Modes Of Reproduction in Plants

 There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are categorised into two
types: (i) asexual, and (ii) sexual
 In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in sexual
reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Asexual reproduction occurs through:

1. Vegetative Propagation,
2. Budding,
3. Fragmentation and
4. Spore formation.

Vegetative Propagation

 Most plants have roots, stems and leaves. These are called the vegetative parts of a plant.
 Vegetative Propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced
from roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the
plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.
 Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the margins of leaves. If a leaf of this plant
falls on a moist soil, each bud can give rise to a new plant.

Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant)

  The roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato and dahlia are
examples.
 Plants such as cacti produce new plants when their parts get detached from the main plant
body. Each detached part can grow into a new plant.
 Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow and bear flowers and fruits
earlier than those produced from seeds.
 The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant, as they are produced from a single
parent.

Budding

 Yeast is a single-celled organism. The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell
is called a bud.
 The bud gradually grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms a new yeast cell.
 The new yeast cell grows, matures and produces more yeast cells. If this process continues, a
large number of yeast cells are produced in a short time.
Fragmentation

 When water and nutrients are available algae grow and multiply rapidly by fragmentation.
 An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces grow into new
individuals. This process continues and they cover a large area in a short period of time.
Spore formation

 Fungi on a bread piece grow from spores which are present in the air. When spores are
released they keep floating in the air.
 The spores are asexual reproductive bodies. As they are very light, they can cover long
distances.
 Each spore is covered by a hard protective coat to withstand unfavorable conditions such as
high temperature and low humidity. So they can survive for a long time.
 Under favourable conditions, a spore germinates and develops into a new individual.
 Plants such as moss and ferns also reproduce by means of spores.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants – Unisexual and Bisexual

 The flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. The stamens are the male reproductive
part and the pistil is the female reproductive part.

 The flowers which contain either only the pistil or only the stamens are called unisexual
flowers. The flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual flowers.
  Corn, papaya and cucumber produce unisexual flowers, whereas mustard,
rose and petunia have bisexual flowers.
 Both the male and the female unisexual flowers may be present in the same plant or in
different plants.
 Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes. A pistil consists of stigma, style
and ovary. The ovary contains one or more ovules. The female gamete or the egg is formed
in an ovule. In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote.

Pollination

 Generally pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them from drying up.
Since pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or water. Insects visit flowers and
carry away pollen on their bodies.
 Some of the pollen lands on the stigma of a flower of the same kind. The transfer of pollen
from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.
 If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower it is called self-pollination. When the
pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of another flower of the same plant, or that of a
different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
Self Pollination vs. Cross Pollination

Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination

1. Pollen grains are transferred to the 1. Pollen grains are carried to stigma of

stigma of the same flower. another flower.

2. Occurs in bisexual plants having anther 2. Occurs in bisexual flowers having anther

and stigma maturing at same time. and stigma maturing at different times.

3. It takes place in plants like wheat, peas 3. It takes place in plants like lady- finger,

etc. tomato, brinjal etc.

Fertilisation

 The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote. The process of fusion of
male and female gametes (to form a zygote) is called fertilization. The zygote develops into
an embryo.
Fruits and seed formation

 After fertilization, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off. The fruit
is the ripened ovary.
 The seeds develop from the ovules. The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a protective
seed coat. Some fruits are fleshy and juicy such as mango, apple and orange. Some fruits are
hard like almonds and walnuts.

Seed dispersal

 Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with hooks which get attached to
the bodies of animals and are carried to distant places. Examples are Xanthium and Urena.
 Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits burst with sudden jerks. The seeds are scattered far
from the parent plant. This happens in the case of Castor and Balsam.
Asexual reproduction vs Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

a) Both male and female parents are

a) Only one parent plant is involved.
involved.

b) Occurs in unisexual plants. b) Occurs in bisexual plants.

c) Occurs in lower plants. c) Occurs in higher plants.

d) Fully developed reproductive parts are

d) Reproductive organs are not present.
present

e) In most of the methods the original e) Original parents remain alive after

parent disappears. process of reproduction.

f) Process like gamete formation or f) Fertilization of gametes give rises to

fertilization is not seen. zygote.

g) Characteristics of only one parent is g) Characteristics of both parents are

inherited. inherited.

h) Seeds are used to get new plants from a

h) No need of seeds.
flower.
 Types of Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation or vegetative reproduction is the growth and development of a plant by

asexual means. This development occurs as a result of fragmentation and regeneration of a plant part
or by growth from specialized vegetative plant parts. Many plants that reproduce asexually are also
capable of sexual propagation. Vegetative propagation involves reproduction
through vegetative (non-sexual) plant structures, whereas sexual propagation is accomplished
through gamete production and fertilization. In non-vascular plants, such as mosses and liverworts,
vegetative reproductive structures include gemmae and spores. In vascular plants, vegetative
reproductive plant parts include roots, stems, and leaves.

MERISTEM TISSUE AND REGENERATION

Vegetative propagation is made possible by meristem tissue that is commonly found within stems
and leaves, as well as at the tips of roots and stems. Meristem tissue contains undifferentiated cells
that actively divide by mitosis allowing plant growth. Specialized, permanent plant tissue systems also
originate from meristem tissue. It is this ability of meristem tissue to continue to divide that allows for
the regeneration that is needed for vegetative propagation to occur.

TYPES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Vegetative propagation may be accomplished by natural (natural vegetative propagation) as well

as artificial (artificial vegetative propagation) means. Since plants resulting from vegetative
propagation are produced asexually from a single parent plant, they are genetic clones of the parent
plant. This can have advantages and disadvantages. One advantage of vegetative propagation is that
plants with traits that are favorable for a particular environment are repeatedly reproduced.
Commercial crop growers employing artificial vegetative propagation techniques can ensure that
favorable traits and product quality are maintained. A major disadvantage of vegetative propagation
is that this process does not allow for genetic variation. The plants are genetically identical and are all
susceptible to the same plant viruses and diseases that can destroy entire crops.

Natural vegetative propagation involves the development of a new plant from parts of a single
mature plant. The new plants grow and develop naturally without human intervention. An important
ability that is key to enabling vegetative propagation in plants is the ability to develop adventitious
roots. These are roots that arise from plant structures other than the root, such as stems or leaves.
Through the formation of adventitious roots, new plants may develop from extensions of the stems,
roots, or leaves of a parent plant. Modified stems are most often the source of vegetative propagation
in many plants. Vegetative plant structures that arise from plant stems include rhizomes, runners,
bulbs, tubers, corms, and buds. Vegetative structures emanating from roots include buds and
tubers. Plantlets are vegetative structures that emerge from plant leaves.

Vegetative propagation may occur naturally through the development of rhizomes. Rhizomes are
modified stems that typically grow horizontally along the ground surface or underground. Rhizomes
are storage sites for substances such as proteins and starches. As rhizomes extend, roots and shoots
may arise along certain intervals of the rhizome and develop into new plants. Certain grasses, lilies,
irises, and orchids propagate in this manner. Edible plant rhizomes include ginger and tumeric.

Runners

Fragaria (Wild Strawberry) with runners spreading out over soil. Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images

Runners, sometimes called stolons, are similar to rhizomes in that they exhibit horizontal growth at
or just below the soil surface. Unlike rhizomes, they originate from existing stems. As runners grow,
they develop roots and shoots from buds located at nodes or at runner tips. Intervals between nodes
(internodes) are more widely spaced in runners than in rhizomes. New plants arise at nodes where
roots and shoots develop. This type of propagation is seen in strawberry plants and currants.
Bulbs

Plant Bulb. Scott Kleinman/Photodisc/Getty Images

Bulbs are round, swollen parts of a stem that are typically found underground. Within these organs
of vegetative propagation lies the central shoot of a new plant. Bulbs consist of a bud that is
surrounded by layers of fleshy, scale-like leaves. These leaves are a source of food storage and
provide nourishment for the new plant. Examples of plants that develop from bulbs include onions,
garlic, shallots, hyacinths, daffodils, lilies, and tulips.

Tubers
 Sweet potato sprouting new plants from the eyes. This is an example of vegetative propagation. Ed
Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

Tubers are vegetative organs that may develop from stems or roots. Stem tubersarise from
rhizomes or runners that become swollen from storing nutrients. The upper surface of the tuber
produces the new plant shoot system (stems and leaves), while the bottom surface produces the root
system. Potatoes and yams are examples of stem tubers. Root tubers originate from roots that have
been modified to store nutrients. These roots become enlarged and may give rise to a new plant.
Sweet potatoes and dahlias are examples of root tubers.

Corms

Corms are enlarged, bulb-like underground stems. These vegetative structures store nutrients in
fleshy, solid stem tissue and are typically surrounded externally by papery scale-like leaves. Due to
their external appearance, corms are commonly confused with bulbs. The major difference is that
corms consist internally of solid tissue, while bulbs consist of layers of scale-like leaves. Corms
produce adventitious roots and possess buds that develop into new plant shoots. Plants that develop
from corms include crocus, gladiolus, and taro.

Suckers

This image shows a person pulling a sucker or stolon away from the rootstock of a rose bush.
Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images

Suckers or root sprouts are plant shoots that arise from buds on underground roots or stems.
Suckers may also sprout from buds near the base of the parent plant and can grow into new plants. A
number of shrubs and trees propagate through sucker production. Some examples include apple
trees, cherry trees, banana trees, hazel shrubs, roses, raspberries and gooseberries.
Plantlets

Kalanchoe pinnata (mother of thousands) undergoes vegetative reproduction by producing plantlets

along the plant leaf margins. These plantlets drop to the ground and can grow into a new plant.
Stefan Walkowski/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0

Plantlets are vegetative structures that develop on some plant leaves. These minature, young plants
arise from meristem tissue located along leaf margins. Upon maturity, plantlets develop roots and
drop from leaves. They take root in the soil forming new plants. An example of a plant that
propagates in this manner is Kalanchoe or mother of thousand plant. Plantlets may also develop from
the runners of certain plants such as spider plants.

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Artificial Vegetative Propagation

A field technician grafts multiple hybrid cultivators to a large avocado tree stump whose original
nursery graft failed. After the successful grafts, the tree will yield avocados of multiple varieties
spread over a long growing season. Alvis Upitis/Passage/Getty Images

Artificial vegetative propagation is a type of plant reproduction that is accomplished through

artificial means involving human intervention. The most common types of artificial vegetative
reproductive techniques involve cutting, layering, grafting, suckering, and tissue culture. These
methods are employed by many farmers and horticulturists to produce healthier crops with more
desirable qualities.

 Cutting - A part of a plant, typically a stem or leaf, is cut off and planted. Adventitious roots
develop from the cuttings and a new plant eventually forms. Cuttings are sometimes treated
with hormones before being planted to induce root development.
 Grafting - In grafting, a desired cutting or scion is attached to the stem of another plant
that remains rooted in the ground. Eventually, the tissue systemsof the cutting become
grafted into or integrated with the tissue systems of the base plant.
 Layering - This method involves bending plant branches or stems so that they touch the
ground. The portions of branches or stems in contact with the ground are then covered with
soil. Adventitious roots develop in the parts covered by soil and the attached shoot (branch or
stem) with new roots in known as a layer. This type of layering also occurs naturally. In
another technique called air layering, branches are scraped and covered with plastic to
reduce moisture loss. Adventitious roots develop where the branches were scrapped and the
branches are removed from the tree and planted. The branches develop into new plants over
time.
 Suckering - Suckers are allowed to grow forming a dense compact mat that is attached to
the parent plant. Since too many suckers can lead to a smaller crop size, excess numbers are
pruned. Mature suckers are cut away from the parent plant and transplanted to a new area
where they grow into new plants.
 Tissue Culture - This technique involves the culturing of plant cells that may be taken from
different parts of a parent plant. The tissue is placed in a sterilized container and nurtured in
a special medium until a mass of cells known as a callus is formed. The callus is then cultured
in a hormone-ladened medium and eventually develops into plantlets. Plantlets can then be
planted and develop into fully grown plants.