Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

● Plants of Angiosperm are called flowering plants.

● Several hormonal and structural changes result in
the development of a flower.
● Inflorescences bear the flower buds, and then the flowers.
● Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant.
● In the flowers, the androecium (male reproductive part)
and the gynoecium (female reproductive part) develop.

Androecium
● The androecium consists of whorls of stamen.
● The stamen consists of the filament (long and
slender stalk) and anther (bilobed structure).
● Filament is attached to the thalamus or to the petal.
● Anther:
○ A typical anther is bilobed and each lobe is
dithecous (consists of two theca).
○ Theca are separated by a longitudinal groove
running lengthwise.
 ○ The microsporangia are located at the corners, two
in each theca. They further develop to form pollen
sacs, which contain the pollen grains.

● Structure of microsporangium
○ The microsporangium is surrounded by four wall layers
(epidermis, endothecium, middle layers, and
tapetum).
○ The outer three layers are protective and help in
dehiscence of anther to release the pollen grains. The
tapetum provides nourishment to the developing
pollen grains.
○ In the young anther, the sporogenous tissue forms
the centre of each microsporangium.
Microsporogenesis
● It is the process of formation of microspore from PMC
(Pollen Mother Cells).
● As development occurs in the anther, the
sporogenous tissue undergoes meiosis to form
microspore tetrad.
● Each cell of sporogenous tissue has capacity to give rise to
a tetrad. Hence, each cell is a potential pollen or PMC.
● As the anther matures, the microspores get detached
from each other and develop into pollen grains.
Pollen grains
● Represent the male gamete and are spherical, having
a twolayered wall:
○ Exine (outer) − Hard layer made of sporopollenin,
which is extremely resistant and can withstand
high temperatures, acidic and alkaline conditions,
and enzymes
○ Intine (inner) − Thin and continuous layer made up
of cellulose and pectin
● Mature pollen grain contains two cells:
 ○ Vegetative cell − Large with irregular nucleus,
contains food reserves
○ Generative cell − Small and floats in the cytoplasm
of the vegetative cell

● In 60% of the angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at

2celled stage while in others generative cell undergoes
mitosis to form two male gametes (3celled stage).
● The viability of pollen grains after they are shed depends
upon temperature and humidity. It ranges from 30
minutes to few months.
Gynoecium and Formation of Female Gametophyte
● The gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of
a flower.
● It may be monocarpellary (one pistil) or multicarpellary
(many pistils). In multicarpellary, the pistils may be fused
in one (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).
● Each pistil consists of:
○ Stigma − Receives the pollen grains
○ Style − Elongated, slender part below the stigma
○ Ovary − Bulged basal part containing the
placenta, which is located inside the ovarian locule
(cavity)
○ The placenta contains the megasporangia or ovules.
Megasporangium
● The ovule is attached to the placenta by the funicle.
The junction of the ovule and the funicle is called hilum.
● Each ovule has one or two protective layers, called
integuments, which cover the rest of the ovule, except
for a small opening called micropyle.
● The chalaza lying on the opposite side of the micropyle
end represents the basal part of the ovule.
● Nucellus is present within the integuments and contains
reserved food. The embryo sac or female gametophyte
is located within the nucellus.
Megasporogenesis
● The megaspore mother cell (MMC) gets converted
into megaspores by the process of megasporogenesis.
● The MMC is large and contains a dense cytoplasm and a
prominent nucleus. It undergoes meiosis to produce
four megaspores.
Female Gametophyte
● In most flowering plants, only one megaspore is
functional while the other three degenerate.
● The single functional megaspore develops into the female
gametophyte. This kind of development is called
monosporic development.
● The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically
to form 2 nuclei, which move towards the opposite ends,
forming a 2nucleate embryo sac. Two more mitotic divisions
ensue, leading to the formation of 4nucleate and 8nucleate
embryo sacs.
● After the 8nucleate stage, the cell walls are laid down and
the typical female gametophyte (embryo sac) gets
 organised.
● Six of the 8nuclei get surrounded by the cell wall and the
remaining two, called polar nuclei, are situated below
the egg apparatus in the large central cell.
● Three of the six cells are placed at the micropylar end and
constitute the egg apparatus (2 synergids + 1 egg
cell).
● The synergids have special thickenings at the micropylar
end. These are together called the filiform apparatus.
It helps in leading the pollen tubes into the synergids.
● Three cells are at the chalazal end, and are called
antipodal cells.
● A typical angiosperm female gametophyte is 7celled and
8nucleated at maturity.

Pollination
● It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma.
● Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be
divided as follows:
○ Autogamy − It is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of the same flower. Autogamy
 requires the anther and the stigma to lie close. It also
requires synchrony in the pollen release and stigma
receptivity.
Plants like Viola, Oxalis, etc., produce two kinds of
flowers—chasmogamous flowers (with exposed
anther and stigma) and cleistogamous flowers
(which do not open at all and only autogamy occurs).
○ Geitonogamy − It is the transfer of pollens from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower
in the same plant. Genetically, it is similar to
autogamy, but it requires pollinating agents.
○ Xenogamy − It is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of a different plant.
Pollination causes genetically different types of pollens
to be brought to a plant.
Agents of Pollination
● Plants use air, water (abiotic agents) and animals
(biotic agents) for pollination.
● Pollination by wind
○ It is the most common form of abiotic pollination.
○ Plants possess wellexposed stamens and large,
feathery stigma.
○ Pollens should be light and nonsticky to be carried
easily by winds.
○ Windpollinated flowers often have single ovule in the
ovary and numerous flowers packed in an
inflorescence.
 ○ It is common in grass.
● Pollination by water
○ It is rare in flowering plants, except for some
aquatic plants like Vallisneria and Hydrilla.
○ In most waterpollinated plants, the pollen grains are
long and ribbonlike, and are protected from wetting by
mucilaginous covering.
○ In a majority of water plants like water hyacinth
and water lily, flowers emerge above the water level
and are pollinated by insects.
● Pollination by animals
○ Majority of flowering plants use butterflies, bees,
wasps etc., for pollination.
○ Most of the insectpollinated flowers are large,
colourful, fragrant, and contain nectar to attract
the animal pollinators. These are called floral
rewards.
○ Floral reward can be in the form of providing
safe places to lay eggs (example: the tallest
flower, Amorphophallus)
○ A symbiotic relationship exists between the plant,
Yucca and its pollinator moth. The moth is dependent
on the plant since the moth deposits its eggs in the
locule of the ovary of the plant, and in return, the
plant is pollinated by the moth.
○ The pollen grains are sticky and get stuck to the
body of the pollinator.
Out Breeding Devices
 ● Repeated self pollination leads to inbreeding depression.
● Plants have developed methods to prevent self
pollination. Autogamy is prevented by following ways:
○ Pollen release and stigma receptivity not coordinated
○ Different positioning of the anther and the stigma
○ Production of unisexual flowers
● Ways to prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy:
○ Presence of male and female flowers on different
plants, such that each plant is either male or
female (dioecy).
○ This mechanism is present in several species of papaya.

Pollen−Pistil Interactions
● Pollination does not always ensure the transfer of
compatible pollens.
● Hence, the pistil has the ability to recognise the right type
of pollen to promote post pollination events.
● If the pollen is of the wrong type, the pistil prevents
pollen germination.
● This interaction is mediated by chemical components of
the pollen and the pistil.
● Pollen−pistil interaction is a dynamic process involving
pollen recognition, followed by promotion or inhibition of
the pollen.
● The pollen tube reaches the ovary and enters the ovule
through the micropyle. Then, through the filiform
apparatus, it reaches synergids. In this way, the pollen tube
grows.
Artificial Hybridisation & Double Fertilisation
Artificial Hybridisation
● It is a method to improve crop yield.
● In this method, it is essential to ensure that the right
kinds of pollen grains are used, and the stigma is
protected from unwanted pollen grains. It is achieved by:
○ Emasculation − The anther is removed from the bud
if the female parent bears bisexual flowers.
○ Bagging − The emasculated flower is covered by a
bag so as not to allow contamination of the stigma by
unwanted pollen grains.
● When the stigma of the bagged flower becomes receptive,
the collected pollen grains are dusted onto the stigma,
and then the flower is rebagged.
● If the female parent is unisexual, emasculation is not
necessary. In this case, the female bud is directly bagged,
and when the stigma turns receptive, suitable pollen
grains are dusted onto it so as to allow germination.
Double Fertilisation
● When the pollen grains fall on the stigma, the pollen tube
enters one of the synergids and releases two male
gametes.
● One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and
fuses with it to complete the syngamy to form the
zygote.
● The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei and
forms triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). This
is termed as triple fusion.
 ● Since two kinds of fusion—syngamy and triple fusion—
take place, the process is known as double fertilisation,
and is characteristic of flowering plants.
● After triple fusion, the central cell becomes the
primary endosperm cell (PEC).
● The primary endosperm nucleus gives rise to the
endosperm, while the zygote develops into the

embryo.

PostFertilisation Events
It includes development of endosperm and embryo, and
maturation of ovules into seeds and ovaries into fruits.
Formation of Endosperm
● The endosperm develops before the embryo because the
cells of the endosperm provide nutrition to the
developing embryo.
● The primary endosperm nucleus repeatedly divides to
give rise to free nuclei. This stage of development is
called free nuclear endosperm.
● Cell wall formation occurs next, resulting in a cellular
 endosperm.
● The endosperm may be either fully consumed by the
growing embryo (as in pea and beans) or retained in
the mature seed (as in coconut and castor).
Development of Embryo
● The embryo develops at the micropylar end of the
embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
● The zygote gives rise first to the proembryo, and then to
the globular, heartshaped, mature embryo.
● A typical dicot embryo consists of an embryonal axis
and two cotyledons.
● The portion of the embryonal axis above the level of
cotyledons is called epicotyl. It contains the plumule (shoot
tip). The portion below the axis is called hypocotyl. It
contains the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered by
the root cap.

● In a monocot embryo, there is only one cotyledon. In

grass, it is known as the scutellum, and is situated at one
side of the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the
embryonal axis has the radicle and the root cap enclosed
in the
 coleorrhiza.
● The epicotyl lies above the level of the scutellum, and
has the shoot apex and leaf primordia enclosed in hollow
structures called coleoptiles.

Seeds and Fruits

Development of Seeds

● It is the last stage of sexual reproduction in angiosperms.

● Seeds are the fertilised ovules that are developed inside
a fruit.
● A seed consists of:
○ Seed coat
○ Cotyledons
○ Embryonal axis
● Seeds may be albuminous (endosperm present; as in
wheat and maize) or nonalbuminous (endosperm absent;
 since it is consumed by the growing embryo; as in pea and
beans).
● Some seeds such as black pepper and wheat have
remnants of nucellus known as perisperm.
● The integuments of ovules harden to form the seed coat,
and the micropyle facilitates the entry of oxygen and
water into the seed.
● As it loses moisture, the seed may enter dormancy, or
if favourable conditions exist, it germinates.
Development of Fruits
● The ovary of a flower develops into a fruit.
● The walls of the ovary transform into the walls of the
fruit (pericarp).
● Fruits may be fleshy, as in mango and orange, or can
be dry, as in groundnut and mustard.
● In some plants, floral parts other than the ovary take part
in fruit formation, as in apple and strawberry. In these, the
thalamus contributes to fruit formation. Such fruits are
called false fruits. Fruits that develop from the ovary are
called true fruits.
● Some fruits develop without fertilisation, and are known as
parthenocarpic fruits (example: banana).
Apomixis and Polyembryony
● Some plants produce seeds without fertilisation. This
process of seed formation is known as apomixis.
● Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction mimicking
sexual reproduction.
● In some species, apomixis occurs as the diploid egg cell is
formed without meiosis, and develops into embryo
without fertilisation.
● In some varieties of citrus and mango, the nucellus cells
divide and protrude into the embryo sac to develop into
embryos. In such cases, each ovule may contain
several embryos and this condition is called
polyembryony.
● Apomixis is important for producing hybrid varieties of
fruits and vegetables, and also for increasing crop yield
multifold.