6.rainfall Runoff

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MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART ANT

TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I

CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I
1
WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I: SURFACE WATER

• Surface water is water stored or flowing on the earth's surface.
• The surface water system continually interacts with the
atmospheric and subsurface water systems
• watershed, or catchment, is the area of land draining into a stream
or river at a given location.
• suppose that precipitation of a constant rate begins and continues
indefinitely on a watershed
• Initially, a large proportion of the precipitation contributes to surface storage',
• as water infiltrates into the soil, there is also soil moisture storage: retention
and detention',
• retention is storage held for a long period of time and depleted by evaporation,
and detention is short-term storage depleted by flow away from the storage
location.
• As the detention storages begin filling, flow away from them occurs: unsaturated
flow through the unsaturated soil near the land surface, groundwater flow
through saturated aquifers deeper down, and overland flow across the land
surface.
CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I 2
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Schematic illustration of the disposal of precipitation during a storm on a watershed.

 Rainfall Runoff Relationships
Precipitation
Rainfall Snow
Surface
Wetting Ground Evaporation
storage
Depression storage Run off
Infiltration Run off
Bank storage Interflow Percolation
Run off
Seepage
Storage
Run off
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RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS
CATCHMENT, BASIN, WATERSHED
Entire area of a river/stream basin whose surface runoff (due to a storm) drains into the
river/stream as hydrologic unit
5
• The watershed boundary (Divide) defines a contiguous area,
such that the net rainfall or runoff over that area will
contribute to the outlet
• The rainfall that falls outside the watershed boundary will not
contribute to runoff at the outlet
• Watersheds are characterized in general, by one main
channel and by tributaries that drain into main channel at
one or more confluence points
• A “divide” or “drainage divide” is the line drawn through the
highest elevated points within a watershed
• Divide forms the limits of a single watershed and the
boundary between two or more watersheds
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• Surface water divide –highest elevation line between
basins (watersheds) that defines the perimeter and
sheds water into adjacent basins, and,
• Subsurface water divide –which refers to faults, folds,
tilted geologic strata (rock layers), etc., that cause sub-
surface flow to move in one direction or the other.
CATCHMENT, BASIN, WATERSHED:
CHARACTERISTICS
• Size: It helps in computing parameters like rainfall received, retained,
amount of runoff etc.
• Shape: Based on the morphological parameters such as geological
structure e,g. peer or elongated
• Slope: Reflects the rate of change of elevation with distance along the
main channel and controls the rainfall distribution and movement
• Drainage: Determines the flow characteristics and the erosion behaviour
• Soil type: Determines the infiltration rates that can occur for the area
• Land use and land cover: It can affect the overland flow of the rainwater
with the improve in urbanization and increased pavements.
• Main channel and tributary characteristics: It can effect the stream flow
response in various ways such as slope, cross-sectional area, Manning’s
roughness coefficient, presence of obstructions and channel condition
• Physiography: Lands altitude and physical disposition
• Socio-economics: Depends on the standard of living of the people and it
is important in managing water
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Definitions
 RUNOFF
• Runoff is the drainage of precipitation from a catchment, which flows through its
drainage system.
• This occurs when the infiltration capacity of an area’s soil has been exceeded.
• Surface runoff is assumed to take two components: Channel precipitation and
interflow.
• Channel precipitation is that portion of total catchment precipitation that flows
directly through small natural channels on the land surface to main drainage
channels.
• A streamflow or discharge hydrograph is a graph or table showing the flow rate as
a function of time at a given location on the stream.
• The hydrograph is "an integral expression of the physiographic and climatic
characteristics that govern the relations between rainfall and runoff of a particular
drainage basin"
• Two types of hydrographs are particularly important: the annual hydrograph and
the storm hydrograph
DEFINITIONS
Interflow are a part of infiltrated rainwater which

flows parallel to land surface as sub surface flow,
and reappears on the surface at certain other
points.
 The contribution of base flow to stream discharge
Base flow represents discharge of aquifers, changes
occur slowly and there is a lag between cause and
effect and that can easily extend to periods of days
or weeks.
This will depend on transmissibility of aquifers
bordering the stream and climate.
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Definitions
An influent stream (Fig 13.1) is one where base flow

is negative.
The stream feeds the ground water instead of
receiving from it e.g. irrigation channels.
The negative contribution is taking place at the
expense of contributing aquifers on other parts of
the stream, since there can be no baseflow from a
wholly influent stream.
Such a stream will dry up completely in rainless
periods and is called Ephemeral stream.
11
Definitions
Influent Stream
High water level
Low water level
seepage seepage
lines Ground water lines
recharge
G.W.T Ground water mound
Influent streams
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Definitions
 An Effluent stream (Fig13.2) is fed by ground water

and acts as a drain for bordering aquifers.
Bank storage
High water level
G.W.T
G.W.T
Low water level

Ground water feeds
Ground water feeds
the stream(Base flow)
the stream(Base flow)
Effluent streams
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Definitions
 Bank storage - portion of runoff in a rising flood that is

absorbed by the permeable boundaries of a watercourse
above the normal phreatic surface.
 Rainfall Excess and Effective Rainfall

Rainfall Excess: If the initial loss and infiltration losses are
subtracted from total rainfall, the remaining portion of rainfall
is called rainfall excess.
Effective rainfall is that portion of rainfall, which causes direct
runoff. Direct runoff includes both surface runoff and
interflow, effective rainfall is slightly greater than rainfall
excess.
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FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
 Factors affecting Runoff

The factors affecting runoff from a catchment may be
broadly classified into:
1. Climatic factors
2. Physiographic factors
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 Climatic Factors
i. Form of precipitation
ii. Intensity of precipitation
iii. Duration of precipitation
iv. Rainfall distribution over the catchment
v. Direction of storm movement
vi. Antecedent precipitation
vii. Season
viii. Frequency
ix. Meteorological factors – Temperature, Wind velocity,
humidity and pressure
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 Physiographic Factors
i. Type of soil
ii. Land use and vegetation
iii. Area of Basin
iv. Shape of catchment
v. Altitude of the catchment
vi. Slope of the catchment
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METHODS OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF
 Methods of Estimating Runoff

i. Empirical Formulae, curves and tablesPeak
runoff
ii. Infiltration Method methods
iii. Rational method

iv. Hydrographs
v. Graphical correlation
vi. Mathematic Models
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 Peak runoff models only estimate peak runoff and are

required for:
i. Design of culverts & bridges,
ii. Evaluation of flooding potential and
iii. Design of storm water conveyance structures such as
sewer pipes.
21
 Continuous-runoff models are used to estimate the entire

runoff hydrograph from rainfall excess after initial
abstraction, infiltration and depression storage have
been taken into account.
 Continuous - runoff models are used in design of
reservoirs for stormwater management systems.
 The Unit Hydrograph Method is the most widely used
method for estimating the runoff hydrograph of a
catchment.
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1. Empirical Formulae, curves and tables
Precipitation is related to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to R
= aPn
23

1. Empirical Formulae, curves and tables
Precipitation is related by to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to
R = aPn
2. Infiltration Methods
Infiltration is the process of water penetrating from the ground surface
into the soil.
Many factors influence the infiltration rate, including
the condition of the soil surface and its vegetative cover,
the properties of the soil, such as its porosity and hydraulic conductivity, and
the current moisture content of the soil.
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1.

E m p i ric al Form ulae, c urves a nd tables
Precipitation is related by to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to R = aP n

a saturated zone near the surface,
a transmission zone of unsaturated flow and fairly uniform moisture
content,
a wetting zone in which moisture decreases with depth, and a wetting
front where the change of moisture content with depth is so great as to
give the appearance of a sharp discontinuity between the wet soil above
and the dry soil below.
25
1.


1. Hortons Method - infiltration begins at some rate fo and exponentially
decreases until it reaches a constant rate fc
2. Philips Equation
parameter called sorptivity, which is a function of
the soil suction potential, and K is the hydraulic
conductivity
A small tube with a cross-sectional area of 40 cm2 is filled with soil and laid horizontally. The
open end of the tube is saturated, and after 15 minutes, 100 cm3 of water have infiltrated
into the tube. If the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 0.4 cm/h, determine how
much infiltration would have taken place in 30 minutes if the soil column had initially been
placed upright with its upper surface saturated.
3. Green and Ampt (1911) proposed the simplified picture of infiltration shown
• The wetting front is a sharp boundary dividing soil of moisture content θi below
from saturated soil with moisture content η above.
• The wetting front has penetrated to a depth L in time t since infiltration began.
• Water is ponded to a small depth ho on the soil surface. 26
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1.


1. Hortons Method - infiltration begins at some rate fo and exponentially
decreases until it reaches a constant rate fc
2. Philips Equation
parameter called sorptivity, which is a function of
the soil suction potential, and K is the hydraulic
conductivity
A small tube with a cross-sectional area of 40 cm2 is filled with soil and laid horizontally. The
open end of the tube is saturated, and after 15 minutes, 100 cm3 of water have infiltrated
into the tube. If the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 0.4 cm/h, determine how
much infiltration would have taken place in 30 minutes if the soil column had initially been
placed upright with its upper surface saturated.
• Water is ponded to a small depth ho on the soil surface. 27
1.


1. H ortons Method - infiltration begins at some rate f o and exponentially decreases until it reaches a constant rate f c
2. Philips Equation
• Water is ponded to a small depth ho on the soil surface.
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3, RATIONAL METHOD
 Rational Method
• Consider a drainage basin which has rainfall of uniform
intensity and of long duration.
• On plotting the relationship between cumulative runoff
rate against time, the rate of runoff shows a gradual
increase from zero to a constant value as shown in
Figure overleaf
The runoff increases with increase in flow from the remote areas of
the basin to its outlet.
If the rainfall continues beyond the time of concentration, then
there is no further increase in the runoff, and it remains constant at
its peak value.
When the rainfall stops the hydrograph goes into a recession
period. 29
RATIONAL METHOD
Runoff hydrograph due to uniform rainfall
End of rainfall
Qp
Direct runoff, Q
Recession
period
Tc
Time
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RATIONAL METHOD
The relationship for peak runoff rate is expressed as:
Qo  CIA
Where:
C = coefficient of runoff/rainfall
I = intensity of rainfall
A= area of the catchment (drainage basin)
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RATIONAL METHOD
Steady State Runoff
• Consider a flat, fully pervious rectangular
catchment of area, A.
• A depth of rain, i, falls in a time t.
• If there were also an impervious wall along the
edges of the catchment, with no drainage
channels,
• this rain would simply build up over the area to a
depth, i. And the volume of water would be i x A.
• Imagine that the runoff is flowing into a drainage
channel inlet at point X with steady state
conditions:
• water landing in the area and flowing away at the
same rate.
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RATIONAL METHOD
The sewer will carry the volume of rain (i x A) at a steady,

constant rate over the time (t) of the rainfall.
So the flow rate Q
And since the intensity of rain , then
iA i
Q I
Since catchments
t are not fully impervious,t and there will be
Q  IA
initial and continuing losses, the runoff coefficient C can
is introduced, to give
Q  CIA
33
RATIONAL METHOD
Adjusting for commonly used units gives:
Where;
Q  2.78CIA
Q = Peak runoff rate (m3/s)
I = rainfall intensity (mm/h)
A = Catchment area (ha)
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RATIONAL METHOD
Runoff Coefficient
• The dimensionless runoff coefficient C is the proportion
of rainfall that contributes to runoff from the surface.
• The coefficient accounts for
• the initial runoff losses (depression, storage,)
• continuing losses (surface infiltration) and
• implicitly accounts for the hydrodynamic effects encountered as the water flows over
the catchment surface.
• C is dependent on soil type, vegetation, geology etc as

shown
35
RATIONAL METHOD
Type of Catchment Range of Values of C

Impermeable Areas 0.8 – 1.0
Bare, Slightly permeable 0.6 – 0.8
Cultivated/vegetation 0.4 – 0.6
Absorbent soils 0.3 – 0.4
Sandy Soils 0.2 – 0.3
Forest 0.1 – 0.2
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RATIONAL METHOD
Time of Concentration (tc)

• It is defined as the time required for the surface runoff
to flow from the remotest part of the catchment area to
the point under consideration.
• Each point in the catchment has its own time of
concentration.
• As shown in figure, it has two components, namely the
overland flow time known as the time of entry, te, and
the channel or sewer flow time, the time of flow tf.
37
RATIONAL METHOD
Thus
tc te t f
Catchment
te
Sewer or
drainage pipe
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RATIONAL METHOD
For mixed Land uses the catchment is divided into number

of sub catchments with known times of concentration
A 4-hour rainfall of intensity 1 cm/hr falls over a fern leaf
catchment as shown below. C attains a constant value of
0.8 after 3 hours. Determine discharge
1st hour c = 0.5
2nd hour c = 0.6
3rd hour c = 0.7
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RATIONAL METHOD
• Time of entry: The time of entry will vary with catchment

characteristics such as surface roughness, slope, and
length of flow paths together with rainfall characteristics.
• Time of flow: Time of flow is calculated from the sewer
length and velocity of flow in the sewers.
• For determination of time of concentration the most
widely used formula is the equation given by Kirpich
(1940). However, for small drainage basins, the lag time
for peak flow can be taken to be equal to the time of
concentration.
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RATIONAL METHOD
The Kirpich formula is given as:

Tc  0.01947L0.77S0.385
Where:
Tc = time of concentration (min)
L = maximum length of travel of water (m)
S = slope of the drainage basin = H/L
H = difference in elevation between the most remote
place in the basin and the outlet (m)
The lag/concentration time can be determined by
Synder’s equation used for determination of synthetic
unit hydrographs.
41
RATIONAL METHOD
Nomographs from which Tc can be obtained are also

available and T peak can also be read off. Tc can also be
obtained from:
Tc  0.0194(k)0.77
Where;
k L / H
3
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RATIONAL METHOD
Critical Rainfall Intensity

• The rainfall intensity that causes the catchment to
operate at steady state needs to be known.
• This should give the maximum flow from the catchment.
• The basis of the Rational method is an engineering
worst case.
• The duration of the storm must be at least the time of
concentration; otherwise the maximum flow would not
be reached.
43
RATIONAL METHOD
Fig 13.6a Less than tc Fig13.6b Greater than tc
Rainfall
intensity
Flow
tc Tim e
Time
Figure shows a hydrograph resulting from Figure shows a hydrograph from the same
uniform rainfall with duration less than time catchment resulting from the same rainfall
of concentration. but with infinite duration
The formula for intensity of rainfall is expressed as:
I  KTra /  (Tc  b)n 
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RATIONAL METHOD
Where:
I= intensity of rainfall
Tr= recurrence interval
And a,b,n are constants
 Limitations of Rational Method

i. The Rational Formula follows the assumptions
that:
ii. The predicted peak discharge has the same
probability of occurrence (return period) as the
used rainfall intensity (I),
iii. The runoff coefficient (C) is constant during the
rain storm, and
iv. The recession time is equal to the time of rise.
45
RATIONAL METHOD
 Example 13.1
A catchment has an area of 6.0 km2. The average slope of
the land surface is 0.007 and the maximum travel depth
of rainfall in the catchment is approximately 2.05 km.
The maximum depth of rainfall in the area with a return
period of 25 years is tabulated below:
Time duration (min) 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 60
Rainfall depth (mm) 13 26 30 46 52 55 58 66
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RATIONAL METHOD
Consider that 2.1 km2
of the catchment area has cultivated
sandy loam soil (C=0.3) and 3.9 km2 has light clay
cultivated soil (C=0.7). Determine the peak flow rate of
runoff by using the Rational method.
 Solution
The time of concentration is given by Kirpich’s equation;
Tc  0.01947L0.77 s  0.385 = 46.67 min
The maximum rainfall depth for 46.67 min duration would fall between the period
40-60 min and is located at 6.67 min after the 40 min period at which the
maximum rainfall depth is 60 mm, as per the available data.
The rainfall depth during the 6.67 min period = = 2.7 mm
Therefore, at 46.67 min duration, the rainfall depth = 58 + 2.7 = 60.7 mm
47
RATIONAL METHOD
Therefore, at 46.67 min duration, the rainfall depth = 58 +

2.7 = 60.7 mm
The average rainfall intensity (during the period of time of
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
concentration) =
𝑻𝒄
= 78.04 mm/h
Runoff coefficient, C = = 0.56
Q= 2.78CIA =2.78x0.56x78.04 = 72.9m3/s
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HYDROGRAPHS
 Hydrographs
• A hydrograph is a graphical representation of the
relationship of stage, discharge, velocity or any other
property of flowing water with respect to time in a
drainage channel or stream.
• Rainfall intensity, concentration of rainfall, succession
of storms, abnormal groundwater recession pattern and
similar other causes determine peak characteristics of
a hydrograph.
49
TYPES OF HYDROGRAPHS
i. Natural hydrograph—obtained directly from the flow records
of a gauged stream/river
ii. Synthetic hydrograph—obtained by using catchment
parameters and storm characteristics to simulate a natural
hydrograph
iii. Unit hydrograph—a discharge hydrograph resulting from 1
mm (or 1 inch) of direct runoff distributed uniformly over the
watershed resulting from a rainfall of a specified duration
The fundamental principles of invariance and superimposition make the
unit graph an extremely flexible tool for developing synthetic hydrographs.
These principles are:
• Principle of Invariance—the hydrograph of surface runoff from a
watershed resulting from a given pattern of rainfall is constant
• Principle of superimposition—the hydrograph resulting from a given
pattern of rainfall excess can be built up by superimposing the unit
hydrographs because of the separate amounts of rainfall excess
occurring in each unit period; includes the principle of proportionality by
which the ordinates of the hydrograph are proportional to the volume of
rainfall excess
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HYDROGRAPHS
A typical single peaked hydrograph can be divided into four

limbs as shown in Fig 13.3, which are:
i. The approach limb, AB
ii. The rising limb, BC
iii. The crest segment, CE
iv. The recession limb, EG
On June 1, 2019 the discharge in a stream was measured as 80 m3/s. Another measurement on
June 21, 2019 yielded a stream discharge of 40 m3/s. There was no rainfall in the catchment from
April 15, 2019. Estimate the recession coefficient.
51
Rainfall shown
3 in mm, as a
bar graph
Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4
1 3
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
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Discharge in
3 m3/s, as a
line graph
Discharge (m3/s) 2
mm
4
1 3
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
The rising
3 flood water in
the river
Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4
1 3
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
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Peak flow Maximum

3 discharge in
the river
Discharge (m3/s) 2
mm
4
1 3
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Peak flow
Falling flood
3 water in the
river
Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4
1 3
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
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Basin lag time

Peak flow Time difference
3 between the peak
of the rain storm
and the peak flow
Discharge (m3/s) 2
of the river
mm
4
1 3
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Basin lag time

Peak flow
Normal
3 discharge of
the river
Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4
1 3
2
Base flow
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
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Overland flow
Basin lag time
Peak flow +
3 Through flow
Discharge (m3/s) Overland

=
2 flow Storm Flow
mm
4 Through flow
1 3
2
Base flow
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Overland flow Through flow
Volume of Volume of water

water reaching reaching the river
the river from through the soil and
surface run off underlying rock
layers
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Hydrograph Element & Component
Net Rainfall
Rising Limb
Crest
Falling Limb
Recession
Base Flow
Direct Runoff (DRO)
Rising Limb HYDROGRAPHS

• Also known as concentration curve – represent the increase in discharge due to gradual
building up of storage in channel and the catchment surface
• The initial losses and high infiltration losses during the early period of storm cause the
discharge to rise rather slowly in the initial periods. As the storm continues, more and more
flow from distant parts reach the basin outlet.
• Simultaneously the infiltration losses also decrease with time.
• The basin and storm characteristics control the shape of rising limb of a hydrograph
Crest Segment
• One of the mosty important parts of a hydrograph as its contain peak flow.
• The peak flow occur when the runoff from various parts of the catchment simultaneously
contribute amounts to achieve the maximum amount of flow at basin outlet.
• Large catchment area- peak flow occurs after the cessation (end) of rainfall, the time interval
from the centre of mass of rainfall to the peak.
• Being control by basin and storm characteristics.
• Estimation of peak flow and occurance –very important in flood studies.
Recession Limb/Curve
• Extent from the point of infection at the end of the crest segment to the commencement of the
natural groundwater flow represent the withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the
basin during the earlier phase of hydrograph.
• The starting point- represent the condition of maximum storage.
• Since the depletion of storage takes place after cessation of rainfall, the shape of this part
independent of storm characteristics and depend entirely on the basin characteristics.
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HYDROGRAPHS: BASE FLOW SEPARATION

• The surface-flow hydrograph is obtained from the total storm
hydrograph by separating the quick-response flow from the slow
response runoff.
• It is usual to consider the interflow as a part of the surface flow in
view of its quick response.
• Thus only the base flow is to be deducted from the total storm
hydrograph to obtain the surface flow hydrograph.
• Three Methods:-
1. joining with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point
on the recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff
2. base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of the surface
runoff is extended till it intersects the ordinate drawn at the peak
3. base flow recession curve after the depletion of the flood water is
extended backwards till it intersects the ordinate at the point of inflection
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• Three Methods:-
Point A represents the beginning of

the direct runoff off and it is usually
easy to identify in view of the sharp
change in the runoff rate at that
point. Point B, marking the end of
the direct runoff is rather difficult to
locate exactly.
An empirical equation for the time
interval N (days) from the peak to the
point B is 𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝑨𝟎.𝟐
A is drainage area in km2 and N is in
days
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• Three Methods:-
This point C is joined to point B by a

straight line. Segment AC and CB
demarcate the base flow and surface
runoff..
An empirical equation for the time

interval N (days) from the peak to the
point B is 𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝑨𝟎.𝟐
A is drainage area in km2 and N is in
days
Page 65

• Three Methods:-
This is line EF. Points A and F are joined by

an arbitrary smooth curve.
The surface runoff hydrograph obtained

after the base-flow separation is also known
as direct runoff hydrograph (DRH).
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• The following are the ordinates of the hydrograph of flow from a
catchment area of 770 km2 due to a 6-h rainfall. Derive the
ordinates of DRH. Make suitable assumptions regarding the base
flow.
Time from beginning of storm (h) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Discharge (m3/s) 42 65 215 360 400 350 270
Time from beginning of storm (h) 42 48 54 60 66 72
Discharge (m3/s) 205 145 100 70 50 42
From given data, base flow =

42 m3/s at 72 h
Page 67

Time from
beginning Discharge Base flow DRH
of storm DRH =
Flood Hydrograph – Base flow
h m3/s m3/s m3/s
0 40 42 -2
6 65 42 23
12 215 42 173
18 360 42 318
24 400 42 358
30 350 42 308
36 270 42 228
42 205 42 163
48 145 42 103
54 100 42 58
60 70 42 28
66 50 42 8
72 42 42 0
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The daily stream flow data at a site having a drainage area of 6500 km2
are given in the following table. Separate the base flow using the above
three methods. Time (days)
Discharge
(m3/s)
1 1600
2 1550
3 5000
4 11300
5 8600
6 6500
7 5000
8 3800
9 2800
10 2200
11 1850
12 1600
13 1330
14 1300
15 1280
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HYETOGRAPHS
Effective rainfall (also known
as Excess rainfall) (ER) is that
part of the rainfall that
becomes direct runoff at the
outlet of the watershed. It is
thus the total rainfall in a
given duration from which
abstractions such as
infiltration and initial losses
are subtracted.
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HYETOGRAPHS
A 4-hour storm occurs over an 80 km2 watershed. Calculate the
runoff from catchment and the hourly distribution of the effective
rainfall whole catchment. The details of the catchment are as
follows:
Sub
Φ index Hourly rain (mm)
Area
km2 mm/h 1st hour 2nd hour 3rd hour 4th hour
15 10 16 48 22 10
25 15 16 42 20 8
35 21 12 40 18 6
5 16 15 42 18 8
Page 71
HYETOGRAPHS
Total runoff = 2.46Mm3
Hourly distribution of the
effective rainfall for the whole
catchment:
Effective rainfall
(mm)
1st hour 1.4375
2nd hour 25.375
3rd hour 0
4th hour 3.9375
Page 72
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HYETOGRAPHS
A storm in a certain catchment had three successive 6-h intervals of
rainfall magnitude of 3.0 cm, 5.0 cm and 4.0 cm, respectively. The
flood hydrograph at the outlet of the catchment resulting from this
storm is as follows:
Time (h) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
Flood hydrograph ordinates (m3/s) 30 480 2060 4450 6010 6010 5080 3996
Time (h) 48 54 60 66 72 78
Flood hydrograph ordinates (m /s) 2866 1866 1060 500 170
3 30
If the area of the catchment is 8791.2 km2, estimate the index of the storm. Assume the base flow
as 30 m3/s.
Page 73
FACTORS AFFECTING HYDROGRAPH SHAPE
Page 74
30/09/2020

a) Shape of the Catchment
• Influence the time taken for water from remote parts of the
catchment to arrive at the outlet.
• Thus the occurence of the peak and hence the shape of the
hydrograph are affected by the basin shape.
• Fan-shape catchment-give high peak and narrow hudrograph
while elongated shape give broad and low-peaked hydrograph
Page 75

b) Size of basin
• Small catchment-overland flow is predominant over the channel
flow. Hence the land use and rainfall intensity have important role
on peak flow.
• Large catchment-channel flow phase is more predominant.
c) Slope
• Slope - control the velocity of flow in channel
• Stream channel slope will effect the depletion storage.
• Large stream slope- quicker depletion storage and result steeper
recession limbs of hydrograph.
Page 76
30/09/2020

d) Drainage Density
Drainage Density- a ratio of the total channel length
to the total drainage area.
Page 77

e) Land Use/Land Cover
Vegetation and forest increase the infiltration and storage capacities
of the soils, and further cause retardance to overland flow- Human
factors
Vegetation reduce the peak flow (area < 150 km2)
f) Climatic factor/meteorological factor
Climatic factors affecting shape of hydrograph
rainfall intensity and pattern
Areal distribution of rainfall over the basin
size and duration of storm event
Page 78
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HYDROGRAPH METHOD
• A hydrograph represents runoff as it varies over time at a
particular location within the watershed.
• The area integrated under the hydrograph represents the
volume of runoff.
• Estimation of a runoff hydrograph, as opposed to the peak
rate of runoff, is necessary for watersheds with complex
runoff characteristics.
• The hydrograph method also should be used when storage
must be evaluated, as it accounts explicitly for volume and
timing of runoff.
• The hydrograph method has no drainage area size
limitation.
• It is applicable for watersheds in which tc is longer than
the duration of peak rainfall intensity of the design storm.79
HYDROGRAPH METHOD
1. Define the temporal and spatial distribution of the
desired design storm.
2. Specify appropriate loss model parameters to
compute the amount of precipitation lost to other
processes, such as infiltration, and does not run off
the watershed.
3. Specify appropriate parameters to compute runoff
hydrograph resulting from excess (not lost)
precipitation.
4. If necessary for the application, specify appropriate
parameters to compute the lagged and attenuated
hydrograph at downstream locations.
80
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

 The Unit Hydrograph
Unit Hydrograph (UH) is a hydrograph of direct runoff
resulting from one unit of effective rainfall uniformly
distributed over the basin at a uniform rate during the
specified period of time known as unit time or unit
duration.
81
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

Unit Quantity
1. effective rainfall 1 mm or 1 cm
2. Unit Duration 1 Hour 2 hours 3 hours etc but less than time of concentration
The unit hydrograph method is based on the following assumptions:
1. Effective rainfall is constant over the catchment during the unit time.
2. Effective rainfall should be uniformly distributed over the basin
3. The ordinates of the unit hydrograph are directly proportional to the effective
rainfall hyetograph ordinate.
4. The direct runoff hydrograph for a given effective rainfall for a catchment is
always the same irrespective of when it occurs.
 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph.
• The unit hydrograph theory cannot be applied to catchment areas
greater than 5000km2, because for larger areas, the rainfall is not
uniformly distributed and it does not remain constant.
82
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THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 Uses of Unit Hydrographs

i. Once a unit hydrograph for a duration tr has been developed
for a basin, the storm hydrograph for that basin for any other
storm of different intensity but the same duration can be
easily developed.
ii. The unit hydrograph may be used for the development of
maximum flood hydrograph from the maximum rainfall for
the design of spillways and larger hydraulic structures.
iii. The available stream flow records can be extended using
the rainfall records, which are generally available for a
longer period.
iv. The unit hydrograph can be used for flood forecasting and
flood warning based on the observed rainfall in the basin.
83
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The unit hydrograph cannot be applied if the major portion of

the storm is in the form of snow.
 Elements of a Unit Hydrograph
• Base width (T) - period of direct surface runoff (due to a unit
storm) of the unit hydrograph is called time base or base
width.
• Unit storm – storm of unit duration (i.e. duration of the unit
hydrograph) regardless of its intensity is called unit storm.
• Unit period – time duration of unit storm (i.e. duration of the
unit hydrograph) is called unit period.
• Lag time (tp) - time from the centre of a unit storm to the
peak discharge of corresponding unit hydrograph is called
lag time.
• Recession time (Tr) - duration of direct surface runoff after
end of excess or net rainfall.
84
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THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

Elements of a unit hydrograph
85
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH: DERIVATION
 Derivation of a Unit Hydrograph

The following data are required for deriving a unit
hydrograph:
i. Recorded hydrograph of the storm runoff
ii. Recorded storm rainfall data
iii. Average depth of rainfall
86
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
6. The ordinates of the direct hydrograph are divided

by the depth, d, of direct runoff to compute the
ordinates of the unit hydrograph.
Example
Time (Hrs) Direct Discharge (m3/s) Effective Rainfall
0 0 0
multiplying the ordinates of 6 5 2
12 15 4
the hydrograph by the 18 50 3
corresponding rainfall 24 120
amounts. Since the rainfalls 30 201
of 2 cm, 4 cm and 3 cm occur 36 173
42 130
in successive 6-hour 48 97
intervals, the derived DRH 54 66
corresponding to each rainfall 60 40
is delayed by 6 hours 66 21
72 9
appropriately.
78 3.5
84 2
This means that in the first 6 hours, 2cm excess rainfall has been
87
recorded, 4cm in the next 6 hours, and 3cm in the next.
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Example
88
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 Example 13.2
The ordinate of a 5-hour hydrograph over a catchment are:
Time (hr) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
m3/s 0 10 40 110 150 170 120 70 50 35 10 0
Derive the flood hydrograph in the catchment due to the

storm given below.
Time from start of storm (hrs) 0 5 10 15
Accumulated rainfall (cm) 0 7.65 8.5 12.15
89
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
-index is 0.33cm/hr with a constant base flow of 40 m3/s.

Determine the effective rainfall.
 Solution:
Serial no. of Time intervals in Cumulative Rainfall Infiltration during Excess

5hr interval hrs from the start rainfall (cm) during interval (cm) rain (cm)
interval
(cm)
1 0-5 7.65 7.65 1.65 6.0
2 5-10 8.50 0.85 0.85 0
3 10-15 12.15 3.65 1.65 2.0
90
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Time Unit Hydrograph of Hydrograph of Total Total

from Hydrograph 6cm rain 2cm rain Hydrograph Hydrograph +
start Ordinates Base flow
0 0 0 0 40
5 10 60 60 100
10 40 240 0 240 280
15 110 660 20 680 720
20 150 900 80 980 1020
25 170 1020 220 1240 1280
30 120 720 300 1020 1060
35 70 420 340 760 800
40 50 300 240 540 580
45 35 210 140 350 390
50 10 60 100 160 200
55 0 0 70 70 110
91
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The peak flow, i.e. the largest is used in the design =

1280 m3/s.
 T-Hour Unit Hydrograph (TUH)
In a linear time-invariant system analysis, a unit
volume-block input of excess rainfall of duration T
(h) is transformed into a T (h) unit hydrograph.
The period T (h) determines shape of the unit
hydrograph. If T (h) decreases, intensity (1/T)
increases, due to which the unit hydrograph gets
more skewed.
92
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 S-Curves
An S-curve is a hydrograph of direct runoff, which
occurs due to a continuous effective rainfall of 1cm
every T hours of uniform intensity of (1/T) cm per
hour. S-Curve
T-h Unit
Discha hydrographs
rge
(m3/s)
Time h
93
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The S-Curve is obtained by adding together a series

of unit hydrograph of T duration, each unit
hydrograph lagged by T hours with respect to the
previous unit hydrograph as shown in Fig 13.8.
94
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Rainfall Intensity, 1/T , cm/h
Rainfall excess for S-Curve S1
Rainfall excess for S-Curve S2
Discharge,
m3/s
1 cm
Curve S1
T’-h
(S1-S2) Curve S2
(S1-S2) T /T ’
T’-h Unit hydrograph
T’
Time, h
Fig 13.9 Derivation of a T’-h unit hydrograph by the

subtraction method of S-curves
95
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
S-curve is given by the sequential accumulation of

ordinates of the T1UH.
T1UH represents the surface runoff hydrograph
caused an effective rainfall of intensity 1/T1 mm/h
applied indefinitely.
If a T2UH is required, the S curve is plotted at a
distance T2 from the first S-Curve.
S1-S2 the difference between the two S curves
displaced by T2 then represents the surface runoff
from 1/T1 x T2.
96
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
∆St=difference between ordinates of the two S- Curves

from surface runoff hydrograph produced in the T2 hr by
an effective rainfall of T2/T1 as shown in Fig 13.9.
The T2 h hydrograph will be given by ∆St/1/ (T2/T1) or T1/T2
x∆St.
It may be noted that the S-curve attains a constant
discharge (Qe), at the end of the base period T of the first
unit hydrograph.
97
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Thus the number of unit hydrographs to be combined is (T/

tr) and not infinite as one might expect.
The equilibrium discharge is given by: where A is
catchment area (km2) and tr is duration of unit
hydrograph (hours).
98
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Changing the duration of a unit hydrograph

Procedure
Draw 1hr UH.
Offset abscissa by 1hr, and make S curve additions
Add (1) and (2) to obtain the S curve.
Offset the S curve by 1/2hr (by interpolation)
Obtain the difference (3) - (4)
From the relationship (S2 – S1)/(T2/T1) or S T1/T2, we have T2
= ½ T1 = 1
S T1/T2 = Sx2
99
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 Example 13.3
Given the 1hr UH derive the ½ hr UH.
Time 1hr UH S-curve S-curve S-curve offset Difference Sx
(m3/s) additions by 1/2 hrs (3)-(4)= S 2
0 0 0 0 0
1 0.66 0 0.33 0 0.33 0.66
0.66 0.33 0.33 0.66
2 0.80 0.66 1.06 0.66 0.40 0.80
1.46 1.06 0.40 0.80
3 0.99 1.46 1.95 1.46 0.49 0.98
2.45 1.95 0.50 1.00
4 0.72 2.45 2.81 2.45 0.36 0.72
3.17 2.81 0.36 0.72
5 0.49 3.17 3.41 3.17 0.24 0.48
3.66 3.41 0.25 0.50
6 0.10 3.66 3.71 3.66 0.05 0.10
3.76 3.71 0.05 0.10
3.76 3.76
100
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Example 13.4
Given the 1hr UH, derive the 3hr UH.
Time 1hr UH S-curve S-curve S-curve offset difference ST1/T2

(m3/s) additions by 3 hrs (3)-(4)= S
0 0 0
1 0.66 0 0.66 0.66 0.22
2 0.8 0.66 1.46 1.46 0.47
3 0.99 1.46 2.45 0 2.45 0.82
4 0.72 2.45 3.17 0.66 2.51 0.84
5 0.49 3.17 3.66 1.46 2.20 0.73
6 0.1 3.66 3.76 2.45 1.31 0.44
3.76
101
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The unit hydrograph for effective rainfall of duration T is

then plotted, and area under the curve is checked to see
if the enclosed volume is equivalent to unit effective
rainfall over the area of catchment.
When all the single-peaked storms have been analyzed and
a corresponding number of unit hydrographs obtained, it
will be noted that no two are identical, though they will all
have the same general shape.
102
30/09/2020
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
One way that an average unit hydrograph may be

constructed is by;
Taking the arithmetic means of peak flows (Up) and
times to peak (Tp),
Plotting the average peak at the appropriate mean
value of Tp, and
Drawing the hydrograph to match the general shapes of
individual unit hydrographs.
The resulting average unit hydrograph is then checked
to ensure that the enclosed volume of runoff equivalent
to a unit of effective rainfall.
103
THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
For rainfall bar graphs of complex pattern, a more

sophisticated rainfall separation procedure is needed.
At the beginning of a storm there could be considerable
interception of rainfall and initial wetting of surfaces before
the rainfall becomes ‘effective’-that is, begins to form
surface runoff.
The loss-rate is dependent on the state of the catchment
before the storm and is difficult to assess quantitatively.
104

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30/09/2020

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART ANT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I: SURFACE WATER

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I: SURFACE WATER

CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I 3

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I: SURFACE WATER

Depression storage Run off

Infiltration Run off

Bank storage Interflow Percolation

Interflow are a part of infiltrated rainwater which

An influent stream (Fig 13.1) is one where base flow

High water level

Low water level

G.W.T Ground water mound

 An Effluent stream (Fig13.2) is fed by ground water

High water level

Low water level

 Bank storage - portion of runoff in a rising flood that is

 Rainfall Excess and Effective Rainfall

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I: SURFACE WATER

CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I 15

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I: SURFACE WATER

CIV 3204 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I 16

FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

 Factors affecting Runoff

FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

METHODS OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF

 Methods of Estimating Runoff

iii. Rational method

METHODS OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF

 Peak runoff models only estimate peak runoff and are

METHODS OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF

 Continuous-runoff models are used to estimate the entire

METHODS OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF

METHODS OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF

Precipitation is related by to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to R = aP n

Precipitation is related by to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to R = aP n

Precipitation is related by to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to R = aP n

Precipitation is related by to runoff by formulae ranging from R = aP + b to R = aP n

Runoff hydrograph due to uniform rainfall

The relationship for peak runoff rate is expressed as:

The sewer will carry the volume of rain (i x A) at a steady,

Adjusting for commonly used units gives:

• C is dependent on soil type, vegetation, geology etc as

Type of Catchment Range of Values of C

Time of Concentration (tc)

For mixed Land uses the catchment is divided into number

• Time of entry: The time of entry will vary with catchment

The Kirpich formula is given as:

Nomographs from which Tc can be obtained are also

Critical Rainfall Intensity

Fig 13.6a Less than tc Fig13.6b Greater than tc

 Limitations of Rational Method

Rainfall depth (mm) 13 26 30 46 52 55 58 66

Therefore, at 46.67 min duration, the rainfall depth = 58 +

Q= 2.78CIA =2.78x0.56x78.04 = 72.9m3/s