Communication

Networks including the Internet

Networking devices are interconnected devices that allow a fast means of data transmission within
the network.

Networking benefits:

• File sharing - you can easily share data between different interconnected devices
• Resource sharing - using network-connected output devices like printers, or can share the
same software within the network
• Higher storage - can store files in network-connected storage mediums.

LAN(Local Area Network) vs. WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN WAN
Network that connects devices within a small Network that connects devices within a larger
geographical area geographical area
Only private ownership Private or public ownership
Transmission medium: twisted pair cable, Transmission medium: PSTN / dedicated lines
coaxial cable or Wi-Fi Microwave / cellular or satellite link
Higher data transfer rate upto 10 Gbps Lower data transfer rate Typically upto 1Gbps
Lesser congestion Higher congestion

Client-server Model

Server based network: dedicated server provides an application (administration of users, security
and resources) for the client computer to utilize

Client-server Applications

Printer: manages print jobs from client computers

File Sharing: the client accesses software and user’s data files stored on the server

Proxy server

Email server: for sending, receiving & storing emails

Database server: manages DBMS

Domain controller server

• Management of user accounts (IDs & passwords)

• Client sends login request to server which processes and grants request if user ID &
password recognized
Thin Clients vs. Thick Clients

Thin Clients Thick Clients

A client that solely runs on the resources An independent client that does not require the
provided by the server and has no local storage server to run
Only provides input and receives output; Thick client processes most of the application
processing done by server
Lower purchase cost: expensive, demanding Expensive hardware but can function even if no
hardware is not required server is connected (works offline)
Improved security: cannot run unauthorized, No lag related to network problems
harmful software

Peer-to-peer network model (P2P)

Decentralised network where each connected computer stores data and operates independently as
a ‘peer’, and can act as both a client & server.

Applications: Internet and Ad hoc networks

Client-server vs. Peer-to-peer models

Client-server Peer-to-peer
Centralized backup Lesser initial setup cost
Files & resources centralized in server: prevents Lesser network traffic: each peer can
illegal resource usage simultaneously receive data from different
sources
Improved security: files are stored on central Can work even if a device goes down, but
server which would be regularly scanned for Client-server model can’t work if server goes
malware down

Network Topologies

Bus

Single line (bus) connecting all devices with terminators at each end.

Other computers can read the data being sent from one to another computer.

Unsuitable for heavy traffic since collisions occur.

Star

Consists of a central server (‘Switch’) and all other computers connected with a dedicated
connection to each, hence server can send packets to different devices simultaneously and bi-
directionally.

No collisions possible.

Mesh

Network setup where every device (node) is directly interconnected to the each of the other devices
(nodes)

It is commonly used for wireless networks (such as the Internet), via the mesh connection of routers

Hybrid

Combination of two or more topologies.

E.g. when there is a connection between 2 or more LANs of different topologies

Wired Networks: use (copper (twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable or fibre-optic) cables connected to
an Ethernet port on the network router

Benefits Drawbacks
Less expensive and easier to Copper Cable Doesn’t perform well with small
install; Flexible ; Easier to make charges.Affected by
terminations electromagnetism

Greater bandwidth ; Improved Fiber-Optic Cables Needs expensive optical

security; Lightweight: easy to transmitters and receivers.
install ; Less signal boosting
required; used in long distance
comm.

Wireless Networks: use radio waves (including WiFi), microwaves, satellites to connect devices to
networks without cables.

Benefits Drawbacks
Can travel over large distances Radio waves Low frequency so transmits less
since they have largest range of data at one time.; Subject to
wavelength; Relatively interference from other sources
inexpensive.Used for TV signals of RF
& mobile phone comms.
Greater bandwidth, can transfer Micro-waves Emitting towers expensive to
more data per unit time build ; Physical obstacles can
interfere
Cheap with long distance; Used Satellites Subject to interference and
for Satellite phones, satellite weather ; Expensive, High
radio broadcast Latency

Ethernet

• Most common wired medium of transmission, that can be used to transfer data between
LANs or WANs
• Usually used in bus topology; since all data travelled on a single wire there is a possibility of
data corruption by the “collision” of signals
• This collision is prevented by the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision
Detection) method:
o Before transmitting, device checks if channel is busy
o If busy, device calculates a random wait time and waits that time, after which it
begins transmission
o Then during transmission, the device listens for other devices also beginning
transmission
o If collision, transmission is aborted and both devices wait different random times,
then tried again
Bit Streaming

Sequence of digital signals (bits) transferred over a communication path at high speeds

Requires a fast broadband connection and some form of buffers (short-term memory)

Bits arrive in the same order they are sent

Bit rate: number of bits transmitted per second

Two methods of bit streaming:

Real-time On-demand
Event captured live via video camera that is Existing digital files converted to
connected to a computer encoded bit-streaming format for
broadcasting on the internet by
uploading to a dedicated server
Video signal converted to an encoded A link for encoded video is placed
streaming video signal on website and the user clicks on
link to view encoded streaming
video

Encoded video signal uploaded from computer The data is streamed to a buffer
to a dedicated streaming server via cables or in user’s computer and the buffer
high-speed wireless internet connection stops the video from being
paused as the bits are streamed
Server then sends live images to all users As the buffer is emptied, it’s filled
requesting it as a real-time video again thus providing continuous
viewing .
Cannot be paused, fast-forwarded, etc. Can be paused, fast-forwarded,
etc but depending on the buffer
size, may have to re-download
content from server
Importance of high broadband speed / bit-rate

User has to download and display bits at same time

If media is of higher quality, then higher broadband speed needed since each “frame” is of a larger
size

Real-time needs faster server broadband speeds as compared to on-demand, since there are a
greater number of users simultaneously requesting same data

Cloud Computing

Refers to the on-demand provision of computing services through the internet

Services provided include

Infrastructure: Storage capacity and higher processing power

Platform: Software, testing & debugging resources

 Public cloud private cloud
3rd-party cloud service provider grants access A private cloud is owned by one organization
to multiple parties, accessible via a browser and is not shared with any other organization
Cloud service provider owns, develops and The private cloud can either be created and
manages the public cloud through large server maintained by the organization itself or it can
farms outsource these tasks to a third-party

Benefits and drawbacks of cloud computing

Benefits Drawbacks
Relatively little technical knowledge required Cannot access the resources/data stored on the
and easy to implement cloud, if there are bandwidth issues
Flexibility: Cloud Can Be Scaled to Match the Poor data privacy, since there may be data
Organization’s Growth leakage in the multi-tenant architecture (public
clouds)

World Wide Web (WWW)

• Collection of web pages stored on websites

• Protocols are used to transmit data across the WWW

Internet (Interconnected network)

• Massive, open network of networks

• Uses TCP/IP protocol, which uses IP addresses to identify devices connected to the internet
• Access provided by Internet Service Provider
• Communication used: wired, radio and satellite

Router in a network

• Connects two networks together which may operate on different protocols

• Allows internal connections between LANs OR allows external connection from the main
LAN to a WAN
• Router acts as gateway & firewall
• Usually will be attached to server or switch in a LAN
• Router translates private IP addresses to public IP addresses AND vice versa.

LAN-supporting hardware

• Switch: Connected to all devices in a LAN and can simultaneously broadcast information to
all devices
• Server: device/software provides specific function for computers in the network
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
o Provides each device (an end-system) in the wired LAN with a unique (MAC) address
to uniquely identify it on the network
o Allows each individual device to connect to network
• Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC): Provides each end-system of a wireless (WiFi) LAN
a unique network address to identify it.
• Wireless Access Points (WAP):
o Allows devices to connect to the LAN via WiFi (wireless radio communication) instead of
using a cable
o Usually built into home / commercial routers
• Cables: A wired transmission medium that allows communication in wired networks
• Bridge
o Connects two LANs which work use the same protocol, which can be two segments of
the same network
o Stores network addresses for all devices (end-systems) between the 2 networks
o A bridge looks for the receiving device before it sends the message.
• Repeater
o Connects two cables / wireless networks
o regenerates the sent data signal over the same network before the signal weakens
(attenuation) to prevent it from being corrupted

Internet-supporting hardware

• Modems
o Allows a device to connect to the Internet via a telephone line. It’s a D2A and an A2D
converter to allow digital data to be sent over an analog telephone line.
o A transmitter uses a modem to convert digital signals (from the transmitting device)
to analogue signals that are then sent down the telephone line.
o A receiver uses a modem on the other end to convert the analogue signals to digital
signals so the receiving device can understand the data.
• PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)
o Refers to all telephone networks
o Channel used between 2 endpoints for the call duration via circuit switching
o Lines active even during power outage
o Bi-directional communication
• Dedicated lines
o Telecommunication path between endpoints
o Not shared with multiple users; it’s bought/leased
o Able to host websites as well as carry phone calls
o Allows continuous, uninterrupted access on Web
• Cell phone network
o Wireless network spread over land areas divided into (hexagonal) ‘cells’
o Each cell is served by at least one base station (transceiver), which uses a different
frequency range, as compared to adjacent cells, to transmit data
o Larger capacity possible since same frequencies can be used, in non-adjacent cells
o Radio waves are usually used for transmission
o Can be broadcast in all directions over a wide area
o Portable transceivers (e.g. mobile phones) are able to communicate and access
internet via base stations
 IPv4 IPv6
32 bit address, split into 4 blocks by “.” 128 bit address divided into eight 16-bit blocks
by “:”
Each block could have a value between 0 and Each block can have 4 hex values ranging from
255 (00 to FF in hex). 8 Bit blocks. 0000 to FFFF
255.0.1.255 2001 : db8: 3333 : 4444 : 5555 : 6666 : 7777 :
8888. 2001 : db8 : 3333 : 4444 : CCCC : DDDD :
EEEE : FFFF.

• IPv4 functionality
o each IP address has 2 parts:
o Network Identifier (netID)
o Identifies the network to which the host (device) is connected to
o Host Identifier (hostID): Identifies the host within the network
o ‘Classfull’ addressing used for IPv4 where different bit lengths for identification and
impose restrictions on available address
• Subnetting
o Practice of dividing a network into two or more networks
o IP addresses are broken down to 3 parts by not changing the netID but partitioning
the host ID into a subnet ID and host ID
o These subnet ID bits are used to identify each subnet within the network.
o Subnet masks are numbers that hides (masks) the netID of a system's IP address and
leaves only the host part as the machine identifier, allowing data to be routed within
the subnet to the appropriate host.
• Public and Private IP address
o Public IP is provided by the ISP while Private IP issued by the LAN’s router
o Public IP is unique and can be across the internet whereas Private IP is only unique
within LAN and hence can only be accessed within LAN
o NAT (Network address translation) required for private IP addresses to access
internet directly.
o Private IP more secure than public IP, since they are not directly accessible on the
Internet and are hidden by NAT
o Range of IP addresses used for private IP addressing can never be assigned to public
IP addresses
• Static vs. Dynamic IP addresses

Static Dynamic
IP address never changes. IP address will change at regular time periods.
Static IP addresses are useful when websites Dynamic IP address is relatively more secure,
need to remember a device for a long time. Eg. hence used where data privacy is important
VPNs whitelisting
Faster upload/download speeds Maintaining cost of dynamic IP address is lesser
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

• Unique reference address for the exact location of an internet resource on the WWW

• Protocol: enables browser to know what protocol is used to access info in domain

o Hostname: Domain name

o Location of server: path

Domain Name Service (DNS)

o naming system used for computers or resources having internet connection

o Consists of a hierarchy of DNS servers which have a URLs database of and their
corresponding IP addresses