GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

COURSE MATERIAL NO. 2

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 WHAT WILL YOU
LEARN?
This module has been
designed to help you: FEEDBACK
 Define
understand
and
the MECHANISMS
concepts of
homeostasis
 Describe the
regulation of body
temperature, body
fluids, gas
concentration and
blood pressure.
 Summarize the
importance and
advantages of
homeostasis

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When you eat, your body absorbs the glucose and carbohydrates in
your food. However, what happens inside your body when you ingest
too many carbohydrates? In this lesson, you will learn how your body
FOCUS
organs maintain internal balance. QUESTIONS


Homeostasis Why is homeostasis
important to human
body?
Any auto-regulating process that a biological system uses to
 What is the
maintain stability while continuously adjusting to surrounding
importance of
conditions is part of homeostasis. These adjustments made by the
insulin to diabetes
body are necessary for survival. When the process of homeostasis is
patients?
successful, life will continue. When it is unsuccessful, imbalance can
ensue and can lead to death. Homeostasis is defined as a self-
regulating process by which a living organism can maintain internal
stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.

Homeostasis in Cell membrane

The cell membrane is known to be semi-permeable or selective
permeable, which serves as a gatekeeper of cell; only selected
substances and particles can enter or exit the cell. The cell
membrane consists signal receptors that help in identifying
substance to be transported across the membrane. If the cell
recognizes a disruption in the steady state of a cell, signals are sent
to the nervous and endocrine system, so that an appropriate
reaction will be done to maintain the optimal condition of a cell.

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Stimulus-Response Feedback

The stimulus-response model shows the events that happen when a certain stimulus changes the
internal condition of the body. The following is a brief definition of the stimulus-response feedback
model:
1. Stimulus - a structure that produces the change
2. Receptor - a structure that detects change
3. Control center - a structure that determines the appropriate response to the stimulus
4. Effector - can be organs, glands, or tissue that are appropriate response to the stimulus.
5. Response - the outcome of the adjustment that should remove the initial stimulus.

Homeostasis relates to dynamic physiological processes that help us maintain an internal

environment suitable for normal function. Homeostasis is not the same as chemical or physical
equilibrium. Such equilibrium occurs when no net change is occurring: add milk to the coffee and
eventually, when equilibrium is achieved, there will be no net diffusion of milk in the coffee mug.
Homeostasis, however, is the process by which internal variables, such as body temperature, blood
pressure, etc., are kept within a range of values appropriate to the system. When a stimulus changes
one of these internal variables, it creates a detected signal that the body will respond to as part of
its ability to carry out homeostasis.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

This type of mechanism allows the internal condition of the body to go back to its normal or ideal
state by inhibiting or removing stimulus. As the concentration of product or substance inside the
body increases, the rate of process decreases. One good example of this type of mechanism is when
your body absorbs a lot of glucose from the food you eat. As the glucose level in your blood
increases, the receptors in your body will signal the brain to command the pancreas to secrete
insulin into the blood. Once insulin is secreted, the blood sugar level effectively decreases. When
the sugar level in your blood finally reaches homeostasis, the pancreas will then stop secreting
insulin.

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Positive Feedback Mechanism

Positive feedback mechanism is exactly the opposite of the negative feedback mechanism. Positive
feedback is amplifying or magnifying the change or output. The response effect is magnified so that
it can occur much faster. In this form of feedback, the output of the system is enhanced. A good
example of this can be observed during childbirth. As the mother labors, oxytocin is released inside
their body. Oxytocin, a hormone causes muscle contraction to speed up and intensify. An increase
in muscle contraction allows more oxytocin to be released until the baby is born.

Regulation of Body temperature

Another example is maintaining internal temperature. The human body’s temperature regulatory
center is the hypothalamus in the brain. When the hypothalamus receives data from sensors in the
skin and brain that body temperature is higher than the set point, it sets into motion the following
responses:
 Blood vessels in the skin dilate (vasodilation) to allow more blood from the warm body core
to flow close to the surface of the body, so heat can be radiated into the environment.

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  As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands in the skin are activated to increase their
output of sweat (diaphoresis). When the sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the
surrounding air, it takes the heat with it. Breathing becomes deeper, and the person may
breathe through the mouth instead of the nasal passages. This increases heat loss from the
lungs.
 When the brain’s temperature regulatory center receives data that body temperature is
lower than the set point, it sets into motion the following responses:
o Blood vessels in the skin contract (vasoconstriction) to prevent blood from flowing
close to the surface of the body. This reduces heat loss from the surface. As the
temperature falls lower, random signals to skeletal muscles are triggered, causing
them to contract. This causes shivering, which generates a small amount of heat.
o The thyroid gland may be stimulated by the brain (via the pituitary gland) to secrete
more thyroid hormones. This hormone increases metabolic activity and heat
production in cells throughout the body. The adrenal glands may also be stimulated
to secrete the hormone adrenaline. This hormone causes the breakdown of
glycogen (the carbohydrate used for energy storage in animals) to glucose, which
can be used as an energy source. This catabolic chemical process is exothermic, or
heat producing.

Regulation of body fluids

Water needs to be regulated inside our body. It is continually released

from our body through sweat and urine. However, when water is lost
in the body, dissolved solutes become more concentrated inside the
cell, thus creating high osmotic pressure. This change in osmotic
pressure is detected by osmoreceptor in the hypothalamus. Once this
happens, the hypothalamus sends a message to the nerve impulses to
activate the drinking center and the posterior pituitary gland to
release the antidiuretic hormone (ADH). In contrast, the person’s
drinking behavior is stimulated. In addition, once the ADH reaches the
kidney, the kidney will decrease the amount of water to be excreted
in the urine and increase the amount of water to put back into the
blood stream. This process will continue until the hypothalamus finally
detects the amount of water in the blood is normal. Thus, water intake
and increased reabsorption of water in the kidney help maintain the
normal amount of water in your body.

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Regulation of Gas Concentration

The body is constantly working to regulate the amount of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in
the blood stream. It is vital that the body responds to any changes in optimum levels of these gases
quickly and effectively.

The primary function of O2 is to provide our body with energy. It all happens within the cells, in
little organelles called mitochondria, which are real energy generators: they use oxygen to
transform nutrients from the digestive process into energy that can be used directly by the cell (ATP)
in a process called cellular respiration.

Gas exchange helps maintain homeostasis by supplying cells with O2, carrying away CO2 waste, and
maintaining proper pH of the blood.

Breathing (respiration) occurs due to repeated contractions and relaxation of the intercostal
muscles of the rib cage and a large muscle called the diaphragm. The rate of breathing is regulated
by the brain stem. The maintenance of consistent levels of O2 and CO2 in the blood is vital for
homeostasis and is maintained by peripheral chemoreceptors capable of detecting changes in the
partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide (PO2/PCO2).

The part of the respiratory system, along with the help of circulatory system aid in the intake of
oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide out of the body. Your body has voluntary control regarding
this process of gas exchange. Nerve impulses control the muscle and other organs of the respiratory
system. Respiratory controls lie in the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata at the brain base.

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 Regulation of Blood Pressure

Blood pressure (BP) can provide insight into the workings of the
heart and vessels of the body. BP is controlled by a variety of
complex physiological mechanisms, which allow both short-term
adaptation, and longer-term maintenance of BP within a normal
range.

Blood pressure, which is too high or too low, can lead to a wide
range of pathology (e.g. ruptured blood vessels, reduced
perfusion to organs) and therefore the mechanisms which
maintain BP homeostasis need to be happen. A healthy and
elastic blood vessel should stretch and recoil as the pressure goes
up and down, respectably. If the blood pressure is too high, it
might rupture the vessels but if it is too low, there will be an
adequate amount of oxygen and nutrients for the body.

The baroreceptor reflex is a neutrally mediated reflex that

regulates blood pressure in the short term. This reflex is crucial
for maintaining blood pressure throughout the day, and in its
absence, even a slight change in posture could lead to significant
Blood pressure can be changes in blood pressure. There are mechanoreceptors known
measured in several different as baroreceptors located in the aortic arch and carotid sinus,
ways, with the most common which constantly monitor the MABP and pulse pressure.
being systolic and diastolic Increases in arterial pressure result in increased baroreceptor
blood pressure: activity, increasing the firing rate in the associated afferent
neurons, carrying this information to the cardiovascular center in
 Systolic blood pressure the medulla.
(SBP) represents the
pressure in the blood In response to this, the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS)
vessels when the heart activity increases and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
contracts (systole). activity decreases. The net effect is reduced heart rate and
 Diastolic blood pressure systemic vasodilation, collectively reducing MABP.
(DBP) represents the
pressure in the blood Conversely, when blood pressure decreases, there is less
vessels between baroreceptor activation meaning the impulse rate of the afferent
heartbeats (diastole). fibers decreases, causing the cardiovascular center to increase
SNS outflow and decrease PSNS outflow. The net effect of this is
increased cardiac contractility, increased heart rate and increased
systemic vasoconstriction, causing an overall increase in blood
pressure.

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Regulation of Glucose
DID YOU KNOW…?
Glucose is an important sugar in the body. When combined with oxygen Blood sugar level can be
inside the cell. It produces the energy necessary to perform certain likened to human
physiological processes. Many functions in the body are based on the emotions. There are
energy sourced from glucose. Without glucose, metabolic reactions times when you are
would not occur. Therefore, glucose should be regulated, as too much happy (high) or sad
or tools of it might result in brain damage and loss of consciousness. (low).

Hormones such insulin and glucagon play important roles in regulating

blood glucose levels in the body by allowing the glucose level to
decrease or increase respectively. The pancreas and the adrenal gland
are two major organs responsible for the balance of blood glucose in
the body. Changes in the blood glucose level are perceived by the islets
of Langerhans in the pancreas. The islets of Langerhans are cells that
release the insulin and the glucagon. When there is an increase in the
blood glucose level, the islet of Langerhans secrete insulin into the
blood. Insulin is a hormone that facilitates glucose transport into the
cell. With the presence of insulin, cell membranes in the blood stream
becomes more permeable to glucose. Because of this, the glucose level
in the blood stream decreases. In addition, glucose production from
amino acids, fatty acids and glycogen is inhibited. The liver helps in
maintaining the blood glucose level by storing the excess glucose as
glycogen. Once the blood glucose level returns to normal, the release
of insulin by the pancreas is inhibited.

On the other hand, if the blood glucose level decreases, the pancreas
detects this change and secretes glucagon. Glucagon is a hormone
produced by the pancreas that raises the blood glucose level by
stimulating the breakdown of glycogen into glucose and by allowing
glucose production from amino acid and fatty acid. The liver also break
down the stored glycogen to be secreted as blood glucose. When the
blood glucose level returns to normal, the secretion of glucagon is
inhibited.

Insulin and glucagon have contrasting and antagonistic effects. Insulin

inhibits the increase of glucose in the blood, whereas glucagon
promotes its production. Their counteracting effects help maintain
homeostasis in the blood glucose level.

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 UNDERSTANDING CHECK
LEARNING ACTIVITY
INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY

The objective of this activity is to understand the mechanism of negative feedback.

Directions: Observe the data on the leading causes of death in the Philippines, then answer the given
guide questions below.
DATA
Leading causes of Death
NUMBER OF DEATH RATE PER POPULATION OF 100 000
in PH
TOTAL MALE FEMALE TOTAL MALE FEMALE
1. Heart disease 83081 47259 35822 95.5 108 82.9
2. Vascular system disease 55466 30869 24597 63.8 706 56.9
3. Malignant neoplasm 43043 22472 20571 49.5 51.4 47.6
4. Pneumonia 34958 17166 17792 40.2 39.2 41.2
5. All form of tuberculosis 25860 17862 7997 29.7 40.8 18.5
6. Chronic lower
21216 14715 6501 24.4 33.6 15
respiratory disease
7. Diabetes mellitus 20239 9819 10421 23.3 22.4 24.1
8. Perinatal period 12334 7425 4909 14.2 17 11.4
9. Nephritis, nephrotic
11981 7107 4874 13.8 16.2 11.3
syndrome and nephrosis
10. Road traffic accident 6866 5380 1486 7.9 12.3 3.4

Guide Questions:
1. Based on the statistics, why is diabetes ranked seventh?
2. What is the total number of deaths for those who suffered from diabetes?
3. If the total rate of diabetes reaches 40, what will be its ranking among the diseases?
4. Describe the purposes of the negative feedback mechanism based on the diseases listed in the
table.
5. Elaborate more examples of physiological processes, not listed above, regulated by negative
feedback mechanisms. (Cite 2 examples.)

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 SUMMARY
 Homeostasis is the body's attempt to maintain a constant and balanced internal
environment, which requires persistent monitoring and adjustments as conditions change.
 The feedback loops are called positive and negative feedback.
 In negative feedback, a signal is increased and then decreased - this returns the level of the
signal to its set point.
 In positive feedback increases and then is amplified even further.
 Labor contraction during childbirth is positive feedback since the initial contraction of the
uterine muscle leads to further contractions. Rather than inhibiting the contraction, the
body tends to produce more contractions. During labor, the posterior pituitary gland
releases oxytocin, which stimulates muscle contraction. At child delivery, oxytocin release is
further augmented, intensifying muscle contractions until the neonate is pushed outside the
birth canal.
 The alpha cells produce and secrete glucagon whereas the beta cells, insulin. Glucagon and
insulin are hormones from the pancreas that regulate glucose concentration in the blood.
Insulin, in particular, lowers blood sugar levels by inciting the skeletal muscles, and the fat
tissues to take up glucose from the bloodstream.

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 KEY TERMS
 HOMEOSTASIS
 FEEDBACK MECHANISM
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 STIMULUS
 RESPONSE
 REGULATION

REFERENCES
Printed Materials:
Hoefnagels, M. (2016) Biology: The Essentials, Second Edition [General Biology: Books I and II].
Abiva Publishing House, Inc. (Copyright 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education)
Mirabete, G.S. (2020) General Biology 2: Second Edition. Makati City, Philippines, Diwa Learning
Systems, Inc.

E-readings:
 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-
cycle/feedback/a/homeostasis
 https://www.britannica.com/science/homeostasis

CONTRIBUTOR(S)
SETH BRYAN M. CABRIJAS
VERNIESE L. CHEN
JAMIE S. DELOS SANTOS
PAUL D. GONZALES
MELANIE I. PASCUAL

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