Quantum Mechanics - Concepts

Overview and fundamental concepts
Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical

systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-
atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with
thousands of atoms,[4] but its application to human beings raises philosophical
problems, such as Wigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole
remains speculative.[5] Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified
experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy.[note 1]
A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with

certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a
probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of a complex
number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as the Born rule, named
after physicist Max Born. For example, a quantum particle like an electron can be
described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability
amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives a probability density
function for the position that the electron will be found to have when an
experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it
cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. The Schrödinger equation
relates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time
to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.
One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in

predictability between different measurable quantities. The most famous form of
this uncertainty principle says that no matter how a quantum particle is prepared
or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a
precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for
a measurement of its momentum.
Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the

phenomenon of quantum interference, which is often illustrated with the double-slit
experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, a coherent light source, such
as a laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light
passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.[6]: 102–111
[2]: 1.1–1.8 The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the
two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result
that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.[6] However,
the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as
individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the
varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the
experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detected photon
passes through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits
(as would a wave).[6]: 109 [7][8] However, such experiments demonstrate that
particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass
through. Other atomic-scale entities, such as electrons, are found to exhibit the
same behavior when fired towards a double slit.[2] This behavior is known as wave-
particle duality.
Another counter-intuitive phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics is quantum

tunnelling: a particle that goes up against a potential barrier can cross it, even
if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.[9] In classical
mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important
consequences, enabling radioactive decay, nuclear fusion in stars, and applications
such as scanning tunnelling microscopy and the tunnel diode.[10]
When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation of quantum
entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the
whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin
Schrödinger called entanglement "...the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics,
the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought".[11]
Quantum entanglement enables the counter-intuitive properties of quantum pseudo-
telepathy, and can be a valuable resource in communication protocols, such as
quantum key distribution and superdense coding.[12] Contrary to popular
misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signals faster than light, as
demonstrated by the no-communication theorem.[12]
Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for "hidden variables",

hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum
theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum
theory can provide. A collection of results, most significantly Bell's theorem,
have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact
incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually
operates in accord with any theory of local hidden variables, then the results of a
Bell test will be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests
have been performed, using entangled particles, and they have shown results
incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables.[13][14]
It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without
introducing the actual mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics
requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but also linear algebra,
differential equations, group theory, and other more advanced subjects.[note 2]
Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum
mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples.

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Overview and fundamental concepts

Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical

A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with

One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in

Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the

Another counter-intuitive phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics is quantum

Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for "hidden variables",

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