Chapter - 2

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL CAPACITANCE

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:- the potential difference between two points in an electric
field may be defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one
point to the other against the electrostatic forces.
consider a point charge + q located at a point O. Let A and B be two points in its electric field.
When a test charge 𝑞0 , is moved from A to B, a
work 𝑊𝐴𝐵 , has to be done in moving against the
repulsive force exerted by the Source +q. Then the
potential difference between points A and B is given
by
𝑾𝑨𝑩
V = 𝑽𝑩 - 𝑽𝑨 =
𝒒𝟎

SI unit of potential difference :-

𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
Potential difference =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆

𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
S.I. unit of P.D. = = volt
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
1volt =
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃

1volt Potential Difference:-The potential difference between two points in an electric

field is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work has to be done in moving a positive charge of
1 coulomb from one point to the other against the electrostatic forces .
Electric potential:- The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the
amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point
against the electrostatic forces.
𝑊
if the point A lies at infinity, then 𝑉𝐴 = 0, so that V = 𝑉𝐵 = where W is the
𝑞0
amount of work done in moving the test charge 𝑞0 , from infinity to the point B and V
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
refers to the potential at point B Electric potential =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

SI unit of electric potential is volt (V). The electric potential at a point in an electric
field is said to be 1 volt if one joule of work has to be done in moving a positive
charge of 1 coulomb from infinity to that point against the electrostatic forces.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A
POINT CHARGE :- Consider a positive
point charge q placed at the origin O. We
wish to calculate its electric potential at a
point P at distance r from it.
Suppose a test charge 𝑞0 , is placed at point A at distance x from O. By Coulomb's
law, the electrostatic force acting on charge 𝑞0 , is
1 𝑞𝑞 0
F= .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑥2

This force F acts away from the charge q. The small work done in moving the test
charge 𝑞0 , from A to B through small displacement 𝑑𝑥 gainst the electro- static force
is

dW = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 = Fdx cos 180° = - Fdx

The total work done in moving the charge 𝑞0 , from infinity to the point P will be
 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑞𝑞 0
W= 𝑑𝑊 = - 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = . dx
∞ ∞ ∞ 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑥2

𝑞𝑞 0 𝒓 −𝟐 𝑞 𝑞0 𝟏 𝒓
=- 𝒙 dx = - −
4𝜋𝜖 0 ∞ 4𝜋 𝜖 0 𝒙 ∞

𝑞𝑞 0 𝟏 𝟏
= −
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝒓 ∞

1 𝑞𝑞 0
= .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟

Hence the electric potential at point P, is

𝑾 1 𝑞
V= = .
𝒒𝟎 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟

Clearly, V 𝛼1/r.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT ANY POINT
DUE TO A DIPOLE:-
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two
point charges –q and + q and separated by
distance 2a. We wish to determine the potential
at a point P at a distance r from the centre O, the
direction OP making an angle 𝜃 with dipole
moment 𝑝. Let AP = 𝑟1 , and BP = 𝑟2 .
Net potential at point P due to the dipole is
V = 𝑉−𝑞 + 𝑉+𝑞
1 −𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑞 1 1
= . + . = −
4𝜋 𝜖 0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2 𝑟1

𝑞 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
V =
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟1 𝑟2

If the point P lies far away from the dipole, then

𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ≈ ABcos𝜃 ≈ 2a cos𝜃 and 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 ≈ 𝑟 2 hence
 𝑞 2a cos 𝜃
V= .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2

𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜽
V= .
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐

1 pr cos 𝜃 1 p .r
V= . = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟3

Special Cases
(1) At axial point :-When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole, 𝜃 =0° or
180°, and
𝟏 𝐩
V =± .
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐

i.e., the potential has greatest positive or the greatest negative value.
(2) At equatorial point :- When the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole,
𝜃 =90°, and V =0, i.e., the potential at any point on the equatoríal line of the dipole is
zero. However, the electric field at such points is non-zero.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF
CHARGES:-
Suppose N point charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 ……𝑞𝑁 lie at distances ,
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 ……𝑟𝑁 from a point P.
Electric potential at point P due to charge 𝑞1 , is
1 𝑞1
𝑉1 = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟1
Similarly, electric potentials at point P due to other charges will be
1 𝑞2 1 𝑞3 1 𝑞𝑁
𝑉2 = . , 𝑉3 = . , 𝑉𝑁 = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟𝑁

As electric potential is a scalar quantity, so the total potential at point P will be equal to the
algebraic sum of all the individual potentials, ie,
V = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + …………+ 𝑉𝑁
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝑵
= + + …….+
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝒓𝑵

𝟏 𝑵 𝒒𝒊
V= 𝒊=𝟎 𝒓
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒊
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A
UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN
SPHERICAL SHELL:- Consider a
uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R
and carrying charge q. We wish to calculate
its potential at point Pat distance r from its
entre O
(i) When the point P lies outside the shell:-
We know that for a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field outside the
shell is as if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre. Hence electric potential at
an outside point is equal to that of a point charge located at the centre, which is given
by
1 𝑞
V= . (For r> R]
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟

(ii) When point P lies on the surface of the shell :-Here r = R.Hence the potential
on the surface of the shell is
1 𝑞
V= . [For r= R]
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑅
(iii) When point P lies inside the shell:- The electric field at any point inside the
shell is zero. Hence electric potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is
constant everywhere inside the shell and its value is equal to that on the surface. Thus
1 𝑞
V= . [For r < R] 4TE, R Figure 2.9 shows the
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑅
variation of the potential V due to a uniformly charged spherical shell with distance r
measured from the centre of the shell. Note that V is constant (=g/4ne, R) from r=0 to
r= R along a horizontal line and thereafter V∝1/r for points outside the shell
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC
FIELD AND POTENTIAL:- consider the
electric field due to charge +q located at
the origin O. Let A and B be two adjacent
points separated by distance dr. The two
points are so close that electric field E between them remains almost constant. Let V and V+ dV
be the potentials at the two points.
The external force required to move the test charge 𝑞0 (without acceleration) against the electric
field E is given by 𝐹 = - 𝑞0 𝐸
The work done to move the test charge from A to B is W = F. dr = -qo E. dr
Also, the work in moving the test charge from A to B is W = Charge x potential difference
= 𝑞0 (𝑉𝐵 - 𝑉𝐴 ) = 𝑞0 𝑑𝑉
Equating the two works done, we get -qo E. dr = 𝑞0 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑉
Or E = -
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉
The quantity is the rate of change of potential with distance and is called potential gradient.
𝑑𝑟
Thus the electric field at any point is equal to the negative of the potential gradient at that point.
The negative sign shows that the direction of the electric field is in the direction of decreasing
potential.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES :-
Any surface that has same electric potential at
every point on it is called an equipotential
surface. The surface may be surface of a body
or a surface in space.
Properties of equipotential surfaces :
1. No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.

Let A and B be two points over an equipotential surface. If the test charge 𝑞0 is
moved from A to B the work done will be
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = Charge x potential difference
= 𝑞0 (𝑉𝐵 - 𝑉𝐴 )
As the surface is equipotential, so 𝑉𝐵 - 𝑉𝐴 = 0
Hence 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0.
2. Electric field is always normal to the equipo- tential surface at every point.
If the field were not normal to the equipotential surface, it would have a non-zero
component along the surface. So to move a test charge against this component, a
work would have to be done. But there is no potential difference between any two
points on an equipotential surface and consequently no work is required to move a
test charge on the surface. Hence the electric field must be normal to the equipotential
surface at every point. 3. Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the regions
of strong field and farther apart in the regions of weak field.
We know that electric field at any point is equal to the negative of potential gradient
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
at that point i.e. E=- or dr = -
𝑑𝑟 𝐸
For the same change in the value of dV i.e. when dV = constant, we have
1
dr α Thus the spacing between the equipotential surfaces will be
𝐸
smaller in the regions, where the electric field is stronger and vice versa.
4. No two eguipotential surfaces can intersect each other. If they interesect, then
there will be two values of electric potential at the point of intersection, which is
impossible.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES OF VARIOUS
CHARGE SYSTEMS
(i) Equipotential surfaces of a positive point
charge. The electric potential due to a point charge q
at distance r from it is given by
1 𝑞
V= . This shows that V is constant if r is
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑅
constant. Thus, the equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric
spherical shells with their centres at the point charge,
As the lines of force point radially outwards, so
they are perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces at all points.
(ii) Equipotential surfaces of two equal and
opposite point charges : Equipotential surfaces
are close together in the region in between the two
charges.
(iii) Equipotential surfaces of two equal
positive charges. The equipotential surfaces are
far apart in the regions in between the two
charges, indicating a weak field in such regions.
(iv) Equipotential surfaces for a uniform
electric field. The lines of force are parallel
straight lines and equipotential surfaces are
equidistant parallel planes perpendicular to the
lines of force.

Importance of equipotential surfaces. Like the lines of force, the equipotential

surfaces give a visual picture of both the direction and the magnitude of field E in a
region of space. If we draw equipotential surfaces at regular intervals of V, we find
that equipotential surfaces are closer together in the regions of strong field and
farther apart in the regions of weak field. Moreover, E is normal to the equipotential
surface at every point.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
ENERGY :-The electric
potential energy of a system
of point charges may be
defined as the amount of
work done in assembling the charges at their locations by bringing them in, from infinity.
Potential energy of a system of two point charges:- Suppose a point charge 𝑞1 is at rest at a
point 𝑃1 in space. It takes no work to bring the first charge 𝑞1 because there is no field yet to
work against.
𝑊1 = 0
Electric potential due to charge 𝑞1 at a point 𝑃2 , at distance 𝑟12 , from𝑃1 will be
1 𝑞1
V= .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12

If charge 𝑞2 is moved in from infinity to point 𝑃2 the work required is

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊2 = Potential x charge V x 𝑞2 = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12

As the work done is stored as the potential energy U of the system

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
U = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12
Potential energy of a system of three point charge:-
Initially consider all the charges are at infinity. Potential at
point 𝑃1 ,
𝑉1 = 0
Work done in bringing 𝑞1 charge from infinity to point 𝑃1
𝑊1 = 𝑉1 x 𝑞1 = 0
Now potential at point 𝑃2 due to charge 𝑞1
1 𝑞1
𝑉2 = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12

Work done in bringing 𝑞2 charge from infinity to point 𝑃2

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊2 = 𝑉2 x 𝑞2 = .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12

Now potential at point 𝑃3 due to charge 𝑞1 and 𝑞2

1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑉3 = . + .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟13 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟23
Work done in bringing 𝑞3 charge from infinity to point 𝑃3
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑊3 = 𝑉3 x 𝑞3 = . + . x 𝑞3
4𝜋 𝜖 0 𝑟13 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟23

1 𝑞1 𝑞3 1 𝑞2 𝑞3
. + .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟13 4𝜋 𝜖 0 𝑟23

As the work done is stored as the potential energy U of the system

U = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞3 1 𝑞2 𝑞3
=0+ . + . + .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12 4𝜋 𝜖 0 𝑟13 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟23

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞3
U = + +
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟12 𝑟23 𝑟13
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE
IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD :-
Consider an electric dipole placed in a
uniform electric field 𝐸 with dipole
moment 𝑝 making an angle 𝜃 with the
field.

Two equal and opposite forces + q𝐸 and -q𝐸 acts on its two ends. The two forces
form a couple. The torgue exerted by the couple will be
𝜏= qE x 2a sin 𝜃 = pE sin 𝜃
where q x 2a = p, is the dipole moment,
If the dipole is rotated through a small angle d𝜃 against the torque acting on it, then
the small work done is
dW = 𝜏 d𝜃 = pE sin𝜃 d𝜃
The total work done in rotating the dipole from its orientation making an angle 𝜃1 ,
with the direction of the field to 𝜃2 will be
𝜃2 𝜃2
W= 𝜃1
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜃1
𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= pE − cos 𝜑𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1

= pE cos 𝜑𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2
This work done is stored as the potential energy U of the dipole.
U = pE cos 𝜑𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2
If initially the dipole is oriented perpendicular to the direction of the field (𝜃1 =90°)
and then brought to some orientation making an angle 𝜃 with the field (𝜃2 = 𝜃) then
potential energy of the dipole will be
U = pE (cos 90° - cos 𝜃) = pE (0 - cos 𝜃)

U = - pE cos 𝜃 = -𝑝.𝐸
Special Cases 1
Position of stable equilibrium:- When 𝜃 =0°,
U = -pE cos 0° = - pE
Thus the potential energy of a dipole is minimum when its dipole moment is parallel to the
external field. This is the position of stable equilibrium.
2. Position of zero energy. When 𝜃 =90°,
U = -pE cos 90° = 0.
Thus the potential energy of a dipole is zero when it is held perpendicular to the external field.
This can be explained as follows.
If we hold the dipole perpendicular to the electric field and bring it from infinity into the
field, then the work done on charge +q by the external agent is equal to the work done on
charge -q. The net work done on the dipole will be zero and hence its potential energy is zero.
3. Position of unstable equilibrium. When 𝜃 =180°,
U =- pE cos 180° = + pE
Thus the potential energy of a dipole is maximum when its dipole moment is antiparallel to the
external field. This is the position of unstable equilibrium.
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS:-Conductors. These are the substances which allow
large scale physical movement of electric charges through them when an external electric field
is applied. For example, silver, copper, aluminium, graphite, human body, acids, alkalies, etc.
Insulators. These are the substances which do not allow physical movement of electric
charges through them when an external electric field is applied. For example, diamond, glass,
wood, mica, wax, distilled water, ebonite, etc.
FREE AND BOUND CHARGES :-The difference between the electrical behaviour of
conductors and insulators can be understood on the basis of free and bound charges.
In metallic conductors, the electrons of the outer shells of the atoms are loosely bound to the
nucleus. They get detached from the atoms and move almost freely inside the metal. In an
external electric field, these free electrons drift in the opposite direction of the electric field.
The positive ions which consist of nuclei and electrons of inner shells remain held in their
fixed positions. These immobile charges constitute the bound charges.
In electrolytic conductors, both positive and negative ions act as charge carriers. However,
their movements are restricted by the external electric field and the electrostatic forces between
them.
In insulators, the electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei and cannot be detached from the
atoms, i.e., charges in insulators are bound charges. Due to the absence of free charges,
insulators are poor conductors of electricity.
BEHAVIOUR OF CONDUCTORS IN
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS:-
Electrostatic properties of a conductor. When placed
in electrostatic fields, the conductors show the
following properties :
1. Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of a
conductor. When a conductor is placed in an electric
field 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 its free electrons begin to move in the
opposite of 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 . Negative charges are induced on the left end and positive charges
are induced on the right end of the conductor. The process continues till the electric
field 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 set up by the induced charges becomes equal and opposite to the field
𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 . The net field 𝐸 (=𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 - 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 ) inside the conductor will be zero.
2. Just outside the surface of a charged conductor, electric field is normal to the
surface. If the electric field is not normal to the surface, it will have component
tangential to the surface which immediately cause the flow of charges, producing
surface currents. But no such currents can exist under static conditions. Hence
electric field is normal to surface of the conductor at every point.
3. The net charge in the interior of a conductor
is zero and any excess charge resides at its
surface. , Consider a conductor carrying an
excess charge q with no currents flowing in it.
Choose a Gaussian surface inside the conductor
just near its outer boundary. As the field E = 0 at
all points inside the conductor, the flux ∅𝐸
through the Gaussian surface must be zero. According to Gauss's theorem,
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜖0

As 𝜙𝐸 = 0 so q = 0
Hence there can be no charge in the interior of the conductor because the Gaussian
surface lies just near the outer boundary. The entire excess charge q must reside at
the surface of the conductor.
4. Potential is constant within and on the surface of a conductor. Electric field at
any point is equal to the negative of the potential gradient, i.e.
𝑑𝑉
E=-
𝑑𝑟

But inside a conductor E =0 and moreover, E has no tangential component on the

surface, so
𝑑𝑉
= 0 or V = constant
𝑑𝑟

Hence electric potential is constant throughout the volume of a conductor and has
the same value (as inside) on its surface. Thus the surface of a conductor is an
equipotential surface. If a conductor is charged, there exists an electric field normal
to its surface. This indicates that the potential on the surface will be different from
the potential at a point just outside the surface.
5. Electric field at the surface of a charged
conductor is proportional to the surface charge
density. Consider a charged conductor of irregular
shape. Let 𝜎 be the surface charge density at any point
its surface.
To determine E at this point, we choose a short
cylinder (pill box) as the Gaussian surface about this
point. The pill box lies partly inside and partly outside
the conductor. It has a cross-sectional area ∆S and negligible height. Electric field is zero
inside the conductor and just outside, it is normal to the surface. The contribution to the total
flux through the pill box comes only from its outer cross-section. 𝜙𝐸 = E ∆S
Charge enclosed by pill box, q = 𝜎 ∆S
𝑞 𝜎 ∆S
By Gauss's theorem, 𝜙𝐸 = =
𝜖0 𝜖0

𝜎 ∆S 𝜎
E ∆S = or E =
𝜖0 𝜖0

As 𝐸 points normally outward, so we write

𝜎
𝐸= 𝑛 where 𝑛 is a unit vector normal to the surface in the outer direction.
𝜖0
6. Electric field is zero in the cavity of a hollow charged
conductor. Consider a charged conductor having a cavity, with
no charges inside the cavity. Imagine a Gaussian surface inside
the conductor quite close to the cavity. Everywhere inside the
conductor, E=0. By Gauss's theorem, charge enclosed by this
Gaussian surface is zero (E=0 ⇒ q=0). Consequently, the electric
field must be zero at every point inside the cavity (q=0⇒ E =0). The entire excess charge +q
lies on its surface.
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING The phenomenon of making a region free from any
electric field is called electrostatic shielding. It is based on the fact that electric field vanishes
inside the cavity of a hollow conductor.
Applications of electrostatic shielding
1. In a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it is safest to sit inside a car, rather than nea r
a tree or on the open ground. The metallic body of the car becomes an electrostatic shielding
from lightning.
2. Sensitive components of electronic devices are pro - tected or shielded from extermal
electric distur- bances by placing metal shields around them.
3. In a coaxial cable, the outer conductor connected to ground provides an electrical shield to
the signals carried by the central conductor.
ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR . The electrical capacitance of a
conductor is the measure of its ability to hold electric charge. When an insulated conductor is
given some charge, it acquires a certain potential. If we increase the charge on a conductor, its
potential also increases. If a charge Q put on an insulated conductor increases its potential by
V, then
Q 𝛼 V or Q = CV
proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the conductor. Thus
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Capacitance =
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

Hence the capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the charge required to increase the
potential of the conductor by unit amount.
The capacitance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
1. Size and shape of the conductor.
2. Nature (permittivity) of the surrounding medium.
3. Presence of the other conductors in its neighbor-hood,
It is worth-noting that the capacitance of a conductor does not depend on the nature of its
material and the amount of charge existing on the conductor.
 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Unit of capacitance. Capacitance =
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
SI unit of Capacitance = = farad (F)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 farad =
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

Therefore the capacitance of conductor is 1 farad if the addition of a charge of 1 coulomb to it,
increases its potential by 1 volt.
CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERICAL CAPACITOR:- Consider an isolated
spherical conductor of radius R. The charge Q is uniformly distributed over its entire surface.
It can be assumed to be concentrated at the centre of the sphere. The
potential at any point on the surface of the spherical conductor will be
1 𝑄
V= .
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑅

Capacitance of the spherical conductor situated in vacuum is

𝑄 𝑄
C= = 1 𝑄
𝑉 .
4𝜋 𝜖 0 𝑅

Or C = 4𝜋𝜖0 R
Clearly, the capacitance of a spherical conductor is proportional to its radius.
 Principle of a capacitor:- Consider a positively
charged metal plate A and place an uncharged plate
B close to it. Due to induction, the closer face of
plate B acquires negative charge and its farther face
acquires a positive charge. The negative charge on
plate B tends to reduce the potential on plate A,
while the positive charge on plate B tends to increase the potential on A. As the
negative charge of plate B is closer to plate A than its positive charge, so the net
effect is that the potential of A decreases by a small amount and hence its capacitance
increases by a small amount.
Now if the positive face of plate B is earthed, its positive charge gets neutralised due
to the flow of electrons from the earth to the plate B.The negative charge on B is held
in position due to the positive charge on A. The negative charge on B reduces the
potential of A considerably and hence increases its capacitance by a large amount.
Capacitance of an insulated conductor is considerably increased when we place an
earthed connected conductor near it. This is the principle of capacitor.
Capacitor:- A capacitor is an arrangement of two conductors separated by an
insulating medium that is used to store electric charge and electric energy.
A capacitor, in general, consists of two conductors of any size and shape carrying
different potentials and charges, and placed closed together in some definite
positions relative to one another.
Capacitance of a capacitor:- For a given capacitor, the charge Q on the capacitor
is proportional to potential difference V between the Q 𝛼 V or Q = CV
𝑄
proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. Thus C =
𝑉

The capacitance of a capacitor may be defined as the charge required to be

supplied to either of the conductors of the capacitor so as to increase the
potential difference between them by unit amount.
The capacitance of a given capacitor is a constant and depends on the geometric
factors, such as the shapes, sizes and relative positions of the two conductors, and the
nature of the medium between them.
CAPACITANCE OFPARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR :- It consists of two
large plane parallel conducting plates,
separated by a small distance.
Let A= area of each plate, d= distance
between the two plates, ±𝜎 = uniform
surface charge densities on the two plates ,
±Q = total charge on each plate.
In the inner region between the two capacitor plates, the electric fields due to the two charged
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
plates is E = + =
2𝜖 0 2𝜖 0 𝜖0

P. D. between the plates = Electric field x distance

𝜎𝑑
V=Exd=
𝜖0

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor

𝑄 𝜎𝐴
C= =
𝑉 𝜎𝑑 /𝜖 0

𝝐𝟎 𝑨
C=
𝒅
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS IN
SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Capacitors in series. When the negative plate of
one capacitor is connected to the positive plate of
the second, and the negative of the second to the
positive of third and so on, the capacitors are said
to be connected in series.
Let three capacitors of capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , and 𝐶3 connected in series. A potential
difference V is applied across the combination. This sets up charges ± Q on the two
plates of each capacitor.
The potential differences across the various capacitors are
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = , 𝑉3 =
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
V = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = + +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

1 1 1
V =Q + +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
If 𝐶𝑠 is the equivalent capacitance of the series combination then
𝑄
V=
𝐶𝑆

𝑄 1 1 1
=Q + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

For a series combination of n capacitors, we can write

1 1 1 1
= + −−−+
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

For series combination of capacitors

1. The reciprocal of equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances. 2. The
equivalent capacitance is smaller than the smallest individual capacitance.
3. The charge on each capacitors is same.
4. The potential difference across any capacitor is inversely proportional to its
capacitance.
Capacitors in parallel:- When the positive plates of all
capacitors are connected to one common point and the
negative plates to another common point, the capacitors
are said to be connected in parallel. Let three capacitors
of capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 are connected in parallel.
A potential difference V is applied across the
combination. All capacitors have a common potential
difference V but different charges given by
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 V, 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 V , 𝑄3 = 𝐶3 V
Total charge stored in the combination is
Q = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )V ….(1)
If 𝐶𝑃 , is the equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination, then
Q = 𝐶𝑃 V ….(2)
From equations (1) and (2) , we get
𝐶𝑃 V = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )V
𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑
For a parallel combination of n capacitors, we can write
𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 +……. + 𝑪𝒏
For parallel combination of capacitors
1. The equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances.
2. The equivalent capacitance is larger than the largest individual capacitance.
3. The potential difference across each capacitor is same.
4. The charge on each capacitor is proportional to its capacitance.
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR:-. A
capacitor is a device to store energy. The
process of charging up a capacitor involves the
transferring of electric charges from its one plate
to another. The work done in charging the
capacitor is stored as its electrical potential
energy. This energy is supplied by the battery at
the expense of its stored chemical energy and
can be recovered by allowing the capacitor to discharge.
Expression for the energy stored in a capacitor:- Consider a capacitor of
capacitance C. Initially, its two plates are uncharged. Suppose the positive charge is
transferred from plate 2 to plate 1 bit by bit. In this process, external work has to be
done because at any stage plate 1 is at higher potential than the plate 2.
Suppose at any instant the plates 1 and 2 have charges q and - q respectively, as
shown in Fig (a ). Then the potential difference between the two plates will be
𝑞
v=
𝐶
Suppose now a small additional charge dq be trans- ferred from plate 2 to plate 1.
The work done will be
𝑞
dW = v. dq = dq
𝐶

The total work done in transferring a charge Q from plate 2 to plate 1 [Fig. (b)] will
be
𝑄 𝑄 𝑞
W= 0
𝑑𝑊 = 0 𝐶
dq
1 𝑄2
W= .
2 2𝐶

This work done is stored as electrical potential energy U of the capacitor.

𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
U= . = C 𝑽𝟐 = QV
𝟐 𝑪 𝟐 𝟐
ENERGY DENSITY OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD :- When a capacitor is charged, an
electric field is set up in the region between its two plates. We can say that the work done in
the charging process has been used in creating the electric field. Thus the presence of an
electric field implies stored energy or the energy is stored in the electric field.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor, having plate area A and plate separation d. Capacitance of
𝝐𝟎 𝑨
the parallel plate capacitor is given by C=
𝒅

If 𝜎 is the surface charge density on the capacitor plates, then electric field between the
𝜎
capacitor plates will be E= or 𝜎 = 𝜖0 E
𝜖0

Charge on either plate of capacitor is Q = 𝜎 A = 𝜖0 EA

Energy stored in the capacitor is ,
𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝜖 0 EA 𝟐 𝟏
U= . = 𝝐 𝑨 = . 𝜖0 𝐸 2 Ad
𝟐 𝑪 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟐
𝒅

The energy stored per unit volume or the energy density of the electric field is given by
𝑈 𝟏
𝑈𝑑 = = . 𝜖0 𝐸 2
𝐴𝑑 𝟐

Although we have derived the above equation for a parallel plate capacitor, it is true for
electric field due to any charge configuration.
REDISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES :-
Consider two insulated conductors A and B
of capacitances 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , and carrying
charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 respectively. Let 𝑉1 and
𝑉 be their respective potentials. Then 𝑄1 =
𝐶1 𝑉1 and 𝑄1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
Now, if the two conductors are joined by a thin conducting wire, then the positive
charge will flow from the conductor at higher potential to that at lower potential till
their potentials become equal. Thus the charges are redistributed. But the total
charge still remains 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
If the capacitance of the thin connecting wire is negligible and the conductors are a
sufficient distance apart so that do not exert mutual electric forces, then their
combined capacitance will be 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Common potential =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
V= =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Loss of energy in redistribution of charges. Let 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 be the capacitances and 𝑉1 and
𝑉2 be the potentials of the two conductors before they are connected together. Potential energy
before connection is
1 1
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉12 + 𝐶2 𝑉22
2 2
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
After connection, let V be their common potential. Then V =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Potential energy after connection is
1 1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 2 1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 2
𝑈𝑓 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) 𝑉2 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) =
2 2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2 (𝐶1 +𝐶2 )

1 1 1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 2
Loss in energy ∆U = 𝑈𝑖 - 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶1 𝑉12 + 𝐶2 𝑉22 -
2 2 2 (𝐶1 +𝐶2 )

1
∆U = 𝐶12 𝑉12 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑉12 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑉12 + 𝐶22 𝑉22 − 𝐶12 𝑉12 − 𝐶22 𝑉22 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑉1 𝑉2
2(𝐶1 +𝐶2 )

1 𝐶1 𝐶2 1 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2
= 𝑉12 + 𝑉22 − 2𝑉1 𝑉2 =
2 (𝐶1 +𝐶2 ) 2 𝐶1 +𝐶2

This is always positive whether 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 or 𝑉1 < 𝑉2 . So when two charged conductors are
connected, charges flow from higher potential side to lower potential side till the potentials of
the two conductors get equalised. In doing so, there is always some loss of potential energy in
the form of heat due to the flow of charges in connecting wires.
Dielectrics:- A dielectric is a substance which does
not allow the flow of charges through it but permits
them to exert electrostatic forces on one another
through it. A dielectric is essentially an insulator
which can be polarised through small localised
displacements of its charges. Examples Glass, wax,
water, air, wood, rubber, stone, plastic, etc.
Polar dielectrics. A molecule in which the centre of
mass of positive charges (protons) does not coincide with the centre of mass of negative
charges (electrons) is called a polar molecule. The dielectrics made of polar molecules are
called polar dielectrics. The polar molecules have unsym metrical shapes. They have permanent
dipole moments of the order of 6.1x 10−30 Cm. For example HCl, N𝐻3 , CO, 𝐻2 O etc.
Non-polar dielectric:- A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive charges coincides
with the centre of mass of negative charges is called a non-polar molecule. The dielectrics
made of non-polar molecules are called non-polar dielectrics. Non-polar molecules have
symmetrical shapes. They have normally zero dipole moment. Examples of non-polar
molecules are 𝐻2 , 𝑁2 𝑂2 , C𝑂2 , C𝐻4 , etc.
Polarization of a non-polar dielectric in an
external electric field :-In the absence of any
electric field, the centres of positive molecules
of a non-polar dielectric coincide. The dipole
moment of each molecule is zero. In the
presence of an external electric field 𝐸0 , the
centres of positive charges are displaced in the
direction of external field while the centres of negative charges are displaced in the
opposite direction. The displacement of the charges stops when the force exerted on
them by the external field is balanced by the restoring force due to the internal fields
in the molecules. This induces dipole moment in each molecule i.e, each non-polar
molecule becomes an induced dipole.
Polarization of a polar dielectric in an
external electric field :- The molecules
of a polar dielectric have permanent
dipole moments. In the absence of any
external electric field, the dipole
moments of different molecules are
randomly oriented due to thermal agitation in the material. So the total dipole
moment is zero.
When an external field is applied, the dipole moments of different molecules tend to
align with the field. As a result, there is a net dipole moment in the direction of the
field. The extent of polarisation depends on relative values of two opposing energies
: 1. The potential energy of the dipole in the external field which tends to align the
dipole with the field. 2. Thermal energy of agitation which tends to randomise the
allignment of the dipole. Hence both polar and non-polar dielectrics develop a net
dipole moment in the presence of an external electric field
POLARIZATION :-The polarization 𝑃 is defined as the
dipole moment per unit volume and its magnitude is
usually referred to as the polarization density. The
direction of 𝑃 is same as that of the external field 𝐸0 .
Reduction of electric field by the polarization of a
dielectric:- Consider a rectangular dielectric slab placed
in a uniform electric field 𝐸0 , acting parallel to two of its
faces. Its molecular dipoles align themselves in the
direction of 𝐸0 . This results in uniform polarization of
the dielectric. This set up an electric field 𝐸𝑝 (field due to
polarization) inside the dielectric in a direction opposite to that of external field 𝐸0 .
The resultant field E in the dielectric will be

𝐸 = 𝐸0 - 𝐸𝑝
Dielectric Constant :-
The ratio of the original field 𝐸0 , and the reduced field 𝐸 in the dielectric is called
dielectric constant (K) or relative permittivity (ɛ,).
𝐸0 𝐸0
K= =
𝐸 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑝

Electric susceptibility:- If the field 𝐸 is not large then the polarisation 𝑃 is

proportional to the resultant field 𝐸 existing in the dielectric, i.e.,

𝑃𝛼 𝐸 or 𝑃 = 𝜖0 𝜒𝐸
where 𝜒 (chi) is a proportionality constant called electric susceptibility. The
multiplicative factor 𝜖0 , is used to keep 𝜒 dimensionless. Clearly
𝑃
𝜒=
𝜖0 𝐸

Thus the ratio of the polarisation to 𝜖0 , times the electric field is called the electric
susceptibility of the dielectric.
Relation between k and 𝝌:- The net electric field in a polarised dielectric is

𝐸 = 𝐸0 - 𝐸𝑝
𝜎𝑝 𝑃
But 𝐸𝑝 = =
𝜖0 𝜖0

𝑃
Therefore 𝐸 = 𝐸0 -
𝜖0

𝜖0 𝜒 𝐸
𝐸 = 𝐸0 -
𝜖0

Dividing both sides by 𝐸 , we get

𝐸0
1= –𝜒
𝐸

1 = k – 𝜒 or k = 1 + 𝜒
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH:-
The maximum electric field that can exist in a dielectric without causing the
breakdown of its insulating property is called dielectric strength of the material. The
unit of dielectric strength is same as that of electric field i.e. Vm'.
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A
DIELECTRIC SLAB :- The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor of
plate area A and plate separation d with
vacuum between its plates is given by
𝝐𝟎 𝑨
𝐶0 =
𝒅

Suppose initially the charges on the capacitor plates are ±Q. Then the uniform
electric field set up between the capacitor plates is
𝜎 𝑄
𝐸0 = =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴

When a dielectric slab of of dielectric constant k and thickness t < d is placed

between the plates, the field 𝐸0 polarises the dielectric. The electric field inside the
dielectric slab is given by
𝐸0
E=
𝑘
The electric potential between the plates of capacitor will be
𝐸0
V = 𝐸0 (d-t) + E t = 𝐸0 (d-t) + .t
𝑘
𝑡 𝑄 𝑡
= 𝐸0 ( 𝑑 − 𝑡 + )= .( 𝑑 − 𝑡 + )
𝑘 𝜖0𝐴 𝑘

The capacitance of the capacitor on introduction of dielectric slab becomes

𝑄 𝜖0𝐴
C= = 𝑡
𝑉 𝑑−𝑡+
𝑘

If the dielectric fills the entire space between the plates, then t= d, and we get
𝑘𝜖 0 𝐴
C= = k. 𝐶0
𝑑

Thus the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases K times when its entire space is
filled with a dielectric material.
C
Clearly, k=
𝐶0

Thus the dielectric constant of a dielectric material may be defined as the ratio of the
capacitance of a capacitor completely filled with that material to the capacitance of the same
capacitor with vacuum between its plates.
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON VARIOUS PARAMETERS :-
Effect of dielectric when the battery is kept disconnected from the capacitor.
Let 𝑄0 , 𝐶0 , 𝑉0 , 𝐸0 , 𝑈0 be the charge, capacitance, potential difference, electric field
and energy stored respectively before the dielectric slab is inserted. Then
𝑉0 1
𝑄0 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 , 𝐸0 = , 𝑈0 = 𝐶0 𝑉02
𝑑 2

(i) Charge:- The charge on the capacitor plates remains 𝑄0 , because the battery has
been disconnected before the insertion of the dielectric slab.
(ii) Electric field:- When the dielectric slab is inserted between the plates, the
induced surface charge on the dielectric reduces the field to a new value given by
𝐸0
E=
𝑘

(iii) Potential difference:- The reduction in the electric field results in the decrease
in potential difference.
𝐸0 𝑉0
V = Ed = d=
𝑘 𝑘
(iv) Capacitance:- As a result of the decrease in potential difference, the capacitance
increases k times.
C = k. 𝐶0
(v) Energy stored :-The energy stored decreases by a factor k
𝟏 𝟏 𝑉0 2 1 1
𝟐
U = C 𝑽 = .( k. 𝐶0 ) = . 𝐶0 𝑉02
𝟐 𝟐 𝑘 𝑘 2
𝑈0
U=
𝑘

Effect of dielectric when battery remains connected across the capacitor:- Let
𝑄0 , 𝐶0 , 𝑉0 , 𝐸0 , 𝑈0 be the charge, capacitance, potential difference, electric field and
energy stored respectively before the dielectric slab is inserted. Then
𝑉0 1
𝑄0 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 , 𝐸0 = , 𝑈0 = 𝐶0 𝑉02
𝑑 2

(i) Potential difference:- As the battery remains connected across the capacitor, so
the potential difference remains constant at V, even after the introduction of dielectric
slab. V = 𝑉0
(ii) Electric field:- As the potential difference remains unchanged, so the electric
field E, between the capacitor plates remains unchanged.
E = 𝐸0
(iii) Capacitance:- The capacitance increases k times
C = k. 𝐶0
. (iv) Charge:- The charge on the capacitor plates increases k times
Q = CV = k.𝐶0 . 𝑉0 = k. 𝑄0
(v) Energy stored:- The energy stored in the capacitor increases k times.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
U = C 𝑽𝟐 = .( k. 𝐶0 ) 𝑉02 = k. . 𝐶0 𝑉02
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

U = k. 𝑈0