Chapter-2 Electric Potential

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CHAPTER-2

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Potential difference between two points in an electric field may be


defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit positive
charge from one point to the other against the electrostatic forces.

Consider a point charge +q located at point O. Let A and B be the


two points in its electric field. When a test charge is moved from
A to B, a work has to be done in moving charge +q. Then
potential difference is - =

SI unit is volt (V).1V=1Nm/C=1 J/C .Hence the potential difference


between two points in an electric field is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of
work has to be done in moving a positive charge of 1 coulomb from
one point to the other against the electrostatic forces.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

It is the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from


infinity to that point against the electrostatic forces.

Electric potential (V)= = .SI unit is volt(V).It is a scalar


quantity. The electric potential at a point in an electric field is said
to be 1 volt if one joule of work has to be done in moving a positive
charge of 1 coulomb from infinity to that point against the
electrostatic forces.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Consider a positive point charge q placed at the origin O. We wish


to calculate potential at P at a distance r from it, as shown.
Suppose a test charge is placed at point A at distance x from O.
By Coulomb’s law electrostatic force acting on charge is

F=

The small work done in moving test charge from A to B through


small displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗ against electrostatic force is

dW= . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =Fdx cos 180 =-Fdx

The total work done in moving the charge from infinity to the
point P will be

∫ = -∫ = -∫ dx

=- ∫ dx

=-

= [ - ]

W =

Now V= =
This is the expression for potential due to a point charge. Clearly
V 1/r. Thus electric potential due to a point charge is spherically
symmetric as it depends only on the distance of the observation
point from the charge and not on the direction of that point w.r.to
point charge.

Figure shows the variation of electrostatic potential (V and


electrostatic field (E with distance r from a charge q.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE (at any general point)

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges –q and


+q separated by distance 2l. We wish to determine the potential at
a point P at a distance r from the centre O, the direction OP making
an angle with dipole moment .

Total potential at P due to two charges is V=

= +
= ( - ……….(1)

To find and

CP BP. Consider Δ OCB, cos = = or OC=l cos

Since BP CP=OP-OC

Or =r- l cos ……………(2)

From figure OD= l cos .Now =OP+OD = r+ l cos ……(3)

Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get

V= ( -

= [ ]

= [ ]

= where p=q2l

For a short dipole r>>l, V= ………….(4)This is the expression


for electric potential at any general point due to a dipole.

Case (1) At an axial point,

Case (2) At an equatorial point, V=0

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES


Consider N point charges lie at distances
from a point P.

Electric potential at point P due to charge is =

Similarly = , = =

Now total potential at point P is V=

= + +

= + + +……+ ]

= ∑

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN


SPHERICAL SHELL

(i) When point P lies outside the shell (r>R)

V=

(ii)When point P lies on the surface of the shell (r=R)

V=

(iii)When point P lies inside the shell (r<R)

V=

Note: Electric field at any point inside the shell is zero. Hence
electric potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is
constant everywhere inside the shell and its value is equal to that
on the surface.

Graph shows the variation of potential due to charged shell with


distance r from its centre.
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL
(POTENTIAL GRADIENT)

Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B with


potential values V and V+dV, where dV is the change in V in the
direction of electric field. Let P be a point on the surface B. dl is the
perpendicular distance of the surface A from P. Imagine that a unit
positive charge is moved from surface B to surface A against electric
field.

Work done in this process is W= =Edl

Or V-(V+dV) = Edl

- dV =Edl
E =- =
Note:

(i)Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases


steepest.
(ii) The magnitude of electric field is equal to the change in the
magnitude of potential per unit displacement(called potential
gradient) normal to the equipotential surface at the given point.

EQUIPOTENIAL SURFACES

Any surface that has electric potential at every point on it is called


an equipotential surface.

Properties of equipotential surfaces

i) No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential


surface.

ii) Electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at


every point.

iii) Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the regions of


strong field and farther apart in the regions of weak field.

iv) No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other.

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES OF VARIOUS CHARGE SYSTEMS

i) For a positive point charge

ii) Two equal and opposite point charges


iii) Two equal positive charges

iv) Uniform electric field

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY It is the energy possessed by a


system of charges by virtue of their positions. The electrical
potential energy of a system of point charges may be defined as
the amount of work done in assembling the charges at their locations
by bringing them in, from infinity.

Potential energy of a system of two point charges.

U=
Potential energy of a system of three point charges .

U= [ + + ]

Points to be noted:

 Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity.


 The potential energy of two like charges ( >0) is positive.
Hence work has to be done against the repulsive force to bring
the charges from infinity to a finite separation.
 The potential energy of two unlike charges ( <0) is negative.
So work has to be done against the attractive force to take
charges from given location to infinity.

POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD

(i) Potential energy of a single charge

U=q V.

(ii) Potential energy of a system of two point charges


Let q1 and q2 be two charges placed at points P and Q having
position vectors ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ respectively in an external field ⃗ .

Work done in bringing from to ⃗⃗⃗ against the electric field


= ⃗⃗⃗ ) where ⃗⃗⃗ ) is the potential at P due to external electric
field.

Work done in bringing from to ⃗⃗⃗ against the electric field


= ⃗⃗⃗ ) where ⃗⃗⃗ ) is the potential at Q due to external electric
field.

Work done on by = where is the distance from


.

ie; Total potential energy of the system=work done in


assembling the two charges

Or U= ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) +

Note:

 Unit of energy in atomic physics is electron volt (eV)


 1eV=1.6 X10-19J
 1 meV (milli electron volt)=10-3eV
 1keV=103 eV
 1MeV (million electron volt)=106 V

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC


FIELD
Consider an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field ⃗ with
the dipole moment making an angle with the field.Two equal
and opposite forces acts on its two ends .Thus the two forces forms
a couple. The force exerted by the couple will be

=qE x 2a sin =pE sin where q 2a=p, dipole moment.

If the dipole is rotated through a small angle d then, small work


done is

dW = = pE sin d

Total work done in rotating dipole from is

W=∫ =∫

=pE ∫

=pE

=pE (cos -cos )

This work done is stored as the potential energy U of the dipole .

ie; U= pE (cos -cos )

If =90 and = then U=pE (cos90 cos )

U= -pEcos

U= -⃗ ⃗⃗

Special cases

Case(1)Position of stable equilibrium

When U=- pE cos0 = -pE Thus the potential energy of a dipole


is minimum when its dipole moment is parallel to the external field.
This is the position of stable equilibrium.
Case (ii) Position of zero energy

When U=- pEcos90 =0 Thus potential energy of a dipole is


zero when it is held perpendicular to the external field.

Case (iii) Position of unstable equilibrium

When U=-pEcos180 = pE Thus the potential energy of a


dipole is maximum when its dipole moment is antiparallel to the
external field. This is the position of unstable equilibrium.

BEHAVIOUR OF CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS

When placed in electrostatic fields, the conductors show the


following properties

(i)Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of a conductor.

(ii) Just outside the surface of a charged conductor, electric field is


normal to the surface.

(iii)The net charge in the interior of a conductor is zero and any


excess charge resides at its surface.

(iv) Potential is constant within and on the surface of a conductor.

We have E=

But inside a conductor E=0 and moreover, E has no tangential


component on the surface, so =0 or V=constant.

(v)Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is proportional


to the surface charge density. ie; E=

(vi) Electric field is zero in the cavity of a hollow charged conductor.


Electrostatic shielding -The phenomenon of making a region free
from any electric field is called electrostatic shielding. It is based on
the fact that electric field vanishes inside the cavity of a hollow
conductor.

Applications

(i)In a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it is safest to sit


inside a car, rather than near a tree or on the open ground. The
metallic body of the car becomes an electrostatic shielding from
lightning.

(ii)Electronic devices are protected or shielded from external electric


disturbances by placing metal shields around them.

CAPACITORS

A capacitor is an arrangement of two conductors separated by an


insulating medium that is used to store electric charge and electric
energy.

The pictorial symbol for a capacitor is as shown.

CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR(C)

The electrical capacitance of a conductor is the measure of its


ability to hold electric charge. When an insulated conductor is given
some charge, it acquires a certain potential. If we increase the
charge on a conductor, its potential also increases. If a charge Q
put on an insulated conductor increases its potential by V, then

Q or Q=CV
The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the
conductor. Thus

Capacitance= or C= Hence the capacitance of a conductor


may be defined as the charge required to increase the potential of
the conductor by unit amount. Capacitance of a conductor depends
on the following factors:

(i) size and shape of the conductor (ii)nature (permittivity)of the


surrounding medium.(iii)presence of other conductors in its
neighbourhood.

SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).

1F= .1F is a very large unit of capacitance.

Note:

 1 millifarad(mF)=10-3F
 1 microfarad( )=10-6F
 1 picofarad (pF)=10-12F

Dimension of Capacitance is [C]=[M-1L-2T4A2]

Points to be noted:

(i)Capacitance of an isolated spherical capacitor

C=4

(ii)Spherical capacitor

C= where a and b are the inner and outer radii.

(iii) Cylindrical capacitor

C= where L is length of capacitor, a and b are the inner

and outer radii of two coaxial cylinders.


PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

It consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates, separated


by a small distance.

From the figure let A is area of each plate, d is distance between the
two plates, is surface charge densities of the plates, ±Q is total
charge on each plate. The direction of electric field is from positive
to the negative plate and field is uniform throughout.

Now potential difference between the plates is V= Ed = where is


the electric field in the inner region of two large capacitor plates.

Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is C= = =

Factors on which the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor


depends

 Area of the plates (C


 Distance between the plates (C
 Permittivity of the medium between the plates (C )

COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

(i) Capacitors in series

Figure shows three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3


connected in series .Let V be the potential difference applied across
the combination. In this combination V divides, Q remains
constant.

Now potential differences across the three capacitors is

V=V1+V2+V3

= + +

For a series combination of n equivalent capacitors =

(ii) Capacitors in parallel

Figure shows three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3


connected in parallel. Let V be the potential difference applied
across the combination. In this combination Q divides, V remains
constant.
Now charge across the three capacitors is

Q=Q1+Q2+Q3

CV=C1V + C2V +C3V

C=C1+C2+C3

For parallel combination of n equivalent capacitors = nC

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

The work done in charging the capacitor is stored as its electrical


potential energy.

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C. At any instant the two plates


have charges q and –q respectively.

Then the potential difference between the two plates will be

V=

Now a small work dW has to be done to transfer the charge dq, then

dW= Vdq = dq

The total work done in transferring a charge Q is

W =∫ =∫
=∫

= ∫

= [

W= .This work done is stored as electrostatic potential


energy U of the capacitor.

U= = C = QV

ENERGY DENSITY OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD (u)

The energy stored per unit volume is known as energy density.

ie; u =

= = E2

REDISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES

If two conductors are touched mutually and then separated,


charges on them will be divided in the ratio of their capacitances.
After distribution if charges are and then =

Loss of energy in redistribution of charges

Potential energy before connection is =

Potential energy after connection is =

Loss in energy U=

=
This is always positive whether .So when two
charged conductors are connected, charges flow from higher
potential to lower potential side till the potentials of two get
equalized. In doing so, there is always a loss of potential energy in
the form of heat due to the flow of charges in connecting wires.

DIELECTRICS AND POLARIZATION

A dielectric is a substance which does not allow the flow of charges


through it but in the influence of external field, a net dipole moment
is induced in the dielectric. eg; glass, wax, water, air, wood, rubber,
etc.

In a conductor, the external field moves the free charge carriers,


inducing field in the opposite direction of The process
continues until = so that net field in the conductor is zero.
But in dielectric, <

A dielectric may consist of either polar or non-polar molecules.

POLAR DIELECTRIC

 A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive charges


does not coincide with the centre of mass of negatives is called
a polar molecule. The dielectrics made of polar molecule is
called polar dielectrics.eg;H2O
 They have permanent dipole moment of the order of 10-30 Cm.
 In the absence of electric field, the dipole moments are
randomnly oriented .When electric field is applied, the dipole
moments tend to align with the field.

NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS

 A molecule in which centre of mass of positive charges


coincides with the centre of mass of negative charges is called
is called non-polar molecule. The dielectrics made of non-
polar molecules are called non-polar dielectrics.
eg;H2,N2,O2,CO2,CH4 etc.
 They have zero dipole moment.
 In the absence of electric field, the centre of positive and
negative charges coincide as shown.

 In the presence of electric field, centres of positive charges are


displaced in the direction of external field while the centres of
negative charges are displaced in the opposite direction. This
induces dipole moment in each molecule.
Thus both polar and non-polar dielectrics develops a net
dipole moment in the presence of electric field. This is called
polarization.
POLARIZATION (⃗⃗ )
It is defined as the dipole moment induced per unit volume.
The direction of ⃗ is same as that of the external field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
ie ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

or ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ where 𝝌 is electrical susceptibility.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (K)

Due to polarization inside the dielectric an induced electric field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is


set up in a direction opposite to the external field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , thus tending
to reduce the original field in the dielectric. The resultant field ⃗ in
the dielectric will be equal to ⃗⃗⃗⃗ -⃗⃗⃗⃗ and directed in the direction of
⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Dielectric constant or relative permittivity is defined as the ratio of


original field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ to the reduced field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ -⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the dielectric.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ie K= ⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY(𝝌)

We have 𝝌= ⃗
Thus electric susceptibility is defined as the ratio of
polarization to times the electric field is called the electric
susceptibility of the dielectric .It describes the electrical behavior of
a dielectric. It is a proportionality constant having no unit and is
dimensionless.

RELATION BETWEEN K AND 𝝌

K=1+ 𝝌
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH –The maximum electric field that can
exist in a dielectric without causing the breakdown of its insulating
property is called dielectric strength of the material.

Unit is V/m. Dielectric strength of vacuum is , air is 0.8.

CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A


DIELECTRIC SLAB

Consider a parallel plate capacitor with plate separation d and area


of plate as A.A dielectric slab of thickness t<d is introduced between
the parallel plates. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗ be the electric field between the plates
.This field polarizes the dielectric and induces negative charge on
the upper and positive charge on the lower surface of the dielectric.
These induced charges setup a field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ inside the dielectric in the
opposite direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .The net field inside the dielectric is
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = .

Now potential difference between the capacitor plates is

V=

= t

= ) But =
= )

Now C= =

C =

Special case: If the space between the parallel plates is filled with
dielectric slab, then t=d, we get

C= =K where is the capacitance with vacuum between the


plates. Thus capacitance increases K times when its entire
space is filled with a dielectric material.

Clearly, K= =

CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A


CONDUCTING SLAB

When a conducting slab of thickness t<d is placed between the


capacitor plates, free electrons flow inside it so as to reduce the field
to zero inside the slab as shown.

Therefore potential difference between the plates of the capacitor is

V=

=
Capacitance in the presence of conducting slab becomes

C= =

Multiplying and dividing equation by d, we get

= where C0 =

Clearly, C>C0.Thus on introducing a conducting slab between


the plates, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases by
a factor of .

EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON VARIOUS PARAMETERS (Important


for problems)

Note: A dielectric slab is inserted to fill the space between the


plates(t=d).

Battery disconnected from the Battery kept connected across


capacitor the capacitor
Q=Q0(constant) Q=KQ0(increases)
V= (decreases) V=V0(constant)
E= (decreases) E=E0(constant)
C=KC0(increases) C=KC0(increases)
U= (decreases) U=KU0(increases)
USES OF CAPACITORS

 In radio circuits for tuning


 In the tank circuits of oscillators
 For producing magnetic fields in induction motors etc.

………………………
E

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