Quantum Entanglement

Quantum entanglement
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Spontaneous parametric down-conversion process can split photons into type II photon pairs
with mutually perpendicular polarization.
Part of a series of articles about
Quantum mechanics
Schrödinger equation
 Introduction
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 History
Background
Fundamentals
 Complementarity
 Decoherence
 Entanglement
 Energy level
 Measurement
 Nonlocality
 Quantum number
 State
 Superposition
 Symmetry
 Tunnelling
 Uncertainty
 Wave function
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Experiments
Formulations
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Interpretations
Advanced topics
Scientists
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Quantum entanglement is the phenomenon that occurs when a group of particles are generated,
interact, or share spatial proximity in a way such that the quantum state of each particle of the
group cannot be described independently of the state of the others, including when the particles
are separated by a large distance. The topic of quantum entanglement is at the heart of the
disparity between classical and quantum physics: entanglement is a primary feature of quantum
mechanics not present in classical mechanics.[1]
Measurements of physical properties such as position, momentum, spin, and polarization

performed on entangled particles can, in some cases, be found to be perfectly correlated. For
example, if a pair of entangled particles is generated such that their total spin is known to be
zero, and one particle is found to have clockwise spin on a first axis, then the spin of the other
particle, measured on the same axis, is found to be anticlockwise. However, this behavior gives
rise to seemingly paradoxical effects: any measurement of a particle's properties results in an
apparent and irreversible wave function collapse of that particle and changes the original
quantum state. With entangled particles, such measurements affect the entangled system as a
whole.
Such phenomena were the subject of a 1935 paper by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and
Nathan Rosen,[2] and several papers by Erwin Schrödinger shortly thereafter,[3][4] describing what
came to be known as the EPR paradox. Einstein and others considered such behavior impossible,
as it violated the local realism view of causality (Einstein referring to it as "spooky action at a
distance")[5] and argued that the accepted formulation of quantum mechanics must therefore be
incomplete.
Later, however, the counterintuitive predictions of quantum mechanics were verified [6][7][8] in tests
where polarization or spin of entangled particles were measured at separate locations,
statistically violating Bell's inequality. In earlier tests, it could not be ruled out that the result at
one point could have been subtly transmitted to the remote point, affecting the outcome at the
second location.[8] However, so-called "loophole-free" Bell tests have since been performed
where the locations were sufficiently separated that communications at the speed of light would
have taken longer—in one case, 10,000 times longer—than the interval between the
measurements.[7][6]
According to some interpretations of quantum mechanics, the effect of one measurement occurs
instantly. Other interpretations which do not recognize wavefunction collapse dispute that there
is any "effect" at all. However, all interpretations agree that entanglement produces correlation
between the measurements, and that the mutual information between the entangled particles can
be exploited, but that any transmission of information at faster-than-light speeds is impossible.[9]
[10]
Quantum entanglement has been demonstrated experimentally with photons,[11][12] electrons,[13][14]

and even small diamonds.[15] The use of entanglement in communication, computation and
quantum radar is a very active area of research and development.
Despite much popular thought to the contrary, quantum entanglement cannot be used for faster-
than-light communication.[16]
History
Further information: Hidden-variable theory
Article headline regarding the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox paper, in the May 4,
1935 issue of The New York Times.
In 1935, Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen published a paper on the
counterintuitive predictions that quantum mechanics makes for pairs of objects prepared together
in a particular way.[2] In this study, the three formulated the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
(EPR paradox), a thought experiment that attempted to show that "the quantum-mechanical
description of physical reality given by wave functions is not complete."[2] However, the three
scientists did not coin the word entanglement, nor did they generalize the special properties of
the quantum state they considered. Following the EPR paper, Erwin Schrödinger wrote a letter to
Einstein in German in which he used the word Verschränkung (translated by himself as
entanglement) "to describe the correlations between two particles that interact and then separate,
as in the EPR experiment."[17]
Schrödinger shortly thereafter published a seminal paper defining and discussing the notion of
"entanglement." In the paper, he recognized the importance of the concept, and stated: [3] "I would
not call [entanglement] one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that
enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought." Like Einstein, Schrödinger was
dissatisfied with the concept of entanglement, because it seemed to violate the speed limit on the
transmission of information implicit in the theory of relativity.[18] Einstein later famously derided
entanglement as "spukhafte Fernwirkung"[19] or "spooky action at a distance."
The EPR paper generated significant interest among physicists, which inspired much discussion
about the foundations of quantum mechanics and Bohm's interpretation in particular, but
produced relatively little other published work. Despite the interest, the weak point in EPR's
argument was not discovered until 1964, when John Stewart Bell proved that one of their key
assumptions, the principle of locality, as applied to the kind of hidden variables interpretation
hoped for by EPR, was mathematically inconsistent with the predictions of quantum theory.
Specifically, Bell demonstrated an upper limit, seen in Bell's inequality, regarding the strength of
correlations that can be produced in any theory obeying local realism, and showed that quantum
theory predicts violations of this limit for certain entangled systems.[20] His inequality is
experimentally testable, and there have been numerous relevant experiments, starting with the
pioneering work of Stuart Freedman and John Clauser in 1972[21] and Alain Aspect's experiments
in 1982.[22]
An early experimental breakthrough was due to Carl Kocher,[11][12] who already in 1967 presented
an apparatus in which two photons successively emitted from a calcium atom were shown to be
entangled – the first case of entangled visible light. The two photons passed diametrically
positioned parallel polarizers with higher probability than classically predicted but with
correlations in quantitative agreement with quantum mechanical calculations. He also showed
that the correlation varied as the squared cosine of the angle between the polarizer settings[12] and
decreased exponentially with time lag between emitted photons.[23] Kocher’s apparatus, equipped
with better polarizers, was used by Freedman and Clauser who could confirm the cosine-squared
dependence and use it to demonstrate a violation of Bell’s inequality for a set of fixed angles. [21]
All these experiments have shown agreement with quantum mechanics rather than the principle
of local realism.
For decades, each had left open at least one loophole by which it was possible to question the
validity of the results. However, in 2015 an experiment was performed that simultaneously
closed both the detection and locality loopholes, and was heralded as "loophole-free"; this
experiment ruled out a large class of local realism theories with certainty.[24] Aspect writes that
"... no experiment ... can be said to be totally loophole-free," but he says the experiments
"remove the last doubts that we should renounce" local hidden variables, and refers to examples
of remaining loopholes as being "far fetched" and "foreign to the usual way of reasoning in
physics."[25]
Bell's work raised the possibility of using these super-strong correlations as a resource for
communication. It led to the 1984 discovery of quantum key distribution protocols, most
famously BB84 by Charles H. Bennett and Gilles Brassard[26] and E91 by Artur Ekert.[27]
Although BB84 does not use entanglement, Ekert's protocol uses the violation of a Bell's
inequality as a proof of security.
In 2022, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Aspect, Clauser, and Anton Zeilinger "for
experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and
pioneering quantum information science".[28]
Concept
Meaning of entanglement
An entangled system is defined to be one whose quantum state cannot be factored as a product of
states of its local constituents; that is to say, they are not individual particles but are an
inseparable whole. In entanglement, one constituent cannot be fully described without
considering the other(s). The state of a composite system is always expressible as a sum, or
superposition, of products of states of local constituents; it is entangled if this sum cannot be
written as a single product term.
Quantum systems can become entangled through various types of interactions. For some ways in
which entanglement may be achieved for experimental purposes, see the section below on
methods. Entanglement is broken when the entangled particles decohere through interaction with
the environment; for example, when a measurement is made.[29]
As an example of entanglement: a subatomic particle decays into an entangled pair of other

particles. The decay events obey the various conservation laws, and as a result, the measurement
outcomes of one daughter particle must be highly correlated with the measurement outcomes of
the other daughter particle (so that the total momenta, angular momenta, energy, and so forth
remains roughly the same before and after this process). For instance, a spin-zero particle could
decay into a pair of spin-1/2 particles. Since the total spin before and after this decay must be
zero (conservation of angular momentum), whenever the first particle is measured to be spin up
on some axis, the other, when measured on the same axis, is always found to be spin down. (This
is called the spin anti-correlated case; and if the prior probabilities for measuring each spin are
equal, the pair is said to be in the singlet state.)
The above result may or may not be perceived as surprising. A classical system would display
the same property, and a hidden variable theory would certainly be required to do so, based on
conservation of angular momentum in classical and quantum mechanics alike. The difference is
that a classical system has definite values for all the observables all along, while the quantum
system does not. In a sense to be discussed below, the quantum system considered here seems to
acquire a probability distribution for the outcome of a measurement of the spin along any axis of
the other particle upon measurement of the first particle. This probability distribution is in
general different from what it would be without measurement of the first particle. This may
certainly be perceived as surprising in the case of spatially separated entangled particles.
Paradox
The paradox is that a measurement made on either of the particles apparently collapses the state
of the entire entangled system—and does so instantaneously, before any information about the
measurement result could have been communicated to the other particle (assuming that
information cannot travel faster than light) and hence assured the "proper" outcome of the
measurement of the other part of the entangled pair. In the Copenhagen interpretation, the result
of a spin measurement on one of the particles is a collapse (of wave function) into a state in
which each particle has a definite spin (either up or down) along the axis of measurement. The
outcome is taken to be random, with each possibility having a probability of 50%. However, if
both spins are measured along the same axis, they are found to be anti-correlated. This means
that the random outcome of the measurement made on one particle seems to have been
transmitted to the other, so that it can make the "right choice" when it too is measured. [30]
The distance and timing of the measurements can be chosen so as to make the interval between
the two measurements spacelike, hence, any causal effect connecting the events would have to
travel faster than light. According to the principles of special relativity, it is not possible for any
information to travel between two such measuring events. It is not even possible to say which of
the measurements came first. For two spacelike separated events x1 and x2 there are inertial
frames in which x1 is first and others in which x2 is first. Therefore, the correlation between the
two measurements cannot be explained as one measurement determining the other: different
observers would disagree about the role of cause and effect.
(In fact similar paradoxes can arise even without entanglement: the position of a single particle is
spread out over space, and two widely separated detectors attempting to detect the particle in two
different places must instantaneously attain appropriate correlation, so that they do not both
detect the particle.)
Hidden variables theory
A possible resolution to the paradox is to assume that quantum theory is incomplete, and the
result of measurements depends on predetermined "hidden variables".[31] The state of the
particles being measured contains some hidden variables, whose values effectively determine,
right from the moment of separation, what the outcomes of the spin measurements are going to
be. This would mean that each particle carries all the required information with it, and nothing
needs to be transmitted from one particle to the other at the time of measurement. Einstein and
others (see the previous section) originally believed this was the only way out of the paradox,
and the accepted quantum mechanical description (with a random measurement outcome) must
be incomplete.
Violations of Bell's inequality

Local hidden variable theories fail, however, when measurements of the spin of entangled
particles along different axes are considered. If a large number of pairs of such measurements are
made (on a large number of pairs of entangled particles), then statistically, if the local realist or
hidden variables view were correct, the results would always satisfy Bell's inequality. A number
of experiments have shown in practice that Bell's inequality is not satisfied. However, prior to
2015, all of these had loophole problems that were considered the most important by the
community of physicists.[32][33] When measurements of the entangled particles are made in
moving relativistic reference frames, in which each measurement (in its own relativistic time
frame) occurs before the other, the measurement results remain correlated.[34][35]
The fundamental issue about measuring spin along different axes is that these measurements
cannot have definite values at the same time―they are incompatible in the sense that these
measurements' maximum simultaneous precision is constrained by the uncertainty principle. This
is contrary to what is found in classical physics, where any number of properties can be
measured simultaneously with arbitrary accuracy. It has been proven mathematically that
compatible measurements cannot show Bell-inequality-violating correlations, [36] and thus
entanglement is a fundamentally non-classical phenomenon.
Notable experimental results proving quantum entanglement
The first experiment that verified Einstein's spooky action at a distance (entanglement) was
successfully corroborated in a lab by Chien-Shiung Wu and colleague I. Shaknov in 1949, and
was published on New Year's Day in 1950. The result specifically proved the quantum
correlations of a pair of photons.[37] In experiments in 2012 and 2013, polarization correlation
was created between photons that never coexisted in time.[38][39] The authors claimed that this
result was achieved by entanglement swapping between two pairs of entangled photons after
measuring the polarization of one photon of the early pair, and that it proves that quantum non-
locality applies not only to space but also to time.
In three independent experiments in 2013, it was shown that classically communicated separable
quantum states can be used to carry entangled states.[40] The first loophole-free Bell test was held
by Ronald Hanson of the Delft University of Technology in 2015, confirming the violation of
Bell inequality.[41]
In August 2014, Brazilian researcher Gabriela Barreto Lemos and team were able to "take
pictures" of objects using photons that had not interacted with the subjects, but were entangled
with photons that did interact with such objects. Lemos, from the University of Vienna, is
confident that this new quantum imaging technique could find application where low light
imaging is imperative, in fields such as biological or medical imaging.[42]
Since 2016, various companies, for example IBM and Microsoft, have created quantum
computers that allowed developers and tech enthusiasts to freely experiment with concepts of
quantum mechanics including quantum entanglement.[43]
Mystery of time
There have been suggestions to view the concept of time as an emergent phenomenon that is a
side effect of quantum entanglement.[44][45] In other words, time is an entanglement phenomenon,
which places all equal clock readings (of correctly prepared clocks, or of any objects usable as
clocks) into the same history. This was first fully theorized by Don Page and William Wootters
in 1983.[46] The Wheeler–DeWitt equation that combines general relativity and quantum
mechanics – by leaving out time altogether – was introduced in the 1960s and it was taken up
again in 1983, when Page and Wootters made a solution based on quantum entanglement. Page
and Wootters argued that entanglement can be used to measure time.[47]
Emergent gravity
Based on AdS/CFT correspondence, Mark Van Raamsdonk suggested that spacetime arises as an
emergent phenomenon of the quantum degrees of freedom that are entangled and live in the
boundary of the space-time.[48] Induced gravity can emerge from the entanglement first law.[49][50]
Non-locality and entanglement

In the media and popular science, quantum non-locality is often portrayed as being equivalent to
entanglement. While this is true for pure bipartite quantum states, in general entanglement is
only necessary for non-local correlations, but there exist mixed entangled states that do not
produce such correlations.[51] A well-known example is the Werner states that are entangled for
certain values of , but can always be described using local hidden variables.[52] Moreover, it was
shown that, for arbitrary numbers of particles, there exist states that are genuinely entangled but
admit a local model.[53] The mentioned proofs about the existence of local models assume that
there is only one copy of the quantum state available at a time. If the particles are allowed to
perform local measurements on many copies of such states, then many apparently local states
(e.g., the qubit Werner states) can no longer be described by a local model. This is, in particular,
true for all distillable states. However, it remains an open question whether all entangled states
become non-local given sufficiently many copies.[54]
In short, entanglement of a state shared by two particles is necessary but not sufficient for that
state to be non-local. It is important to recognize that entanglement is more commonly viewed as
an algebraic concept, noted for being a prerequisite to non-locality as well as to quantum
teleportation and to superdense coding, whereas non-locality is defined according to
experimental statistics and is much more involved with the foundations and interpretations of
quantum mechanics.[55]
Quantum mechanical framework

The following subsections are for those with a good working knowledge of the formal,
mathematical description of quantum mechanics, including familiarity with the formalism and
theoretical framework developed in the articles: bra–ket notation and mathematical formulation
of quantum mechanics.
Pure states
Consider two arbitrary quantum systems A and B, with respective Hilbert spaces HA and HB. The
Hilbert space of the composite system is the tensor product
If the first system is in state and the second in state , the state of the composite system is
States of the composite system that can be represented in this form are called separable states, or
product states.
Not all states are separable states (and thus product states). Fix a basis for HA and a basis for HB.
The most general state in HA ⊗ HB is of the form
.
This state is separable if there exist vectors so that yielding and It is inseparable if for any vectors
at least for one pair of coordinates we have If a state is inseparable, it is called an 'entangled
state'.
For example, given two basis vectors of HA and two basis vectors of HB, the following is an
entangled state:
If the composite system is in this state, it is impossible to attribute to either system A or system B
a definite pure state. Another way to say this is that while the von Neumann entropy of the whole
state is zero (as it is for any pure state), the entropy of the subsystems is greater than zero. In this
sense, the systems are "entangled". This has specific empirical ramifications for interferometry.
[56]
The above example is one of four Bell states, which are (maximally) entangled pure states
(pure states of the HA ⊗ HB space, but which cannot be separated into pure states of each HA and
HB).
Now suppose Alice is an observer for system A, and Bob is an observer for system B. If in the
entangled state given above Alice makes a measurement in the eigenbasis of A, there are two
possible outcomes, occurring with equal probability:[57]
1. Alice measures 0, and the state of the system collapses to .

2. Alice measures 1, and the state of the system collapses to .
If the former occurs, then any subsequent measurement performed by Bob, in the same basis,
will always return 1. If the latter occurs, (Alice measures 1) then Bob's measurement will return
0 with certainty. Thus, system B has been altered by Alice performing a local measurement on
system A. This remains true even if the systems A and B are spatially separated. This is the
foundation of the EPR paradox.
The outcome of Alice's measurement is random. Alice cannot decide which state to collapse the
composite system into, and therefore cannot transmit information to Bob by acting on her
system. Causality is thus preserved, in this particular scheme. For the general argument, see no-
communication theorem.
Ensembles
As mentioned above, a state of a quantum system is given by a unit vector in a Hilbert space.
More generally, if one has less information about the system, then one calls it an 'ensemble' and
describes it by a density matrix, which is a positive-semidefinite matrix, or a trace class when the
state space is infinite-dimensional, and has trace 1. Again, by the spectral theorem, such a matrix
takes the general form:
where the wi are positive-valued probabilities (they sum up to 1), the vectors αi are unit vectors,
and in the infinite-dimensional case, we would take the closure of such states in the trace norm.
We can interpret ρ as representing an ensemble where is the proportion of the ensemble whose
states are . When a mixed state has rank 1, it therefore describes a 'pure ensemble'. When there is
less than total information about the state of a quantum system we need density matrices to
represent the state.
Experimentally, a mixed ensemble might be realized as follows. Consider a "black box"

apparatus that spits electrons towards an observer. The electrons' Hilbert spaces are identical.
The apparatus might produce electrons that are all in the same state; in this case, the electrons
received by the observer are then a pure ensemble. However, the apparatus could produce
electrons in different states. For example, it could produce two populations of electrons: one with
state with spins aligned in the positive z direction, and the other with state with spins aligned in
the negative y direction. Generally, this is a mixed ensemble, as there can be any number of
populations, each corresponding to a different state.
Following the definition above, for a bipartite composite system, mixed states are just density
matrices on HA ⊗ HB. That is, it has the general form
where the wi are positively valued probabilities, , and the vectors are unit vectors. This is self-
adjoint and positive and has trace 1.
Extending the definition of separability from the pure case, we say that a mixed state is separable
if it can be written as[58]: 131–132
where the wi are positively valued probabilities and the 's and 's are themselves mixed states
(density operators) on the subsystems A and B respectively. In other words, a state is separable if
it is a probability distribution over uncorrelated states, or product states. By writing the density
matrices as sums of pure ensembles and expanding, we may assume without loss of generality
that and are themselves pure ensembles. A state is then said to be entangled if it is not separable.
In general, finding out whether or not a mixed state is entangled is considered difficult. The
general bipartite case has been shown to be NP-hard.[59] For the 2 × 2 and 2 × 3 cases, a
necessary and sufficient criterion for separability is given by the famous Positive Partial
Transpose (PPT) condition.[60]
Reduced density matrices
The idea of a reduced density matrix was introduced by Paul Dirac in 1930.[61] Consider as above
systems A and B each with a Hilbert space HA, HB. Let the state of the composite system be
As indicated above, in general there is no way to associate a pure state to the component system
A. However, it still is possible to associate a density matrix. Let
which is the projection operator onto this state. The state of A is the partial trace of ρT over the
basis of system B:
The sum occurs over and the identity operator in . ρA is sometimes called the reduced density
matrix of ρ on subsystem A. Colloquially, we "trace out" system B to obtain the reduced density
matrix on A.
For example, the reduced density matrix of A for the entangled state
discussed above is
This demonstrates that, as expected, the reduced density matrix for an entangled pure ensemble
is a mixed ensemble. Also not surprisingly, the density matrix of A for the pure product state
discussed above is
In general, a bipartite pure state ρ is entangled if and only if its reduced states are mixed rather
than pure.
Two applications that use them
Reduced density matrices were explicitly calculated in different spin chains with unique ground
state. An example is the one-dimensional AKLT spin chain:[62] the ground state can be divided
into a block and an environment. The reduced density matrix of the block is proportional to a
projector to a degenerate ground state of another Hamiltonian.
The reduced density matrix also was evaluated for XY spin chains, where it has full rank. It was
proved that in the thermodynamic limit, the spectrum of the reduced density matrix of a large
block of spins is an exact geometric sequence[63] in this case.
Entanglement as a resource
In quantum information theory, entangled states are considered a 'resource', i.e., something costly
to produce and that allows implementing valuable transformations.[64][65] The setting in which this
perspective is most evident is that of "distant labs", i.e., two quantum systems labeled "A" and
"B" on each of which arbitrary quantum operations can be performed, but which do not interact
with each other quantum mechanically. The only interaction allowed is the exchange of classical
information, which combined with the most general local quantum operations gives rise to the
class of operations called LOCC (local operations and classical communication). These
operations do not allow the production of entangled states between systems A and B. But if A
and B are provided with a supply of entangled states, then these, together with LOCC operations
can enable a larger class of transformations. For example, an interaction between a qubit of A
and a qubit of B can be realized by first teleporting A's qubit to B, then letting it interact with B's
qubit (which is now a LOCC operation, since both qubits are in B's lab) and then teleporting the
qubit back to A. Two maximally entangled states of two qubits are used up in this process. Thus
entangled states are a resource that enables the realization of quantum interactions (or of
quantum channels) in a setting where only LOCC are available, but they are consumed in the
process. There are other applications where entanglement can be seen as a resource, e.g., private
communication or distinguishing quantum states.[66]
Classification of entanglement
Not all quantum states are equally valuable as a resource. To quantify this value, different
entanglement measures (see below) can be used, that assign a numerical value to each quantum
state. However, it is often interesting to settle for a coarser way to compare quantum states. This
gives rise to different classification schemes. Most entanglement classes are defined based on
whether states can be converted to other states using LOCC or a subclass of these operations.
The smaller the set of allowed operations, the finer the classification. Important examples are:
 If two states can be transformed into each other by a local unitary operation, they are said
to be in the same LU class. This is the finest of the usually considered classes. Two states
in the same LU class have the same value for entanglement measures and the same value
as a resource in the distant-labs setting. There is an infinite number of different LU
classes (even in the simplest case of two qubits in a pure state).[67][68]
 If two states can be transformed into each other by local operations including
measurements with probability larger than 0, they are said to be in the same 'SLOCC
class' ("stochastic LOCC"). Qualitatively, two states and in the same SLOCC class are
equally powerful (since I can transform one into the other and then do whatever it allows
me to do), but since the transformations and may succeed with different probability, they
are no longer equally valuable. E.g., for two pure qubits there are only two SLOCC
classes: the entangled states (which contains both the (maximally entangled) Bell states
and weakly entangled states like ) and the separable ones (i.e., product states like ).[69][70]
 Instead of considering transformations of single copies of a state (like ) one can define
classes based on the possibility of multi-copy transformations. E.g., there are examples
when is impossible by LOCC, but is possible. A very important (and very coarse)
classification is based on the property whether it is possible to transform an arbitrarily
large number of copies of a state into at least one pure entangled state. States that have
this property are called distillable. These states are the most useful quantum states since,
given enough of them, they can be transformed (with local operations) into any entangled
state and hence allow for all possible uses. It came initially as a surprise that not all
entangled states are distillable, those that are not are called 'bound entangled'.[71][66]
A different entanglement classification is based on what the quantum correlations present in a

state allow A and B to do: one distinguishes three subsets of entangled states: (1) the non-local
states, which produce correlations that cannot be explained by a local hidden variable model and
thus violate a Bell inequality, (2) the steerable states that contain sufficient correlations for A to
modify ("steer") by local measurements the conditional reduced state of B in such a way, that A
can prove to B that the state they possess is indeed entangled, and finally (3) those entangled
states that are neither non-local nor steerable. All three sets are non-empty.[72]
Entropy
In this section, the entropy of a mixed state is discussed as well as how it can be viewed as a
measure of quantum entanglement.
Definition
The plot of von Neumann entropy Vs Eigenvalue for a bipartite 2-level pure state. When the
eigenvalue has value 0.5, von Neumann entropy is at a maximum, corresponding to maximum
entanglement.
In classical information theory H, the Shannon entropy, is associated to a probability distribution,
, in the following way:[73]
Since a mixed state ρ is a probability distribution over an ensemble, this leads naturally to the
definition of the von Neumann entropy:
In general, one uses the Borel functional calculus to calculate a non-polynomial function such as
log2(ρ). If the nonnegative operator ρ acts on a finite-dimensional Hilbert space and has
eigenvalues , log2(ρ) turns out to be nothing more than the operator with the same eigenvectors,
but the eigenvalues . The Shannon entropy is then:
Since an event of probability 0 should not contribute to the entropy, and given that
the convention 0 log(0) = 0 is adopted. This extends to the infinite-dimensional case as well: if ρ
has spectral resolution
assume the same convention when calculating

As in statistical mechanics, the more uncertainty (number of microstates) the system should
possess, the larger the entropy. For example, the entropy of any pure state is zero, which is
unsurprising since there is no uncertainty about a system in a pure state. The entropy of any of
the two subsystems of the entangled state discussed above is log(2) (which can be shown to be
the maximum entropy for 2 × 2 mixed states).
As a measure of entanglement
Entropy provides one tool that can be used to quantify entanglement, although other
entanglement measures exist.[74][75] If the overall system is pure, the entropy of one subsystem can
be used to measure its degree of entanglement with the other subsystems. For bipartite pure
states, the von Neumann entropy of reduced states is the unique measure of entanglement in the
sense that it is the only function on the family of states that satisfies certain axioms required of
an entanglement measure.[76]
It is a classical result that the Shannon entropy achieves its maximum at, and only at, the uniform
probability distribution {1/n,...,1/n}. Therefore, a bipartite pure state ρ ∈ HA ⊗ HB is said to be a
maximally entangled state if the reduced state of each subsystem of ρ is the diagonal matrix
For mixed states, the reduced von Neumann entropy is not the only reasonable entanglement
measure.
As an aside, the information-theoretic definition is closely related to entropy in the sense of

statistical mechanics[77] (comparing the two definitions in the present context, it is customary to
set the Boltzmann constant k = 1). For example, by properties of the Borel functional calculus,
we see that for any unitary operator U,
Indeed, without this property, the von Neumann entropy would not be well-defined.
In particular, U could be the time evolution operator of the system, i.e.,
where H is the Hamiltonian of the system. Here the entropy is unchanged.
The reversibility of a process is associated with the resulting entropy change, i.e., a process is
reversible if, and only if, it leaves the entropy of the system invariant. Therefore, the march of
the arrow of time towards thermodynamic equilibrium is simply the growing spread of quantum
entanglement.[78] This provides a connection between quantum information theory and
thermodynamics.
Rényi entropy also can be used as a measure of entanglement.
Nevertheless, on 23 January 2023, physicists reported, that, after all, there is no second law of
entanglement manipulation. In the words of the researchers, "no direct counterpart to the second
law of thermodynamics can be established".[79]
Entanglement measures
Entanglement measures quantify the amount of entanglement in a (often viewed as a bipartite)
quantum state. As aforementioned, entanglement entropy is the standard measure of
entanglement for pure states (but no longer a measure of entanglement for mixed states). For
mixed states, there are some entanglement measures in the literature [74] and no single one is
standard.
 Entanglement cost
 Distillable entanglement
 Entanglement of formation
 Concurrence
 Relative entropy of entanglement
 Squashed entanglement
 Logarithmic negativity
Most (but not all) of these entanglement measures reduce for pure states to entanglement
entropy, and are difficult (NP-hard) to compute.[80]
Quantum field theory
The Reeh-Schlieder theorem of quantum field theory is sometimes seen as an analogue of

quantum entanglement.
Applications
Entanglement has many applications in quantum information theory. With the aid of
entanglement, otherwise impossible tasks may be achieved.
Among the best-known applications of entanglement are superdense coding and quantum
teleportation.[81]
Most researchers believe that entanglement is necessary to realize quantum computing (although
this is disputed by some).[82]
Entanglement is used in some protocols of quantum cryptography,[83][84] but to prove the security
of QKD under standard assumptions does not require entanglement.[85] However, the device
independent security of QKD is shown exploiting entanglement between the communication
partners.[86]
Entangled states
There are several canonical entangled states that appear often in theory and experiments.
For two qubits, the Bell states are

These four pure states are all maximally entangled (according to the entropy of entanglement)
and form an orthonormal basis (linear algebra) of the Hilbert space of the two qubits. They play a
fundamental role in Bell's theorem.
For M>2 qubits, the GHZ state is
which reduces to the Bell state for . The traditional GHZ state was defined for . GHZ states are
occasionally extended to qudits, i.e., systems of d rather than 2 dimensions.
Also for M>2 qubits, there are spin squeezed states, a class of squeezed coherent states satisfying
certain restrictions on the uncertainty of spin measurements, which are necessarily entangled. [87]
Spin squeezed states are good candidates for enhancing precision measurements using quantum
entanglement.[88]
For two bosonic modes, a NOON state is
This is like the Bell state except the basis kets 0 and 1 have been replaced with "the N photons
are in one mode" and "the N photons are in the other mode".
Finally, there also exist twin Fock states for bosonic modes, which can be created by feeding a
Fock state into two arms leading to a beam splitter. They are the sum of multiple of NOON
states, and can be used to achieve the Heisenberg limit.[89]
For the appropriately chosen measures of entanglement, Bell, GHZ, and NOON states are
maximally entangled while spin squeezed and twin Fock states are only partially entangled. The
partially entangled states are generally easier to prepare experimentally.
Methods of creating entanglement
Entanglement is usually created by direct interactions between subatomic particles. These

interactions can take numerous forms. One of the most commonly used methods is spontaneous
parametric down-conversion to generate a pair of photons entangled in polarization.[66][90] Other
methods include the use of a fiber coupler to confine and mix photons, photons emitted from
decay cascade of the bi-exciton in a quantum dot,[91] the use of the Hong–Ou–Mandel effect, etc.
Quantum entanglement of a particle and its antiparticle, such as an electron and a positron, can
be created by partial overlap of the corresponding quantum wave functions in Hardy's
interferometer.[92][93] In the earliest tests of Bell's theorem, the entangled particles were generated
using atomic cascades.[21]
It is also possible to create entanglement between quantum systems that never directly interacted,
through the use of entanglement swapping. Two independently prepared, identical particles may
also be entangled if their wave functions merely spatially overlap, at least partially. [94]
Testing a system for entanglement

A density matrix ρ is called separable if it can be written as a convex sum of product states,
namely
with probabilities. By definition, a state is entangled if it is not separable.
For 2-Qubit and Qubit-Qutrit systems (2 × 2 and 2 × 3 respectively) the simple Peres–Horodecki
criterion provides both a necessary and a sufficient criterion for separability, and thus—
inadvertently—for detecting entanglement. However, for the general case, the criterion is merely
a necessary one for separability, as the problem becomes NP-hard when generalized.[95][96] Other
separability criteria include (but not limited to) the range criterion, reduction criterion, and those
based on uncertainty relations.[97][98][99][100] See Ref.[101] for a review of separability criteria in
discrete-variable systems and Ref.[102] for a review on techniques and challenges in experimental
entanglement certification in discrete-variable systems.
A numerical approach to the problem is suggested by Jon Magne Leinaas, Jan Myrheim and
Eirik Ovrum in their paper "Geometrical aspects of entanglement".[103] Leinaas et al. offer a
numerical approach, iteratively refining an estimated separable state towards the target state to be
tested, and checking if the target state can indeed be reached. An implementation of the
algorithm (including a built-in Peres-Horodecki criterion testing) is "StateSeparator" web-app.
In continuous variable systems, the Peres-Horodecki criterion also applies. Specifically,

Simon[104] formulated a particular version of the Peres-Horodecki criterion in terms of the
second-order moments of canonical operators and showed that it is necessary and sufficient for -
mode Gaussian states (see Ref.[105] for a seemingly different but essentially equivalent approach).
It was later found[106] that Simon's condition is also necessary and sufficient for -mode Gaussian
states, but no longer sufficient for -mode Gaussian states. Simon's condition can be generalized
by taking into account the higher order moments of canonical operators[107][108] or by using
entropic measures.[109][110]
In 2016, China launched the world’s first quantum communications satellite.[111] The $100m
Quantum Experiments at Space Scale (QUESS) mission was launched on Aug 16, 2016, from
the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in northern China at 01:40 local time.
For the next two years, the craft – nicknamed "Micius" after the ancient Chinese philosopher –
will demonstrate the feasibility of quantum communication between Earth and space, and test
quantum entanglement over unprecedented distances.
In the June 16, 2017, issue of Science, Yin et al. report setting a new quantum entanglement
distance record of 1,203 km, demonstrating the survival of a two-photon pair and a violation of a
Bell inequality, reaching a CHSH valuation of 2.37 ± 0.09, under strict Einstein locality
conditions, from the Micius satellite to bases in Lijian, Yunnan and Delingha, Quinhai,
increasing the efficiency of transmission over prior fiberoptic experiments by an order of
magnitude.[112][113]
Naturally entangled systems
The electron shells of multi-electron atoms always consist of entangled electrons. The correct
ionization energy can be calculated only by consideration of electron entanglement.[114]
Photosynthesis
It has been suggested that in the process of photosynthesis, entanglement is involved in the
transfer of energy between light-harvesting complexes and photosynthetic reaction centers where
the energy of each absorbed photon is harvested in the form of chemical energy. Without such a
process, the efficient conversion of light into chemical energy cannot be explained. Using
femtosecond spectroscopy, the coherence of entanglement in the Fenna-Matthews-Olson
complex was measured over hundreds of femtoseconds (a relatively long time in this regard)
providing support to this theory.[115][116] However, critical follow-up studies question the
interpretation of these results and assign the reported signatures of electronic quantum coherence
to nuclear dynamics in the chromophores or to the experiments being performed at cryogenic
rather than physiological temperatures.[117][118][119][120][121][122][123]
Entanglement of macroscopic objects

In 2020, researchers reported the quantum entanglement between the motion of a millimeter-
sized mechanical oscillator and a disparate distant spin system of a cloud of atoms.[124][125] Later
work complemented this work by quantum-entangling two mechanical oscillators.[126][127][128]
Entanglement of elements of living systems
In October 2018, physicists reported producing quantum entanglement using living organisms,
particularly between photosynthetic molecules within living bacteria and quantized light.[129][130]
Living organisms (green sulphur bacteria) have been studied as mediators to create quantum
entanglement between otherwise non-interacting light modes, showing high entanglement
between light and bacterial modes, and to some extent, even entanglement within the bacteria. [131]
See also
 Bound entanglement
 Concurrence (quantum computing)
 CNOT gate
 Einstein's thought experiments
 Entanglement distillation
 Entanglement witness
 ER=EPR
 Faster-than-light communication
 Multipartite entanglement
 Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent
 Pauli exclusion principle
 Quantum coherence
 Quantum computing
 Quantum discord
 Quantum network
 Quantum phase transition
 Quantum pseudo-telepathy
 Quantum teleportation
 Retrocausality
 Separable state
 Spontaneous parametric down-conversion
 Squashed entanglement
 Stern–Gerlach experiment
 Ward's probability amplitude
 Physics portal
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 Albert, David Z.; Galchen, Rivka (2009). "Was Einstein Wrong?: A Quantum Threat to
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Quantum Entanglement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. second, revised
edition (2017)
 Bub, Jeffrey (2019). "Quantum Entanglement and Information". Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. Stanford, California: Stanford University.
 Cramer JG (2015). The Quantum Handshake: Entanglement, Nonlocality and
Transactions. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-319-24642-0.
 Duarte FJ (2019). Fundamentals of Quantum Entanglement. Bristol, UK: Institute of
Physics. ISBN 978-0-7503-2226-3.
 Gühne O, Tóth G (2009). "Entanglement detection". Physics Reports. 474 (1–6): 1–75.
arXiv:0811.2803. Bibcode:2009PhR...474....1G. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2009.02.004.
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 Bhaskara VS, Panigrahi PK (2017). "Generalized concurrence measure for faithful
quantification of multiparticle pure state entanglement using Lagrange's identity and
wedge product". Quantum Information Processing. 16 (5): 118. arXiv:1607.00164.
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 Swain SN, Bhaskara VS, Panigrahi PK (2022). "Generalized entanglement measure for
continuous-variable systems". Phys. Rev. A. 105 (5): 052441. arXiv:1706.01448.
Bibcode:2022PhRvA.105e2441S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.105.052441.
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 Jaeger G (2009). Entanglement, Information, and the Interpretation of Quantum
Mechanics. Heildelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-92127-1.
 Steward EG (2008). Quantum Mechanics: Its Early Development and the Road to
Entanglement. Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-978-4.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Quantum entanglement.
 Einstein Got It Wrong, Can You Do Better?

 How Quantum Entanglement Works
 Explanatory video by Scientific American magazine
 Hanson Lab – Loophole-free Bell test ‘Spooky action at a distance’, no cheating.
 Two Diamonds Linked by Strange Quantum Entanglement
 Entanglement experiment with photon pairs – interactive
 Scientists demonstrate quantum nature of entanglement swapping
 Quantum Entanglement and Bell's Theorem at MathPages
 Audio – Cain/Gay (2009) Astronomy Cast Entanglement
 Ion trapping quantum information processing
 IEEE Spectrum On-line: The trap technique
 Spooky Actions At A Distance?: Oppenheimer Lecture, Prof. David Mermin (Cornell
University) Univ. California, Berkeley, 2008. Non-mathematical popular lecture on
YouTube, posted Mar 2008
 "Quantum Entanglement versus Classical Correlation" (Interactive demonstration)

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Quantum entanglement

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Measurements of physical properties such as position, momentum, spin, and polarization

Quantum entanglement has been demonstrated experimentally with photons,[11][12] electrons,[13][14]

As an example of entanglement: a subatomic particle decays into an entangled pair of other

Hidden variables theory

Violations of Bell's inequality

Notable experimental results proving quantum entanglement

Non-locality and entanglement

Quantum mechanical framework

1. Alice measures 0, and the state of the system collapses to .

Experimentally, a mixed ensemble might be realized as follows. Consider a "black box"

Reduced density matrices

Two applications that use them

A different entanglement classification is based on what the quantum correlations present in a

assume the same convention when calculating

As an aside, the information-theoretic definition is closely related to entropy in the sense of

In particular, U could be the time evolution operator of the system, i.e.,

where H is the Hamiltonian of the system. Here the entropy is unchanged.

Rényi entropy also can be used as a measure of entanglement.

Quantum field theory

The Reeh-Schlieder theorem of quantum field theory is sometimes seen as an analogue of

For two qubits, the Bell states are

For M>2 qubits, the GHZ state is

For two bosonic modes, a NOON state is

Methods of creating entanglement

Entanglement is usually created by direct interactions between subatomic particles. These

Testing a system for entanglement

with probabilities. By definition, a state is entangled if it is not separable.

In continuous variable systems, the Peres-Horodecki criterion also applies. Specifically,

Entanglement of macroscopic objects

Entanglement of elements of living systems

Wikiquote has quotations related to Quantum entanglement.

 Einstein Got It Wrong, Can You Do Better?

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