into subsets (Table 2)
The quantified properties were recorded on standardized depending on the direction of dip of the different limbs of
SSPC field forms and, in addition, details of the existing folds. In Fig. 3, the concentration of poles for bedding
natural and excavated slopes (i.e., the exposure) were noted planes and discontinuity Set 2 are close together and it
such as slope angle and direction, height, length, shape of could be argued that these form one concentration cloud;
the slope, origin, the length of time the slope exists, and a however, according to Tating (2003) it is more appro-
visual assessment of its stability. priate to regard these as two sets and, therefore, this
division is maintained. Three main discontinuity sets have
Assessment of geotechnical units been identified in the SST unit (Figs. 3, 4), as listed in
Table 2, where Set 1 is the bedding planes of the SST
Weathering grade was identified and delineated for each unit, Set 2 is conjugate joint sets, which are oriented more
geotechnical unit so that characterization of discontinuities or less parallel (NE–SW) to the dip directions of the
could be related to overall rock mass weathering grade. bedding planes (Set 1), but with a less steep dip, (bedding
Characterization of discontinuities was based on the rapid planes 74°–80°, discontinuities: 20°–37°). Set 3 consists
face mapping approach in which the main or representative of steeply dipping joints 75°–77°, either NE or SW that
discontinuity sets were identified visually in the exposure strike more or less perpendicular (NE–SE) to the bedding
and their mean orientation (dip/dip-direction) was the planes.
average of several measurements for each set. Most of the
rock exposures were easily accessible; therefore, data could
Discontinuity spacing
be collected reliably and exactly at the intended locations.
In nearly all exposures, it was possible to measure the
The influence of weathering action on the formation of new
discontinuity spacing perpendicular to the planes of the set
discontinuities is determined by comparing the mean and
without the need for geometrical corrections. The discon-
median spacing of each discontinuity set per weathering
tinuity surface roughness was characterized on the basis of
grade. The results of the analyses are shown in Table 3 and
visual and tactile (feeling with fingertips) assessment. The
Fig. 5 from which it is clear that the mean and median
large-scale roughness was estimated visually according to
spacing for all discontinuity sets decrease with increasing
discontinuity surface area between 0.2 9 0.2 m2 and
weathering grade. Figure 6 shows the formation of new
1 9 1 m2 in five classes, as follows: wavy, slightly wavy,
mechanical discontinuities in the SST unit induced by
curved, slightly curved, and straight (following example
weathering. The decrease of discontinuity spacing is due to
traces given in SSPC). The small-scale roughness was
the formation of new mechanical discontinuities that
described for an area of about 0.2 9 0.2 m2 in three clas-
become visible (Fig. 6c).
ses: stepped, undulating, and planar (also following SSPC).
The small-scale roughness was further described with
tactile roughness and described as rough, smooth, or pol- Discontinuity sequential development
ished. Other parameters recorded included the character-
istics of infill material including the presence of sand or The sequential development of discontinuities with
clay, which was assessed visually and by feel, and the advancing weathering grade is shown in Fig. 7, where
presence of karst structures. Figs. 7a–d show this in a stereogram, whereas Fig. 7e–h

123
Weathering effects on discontinuity properties

Fig. 2 Lithological map of the

study area (modified after
Tating 2003)

Table 2 Discontinuity sets in SST unit in different orientations probably result from the residual
in situ stresses. In slightly weathered rock (Fig. 7b), the
Discontinuity Dip/dip- Description
direction (°) intensity of planes of discontinuity Set 1 (bedding)
Set Subset increases while the concentrations of discontinuity Set 2
1 1–I 74/311 Bedding planes. Steeply dipping either (conjugate joint sets) also start to become clearly marked.
towards the SE or NW Few new planes belonging to a new discontinuity set ori-
1–II 80/133 ented perpendicular to the bedding planes (discontinuity
2 2–I 20/310 Conjugate joint sets. Joint planes; Set 3; also conjugate joint sets) are formed and become
strike more or less parallel to vaguely noticeable in Fig. 7b. In moderately weathered
bedding planes. Gently dipping rock, the discontinuity intensity for all discontinuity sets
towards the SE or NW
significantly increases (Fig. 7c), and these increase further
2–II 37/134
in highly weathered masses (Fig. 7d). The frequency dis-
3 3–I 77/048 Joint planes; strike more or less
perpendicular to bedding planes. tribution of the discontinuity spacing per weathering grade
Steeply dipping towards the SW or for all discontinuity sets together is shown in Fig. 8, which
NE demonstrates that, especially for discontinuity spac-
3–II 75/227 ings \0.5 m, the frequencies increase with higher weath-
ering grades.

show the same information as a schematic model. The

analyses demonstrate that the discontinuity formation pat- Discontinuity persistence
tern is directly related to the weathering grade. In the fresh
state, the noticeable discontinuities are the bedding planes The persistence of the bedding planes in the SST unit is
(discontinuity Set 1) as clearly marked by the concentra- controlled by the thicknesses of the original strata. The
tions poles in the northeastern and southwestern parts of bedding planes that form a mechanical discontinuity are
the stereogram (Fig. 7a), and the very few discontinuities normally persistent. However, the transformation from

123
 F. Tating et al.

Fig. 3 Equal area, lower

hemisphere plot of discontinuity
poles with Fisher distributions
and mean discontinuity planes
per set, all plotted on lower
hemisphere in Dips (2012)

from integral into mechanical, and Set 1 serves to relieve

tensile stresses (Fig. 4).

Discontinuity roughness

Most bedding or joint discontinuities have a large-scale

roughness of ‘‘straight’’ independent of weathering grade.
The small-scale roughness is mostly ‘‘smooth undulating’’
in grade fresh masses and becomes ‘‘rough planar’’ in more
weathered masses. This is contrary to what is expected as
mostly, small-scale roughness becomes smoother due to
the deterioration of asperities (Geertsema 2003). However,
roughness may be increasing with increasing degree of
Fig. 4 Discontinuity sets in the thickly to very thickly bedded SST
weathering in tropical areas, if chemical weathering is
unit in a cut slope dominant and precipitation of iron hydroxide and other iron
compounds along the discontinuities occurs. In the study
area, such coatings are abundant and are a notable feature
integral into mechanical discontinuities may not be uni- of the discontinuities in the SST unit. Precipitation of these
form in time over the whole extent of the discontinuity coatings on the surfaces of the discontinuities results in
surfaces. Therefore, a bedding plane may have become in very rough surfaces and sometimes in completely cemen-
places a mechanical discontinuity, whereas it still is an ted discontinuities. These iron-coated or cemented dis-
integral discontinuity at other locations along the same continuities are found more in moderately to highly
plane. Over the whole unit, this effect is less important as weathered sandstone than in sandstone with a lower degree
the transformation of integral into mechanical disconti- of weathering (Fig. 9). The coating or cement is very hard
nuities is often en echelon, hence the number of bedding and between 0.1 and 0.5 mm in thickness. Discontinuities
planes being mechanical discontinuities at any one place that are neither coated nor cemented with iron compounds
in the same unit with the same weathering grade is about are mostly filled with fine-grained clayey material that
the same. Discontinuity Sets 2 and 3 normally abut probably results from weathering. These discontinuities
against Set 1 (bedding planes) because the bedding planes have a smoother small-scale roughness with a higher
become mechanical before a joint has been transformed degree of weathering.

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Weathering effects on discontinuity properties

Table 3 Comparison of mean Discontinuity set Weathering gradea Number of planes Spacing (m)
and median discontinuity
spacing per set and weathering Mean Standard deviation Median
grade
1 (Bedding) Fresh 2 1.20 1.13 1.2
Slightly 2 0.70 0.42 0.7
Moderately 16 0.51 0.39 0.4
Highly 22 0.28 0.33 0.16
Completely 2 0.025 0.01 0.025
2 (Joint) Fresh 4 1.03 0.55 1.05
Slightly 13 0.50 0.29 0.45
Moderately 27 0.36 0.30 0.3
Highly 31 0.21 0.13 0.15
Completely 2 0.035 0.21 0.035
3 (Joint) Fresh 4 0.71 0.33 0.73
Slightly 3 0.20 0.10 0.2
Moderately 16 0.15 0.11 0.11
Highly 17 0.10 0.07 0.07
Completely 3 0.02 0.01 0.02
All Fresh 10 0.94 0.57 0.8
‘‘All’’ means that the values are
for all sets together irrespective Slightly 18 0.48 0.30 0.4
to which set the plane belongs Moderately 59 0.34 0.32 0.3
a
Weathering grade based on Highly 71 0.26 0.21 0.15
BS 5930 (1981) and ISO Completely 7 0.03 0.12 0.02
14689-1:2003 (2003)

Discussion during wetting and drying of the rock mass (Hencher and
Knipe 2007; Huisman et al. 2004). Such processes also
There are two important effects of weathering processes cause volume changes that may generate internal stresses
related to discontinuities in the thickly to very thickly in the rock mass. All these processes are liable to result in
bedded SST unit: (1) decreasing discontinuity spacing reducing the spacing of discontinuities as the degree of
with increasing degree of weathering and (2) sequential weathering increases as Fig. 5 shows.
development of three dominant discontinuity sets. The Changes in stress distribution in magnitude and ori-
spacing decreases due to the change from integral into entation may also contribute to the formation of new
mechanical discontinuities. This is in agreement with the discontinuities. When a rock mass is excavated, the stress
literature (Ehlen 2002; Hack and Price 1997). In the due to the overburden reduces or becomes nil, and
thickly to very thickly bedded sandstone unit, integral residual; in situ horizontal stresses are reduced. This
discontinuities may be in the form of laminations (either stress reduction and change in orientation of the stress
parallel or cross) or other sedimentary internal bedding axes may result in the formation of new discontinuity sets
features such as the ‘‘Bouma Sequence’’ (Bouma 1962), (Fig. 10). In the study area, the in situ major principal
trace fossils, nodules, concretions, and shale laminae. stress (r1) is probably horizontal and oriented at about
These features have been observed in the fresh intact rock NW–SE (Tongkul 1990). The new (i.e., due to weathering
of the SST unit and are likely initiation points for dis- processes) discontinuities do not develop with equal
continuity formation in bedded clastic rocks (McConau- intensity in each set. When fresh, the discontinuities
ghy and Engelder 2001; Pollard and Aydin 1988). In belonging to the bedding plane (Set 1) are dominant with
addition, integral discontinuities may also be formed due some conjugate discontinuities due to the regional in situ
to the presence of invisible internal structures (Hencher stress. As the rock mass becomes more weathered, new
and Knipe 2007). For example, weathering processes may discontinuities are developed particularly in Sets 2 and 3
cause alteration or dissolution of specific minerals that with relatively less additional discontinuities in Set 1.
form the integral discontinuities, which subsequently Relationships between historical stress environments and
develop into new mechanical discontinuities. Moreover, the development of patterns and intensities of disconti-
new discontinuities may also develop due to different nuities have also been recognized by Fernandes-da-Silva
elastic response of adjacent minerals grain to changes in et al. (2010) and used for drainage pattern and landscape
geological environment, such as loading and unloading recognition.

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 F. Tating et al.

Fig. 5 Mean (a–d) and boxplot (e–h) of discontinuity spacing decreases with higher weathering grades. M indicates median value in the boxplot

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Weathering effects on discontinuity properties

Fig. 6 a Joint systems in SST

unit, some of the joints are
cemented. SST unit bedding
orientation is shown by the
strike/dip symbol, b detailed
joints system induced by
weathering, c newly visible
bedding plane in the SST unit
(length of hammer &0.3 m)

Discontinuity roughness and infill also have a significant developed discontinuities observed in this study may not be
influence on the mechanical characteristics of a rock mass. applicable to other types of rocks or in places where the
In the current study, it was found that weathering did not stress history is different. Integral discontinuities present
have much effect on the large-scale roughness; however, it within a rock mass are the result of the internal structure of
did have an influence on the small-scale roughness. the rock mass and the stress conditions during its geolog-
Weathering of the discontinuity surfaces reduces the ical history. Furthermore, rock weathering is controlled by
strength and number of asperities resulting in smoother many factors (Bland and Rolls 1998) many of which are
surfaces that possess lower shear strength. Secondly, the site specific, and hence, even in the same climate, the effect
material weathered from the discontinuity walls will on a rock mass may be different. Although this study is
become infill material. In many locations, the discontinu- location-dependent it shows that if the geological history
ities in the moderately and highly weathered SST units are (e.g., sedimentation process and tectonic history) of a rock
coated or cemented with iron oxides. Infill material is mass is known, in combination with a detailed study of the
normally a reason for lower shear strength; however, rock mass, it is likely possible to forecast the reduction of
strongly compacted or cemented infill may cause an spacings with ongoing weathering of already existing
increase in shear strength. The possibility of infill material mechanical discontinuity sets (as is also shown by Hack
having been washed into discontinuities near to the top or et al. 2003; Huisman et al. 2006) and the likely initiation of
surface of an excavation cannot be fully excluded; how- new sets. Moreover, it is unusual for one weathering grade
ever, this is unlikely to be the source of the infill material in to be present in an exposure, so in most cases it will be
the majority of the discontinuities assessed for this study. possible to find exposures, perhaps outside the actual
The openness of the discontinuities is rather small and construction site, where the same rock mass in the same
evidence of material washing over the excavation surface geological environment is exposed at a higher weathering
was not observed at the locations where the data were grade. Such exposures can be used also to study the pos-
collected. The influence of vegetation is likely to be small sible development of new mechanical discontinuity sets.
or absent. Root growth into discontinuities from vegetation
at the top of excavations prior to excavation is limited to
the upper few metres of the rock mass and almost never at Conclusions
locations where the data for this research were collected.
Excavation surfaces were mostly free of newly grown Mechanical discontinuity sets are formed with increasing
vegetation and if present, it consisted only of small plants weathering grade in thickly to very thickly bedded sand-
up to maximum 10–30 cm high and occasionally fast- stones from integral discontinuities that are invisible in
growing trees such as acacia (see Figs. 4, 6, 9). fresh sandstone. Furthermore, discontinuity spacing
The effects of weathering action on discontinuities as decreases with higher grades of weathering as expected,
described are determined in a particular type of sandstone and it is probable that new mechanical discontinuities are
and for weathering in a tropical humid climate. The formed from integral (or incipient) discontinuities as
decrease in discontinuity spacing is also observed in other weathering action progresses and in response to changes
types of rock masses and climates. However, the sequential in the stress environment brought about by excavation and
discontinuity formation and the orientation of newly engineering work. In the case study, three main sets of

123
 F. Tating et al.

Fig. 7 a–d Plots of discontinuity poles per weathering grade, e–h schematic model showing the development of discontinuity sets in the steeply
dipping SST unit

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Weathering effects on discontinuity properties

Fig. 8 Frequency of
discontinuity spacing
distribution per weathering
grade for all discontinuity sets
together

Fig. 9 Iron cemented joints in SST unit (length of hammer &0.3 m)

discontinuities are developed: the bedding discontinuities, fresh rock mass, the discontinuities are often non-persis-
discontinuities that have about the same orientation as the tent and terminate within the SST strata. In higher
bedding planes and a set of conjugate discontinuities with weathering grade rock masses, the discontinuities become
a strike parallel to the bedding but with a lower dip angle, more persistent and often abut against bedding planes.
and discontinuities with a strike perpendicular to the Discontinuity persistence parallel to the bedding is longer
bedding planes. The sequential development of these in higher weathering grades and discontinuities intersect
discontinuity sets is related to the weathering grade. In a discontinuities of other sets. It must be noted that the

123
 F. Tating et al.

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