agronomy

Review
Benefits of Crop Rotation on Climate Resilience and Its
Prospects in China
Taize Yu 1 , Leo Mahe 2 , Ying Li 3 , Xue Wei 4 , Xiaoshang Deng 5 and Dan Zhang 3,6, *

1 Department of Agricultural Economics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74075, USA;

[email protected]
2 Shanghai American School, Shanghai 201201, China; [email protected]
3 The Nature Conservancy, Beijing 100600, China; [email protected]
4 Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA;
[email protected]
5 Department of Agricultural/Forestry Economics and Management, Northeast Agricultural University,
Harbin 150030, China; [email protected]
6 Graduate School, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In the context of climate change, increases in extreme weather have caused a series of
problems, severely reduced crop yield, and caused a loss of agricultural cultivation. In addition,
because of the high economic benefits, continuous cropping has become more popular but it leads
to higher land-use intensity in production systems, aggravating the problems of extreme climate
and seriously influencing China’s agricultural production and ecological environment. From this,
the importance of improvements to cropping systems’ resilience to climate change is now much
clearer than before. Crop rotation is an important tool for improving the climate resilience of the
agricultural production system and effectively solving the shortcomings of the current continuous
crop methodology. Crop rotation is indispensable in many national strategies, including food security,



ecological environment development, and rural revitalization. This study aimed to promote the


improvement of the crop rotation system in China and aimed to play a significant role in guiding
Citation: Yu, T.; Mahe, L.; Li, Y.; Wei,
X.; Deng, X.; Zhang, D. Benefits of
China towards the large-scale development of crop rotation. This literature review shows that crop
Crop Rotation on Climate Resilience rotation can effectively enhance climate resilience and reduce the fragility of agricultural cropping
and Its Prospects in China. Agronomy systems. It then delves into the origin and development of crop rotation, and summarizes the
2022, 12, 436. https://doi.org/ characteristics of crop rotation. In view of the neglect of ecological benefits in China’s agricultural
10.3390/agronomy12020436 development, this article puts forward three suggestions: first, developing crop rotation technology
based on local conditions; second, paying attention to the ecological benefits of crop rotation subsidies,
Academic Editor: François Gastal
followed by implementing appropriate and flexible subsidy policies; and, finally, carrying out rational
Received: 26 November 2021 evaluations and policy adjustment of crop rotation practices.
Accepted: 25 January 2022
Published: 10 February 2022 Keywords: extreme weather; fragility; climate resilience; policy suggestion
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations. 1. Introduction
Agricultural crop cultivation is one of the most sensitive and vulnerable sectors within
the context of climate change [1]. Global warming changes the climatic suitability of
crop species, and extreme weather, including high temperatures, rainstorms, and floods,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
results in the loss of crop yields [2]. Moreover, it causes drier and warmer soil, harming
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
beneficial soil microorganisms and animal growth, thus affecting soil health and increasing
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
the severity of plant diseases, pests, weeds, and other issues, which greatly affect crop
conditions of the Creative Commons
yield and overall quality [3]. It is common for small-scale farmers to plant the same crop
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
continuously because of the lack of expertise [4]. Planting the same species or closely
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ related species for many years will generate degradation of soil quality and then cause an
4.0/). ecological imbalance, greatly impacting crop yield and quality. It not only leads to the loss

Agronomy 2022, 12, 436. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020436 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/agronomy

Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 2 of 18

of soil nutrients and aggravation of pests and diseases, but also further worsens the impact
of climate change on agriculture [5].
Crop rotation means planting different crops on the same land during successive
growth/seeding cycles [6]. Many researchers have found that crop rotation can effectively
improve the climate resilience of crops through the enhancement of water dynamics, soil
health, and biological conditions in planting systems. Bowles et al. [7] supported the
view that diversified crop rotation can effectively improve soil health and break the cycle
of herbivores, weeds, and pathogens, thereby increasing crop yields and bringing high
economic benefits. Even under drought conditions, diversified crop rotation can reduce the
effects of increased drought intensity and heatwaves by ensuring that the yield of maize and
other crops can resist extreme weather. Li et al. [8] pointed out that diversified crop rotation
can help improve the stability of the planting system and that, in the presence of extreme
weather, a robust agricultural ecosystem can reduce pressure and resist uncontrollable
weather and organisms.
Crop rotation has a long history in China. As early as the Warring States Period, a
simple crop rotation model was proposed, and the rotation of cereal crops and legumes was
found to be beneficial for grain yield [9]. The crop rotation system is highly consistent with
China’s green development system. It works towards stabilizing farmers’ incomes; allevi-
ates the issue of arable land quality degradation, soil fertility debasement, soil pollution,
and other ecological crises; and facilitates the achievement of China’s carbon-neutral strate-
gic goals [10]. Since 2016, China has carried out trials of crop rotation and fallow systems.
The trial area has increased rapidly: from 411,000 hectares in 2016 to 2,667,000 hectares in
2021 (Figure 1). The “Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social
Development and Vision 2035 of the People’s Republic of China” proposes to continue
to expand the trial area and increase capital investment to popularize the crop rotation
system [11].

Figure 1. Area of crop rotation and fallow trials in China (Source: Key points of planting industry work
in 2016–2021) [12–17].

The article reviews the relevant research progress on crop rotation for improving the
climate resilience of agricultural systems to illustrate the role of crop rotation in reducing
the fragility of cropping systems. It traces the development history of crop rotation in
China to summarize the background and characteristics of crop rotation systems in different
periods. Finally, to solve the existing problems in China’s crop rotation system, it discusses
feasible solutions for regional adjustment of crop rotation technology and improvements in
subsidy policies and evaluation mechanism, etc.

2. Crop Rotation Can Reduce the Fragility of the Planting System

Extreme weather (typhoons, rainstorms, droughts, high temperature, heat waves,
sandstorms, lightning, and other major meteorological disasters) not only seriously damage
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 3 of 18

planted or growing crops, but also damage soil health, causing serious pest and disease
problems, loss of biodiversity, and low crop yields, while the fragility of agricultural
planting systems is gradually exposed [18]. Taking the situation in 2020 as an example,
according to statistics, China’s crops affected by various meteorological disasters amounted
to 19,958,000 hectares, and the direct economic loss was 57 billion dollars, resulting in
farmers receiving lower benefits [19]. Crop rotation can increase farmers’ income while
ensuring soil health and resisting the effects of climate change. Crop rotation reduces the
negative effects of extreme weather on the planting system and reduces the fragility of the
agricultural system (Table 1).

Table 1. Benefits of crop rotations.

Field Benefit
Increased soil water storage and crop water use efficiency [22–25]
Water dynamics [20,21]
Reduced surface water runoff [26–32]
Improved physical and chemical properties of soil [37–44]
Increases soil enzyme activity, activates nutrients, and improves nutrient
Soil health [33–36] utilization [45–50]
Crop rotation
Improves the soil’s micro-ecology, reduces the pathogenic bacteria population, and
increases the beneficial bacteria population [51–59]
Reduces the dominance of each weed and controls weeds by enriching the diversity of
weed species [63–70]
Biology [60–62]
Increases the biodiversity of the crop system and disperses the risk of yield
reduction [71–75]

2.1. The Role of Crop Rotation in Water Dynamics

Crop rotation can increase soil water content, reduce water evaporation from the
planting system, and reduce surface water runoff, thereby ensuring high crop water use
efficiency [20]. This happens as a direct result of water retention and can improve a
farm’s farming system and ensure sufficient water sources for crops. Because water is
stored in crops or soil, the amount of ground water is reduced, which greatly reduces the
incidence and severity of flood disasters and enhances the climate resilience of the planting
system [21].

2.1.1. Increased Soil Water Storage and Crop Water Use Efficiency
In recent years, extreme weather (cold temperature, drought, etc.) has caused sig-
nificant evaporation of soil water, hindering the process of precipitation. Long-term soil
moisture shortages have severely affected soil health and crop yields [22]. To a certain
extent, the fragility of the agricultural system has been increased. Fortunately, studies
have shown that by properly rotating crops, the resistance of agricultural planting systems
to extreme weather can be increased [7]. On one hand, crop rotation can maintain or
even increase water storage capacity by improving the ability of the soil to retain water.
Wang et al. [23] conducted a maize–potato experiment in Gansu, China, and the results
showed that after 6 years of planting, continuous potato cropping would reduce the soil
water storage capacity of 0–280 cm by 186.31 mm, while continuous maize–potato crop-
ping would increase the soil water storage capacity by 11.29 mm. On the other hand,
crop rotation can increase the water use efficiency of crops by increasing crop yield, and
decreasing soil water evaporation and transpiration of the canopy [24]. The research of
Wang et al. [23] showed that, compared with continuous maize cropping, the soil water
consumption rate of maize–potato rotation cropping decreased by 16.81–24.83% and the
crop water use efficiency increased by 15.5–23.4% in 3 years. Han et al. [25] conducted a
crop rotation experiment with different combinations of alfalfa after plowing in the Loess
Plateau of China and found that after planting rapeseed during the winter, the average
grain water use efficiency increased by 44.4% compared with continuous winter rapeseed
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 4 of 18

cropping and by 42.9% compared with continuous cropping of winter wheat. Crop rotation
can greatly increase the soil water content, thus increasing the water use efficiency of crops,
promoting the water cycle between the soil and the atmosphere, and giving crops higher
resistance to extreme weather.

2.1.2. Resisting Flood Disasters by Reducing Surface Water Runoff

An increase in land water evaporation will lead to flooding disasters, and global
warming leads to more of this evaporation, which causes increased water content in the
atmosphere and higher than average rainfall when it does rain, leading to larger-scale
floods, which will seriously affect agricultural production [26]. However, crop rotation has
a certain effect on increasing the water infiltration rate and reducing surface water runoff,
which will mitigate flood disasters. Baumhard et al. [27] found in an experiment in Texas,
United States, that a rotation retaining wheat straw residues increased the penetration of
rainwater by more than 25 mm per hour from a Pullman clay loam, attributing this to the
increase in aggregate stability. In addition, the role of crop rotation in reducing surface
runoff and alleviating soil erosion has also been confirmed. Carrol et al. [28] carried out a
wheat and sunflower rotation experiment in the Central Queensland Plateau, Australia.
It showed that if a crop was sown at the right time or when seeding conditions were met,
a sunflower–wheat rotation could reduce surface runoff by 13%, increasing transpiration
by 17.9% and decreasing water evaporation, soil loss, and the occurrence of floods, which
was clearly shown when compared with continuous sunflower cropping under conditions
of less tillage. In general, rotation with cover crops such as legume crops and wheat will
not only effectively increase soil water infiltration but also increase soil surface roughness.
This is able to reduce surface water runoff while ensuring soil water storage [29]. Crop
rotation may not directly affect the occurrence of floods, but it can control the factors that
cause floods by affecting soil and hydrological characteristics, and indirectly play a role in
drainage. At the on-site level, crop rotation increases soil water content, thereby improving
soil stability and reducing soil erosion [30,31]. At the watershed level, crop rotation helps
reduce the risk of waterlogging and alleviates flood disasters through reducing both runoff
and the flow rate of surface water, and improving drainage capacity [32].

2.2. The Role of Crop Rotation in Soil Health

Soil health refers to the sustainability of soil as an important biological ecosystem to
maintain the survival of plants, animals, and human beings [33]. Crop rotation effectively
improves soil health. First, crop rotation can improve the soil’s structure, enhance the
soil’s physical and chemical properties, boost the soil’s erosion resistance, and effectively
resist the hazards of extreme weather such as floods and droughts [34]. Furthermore, crop
rotation can increase soil enzyme activity, therefore improving soil fertility. This is beneficial
for crop growth and increases resistance to extreme weather [35]. Finally, crop rotation can
increase the number of beneficial bacteria in the soil and reduce the number of pathogenic
microorganisms in the soil, thus reducing the number of crop diseases and pests caused
by climate change, therefore ensuring crop growth, improving the quality of crops, and
reducing damage to the planting system caused by extreme weather [36].

2.2.1. Improving the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil, Promoting Root Growth,
and Enhancing Crop Resistance
Crop rotation significantly benefits the soil’s structure, its physical and chemical prop-
erties, and the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other elements in the
soil [37]. Crop stalks, stubble, roots, and fallen leaves are important soil nutrient supple-
ments, while crops like root crops, leafy vegetable crops, and fruit vegetable crops leave
few nutrients remaining in the soil. The solution is to introduce crops such as legume crops
and gramineous crops to the planting system, making use of biological carbon sequestra-
tion to maintain the nitrogen balance of the soil [38]. At the same time, crop rotation can
increase the amount of organic soil matter to improve soil fertility and increase the system’s
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 5 of 18

resistance to extreme weather (including gales and drought). Wright et al. [39] found
in a study in Auckland, New Zealand, that after a potato and onion rotation, compared
with continuous potato cropping, soil organic matter and soil nitrogen content increased
by 12% and 11%, respectively, and microbial carbon and microbial nitrogen increased by
9.9% and 7.8%. Dayegamiye [40] conducted field trials on potato rotations in Quebec,
Canada. It was found that after a potato and oats rotation, soil organic matter and nitrogen
content increased by 9.5% and 12.5%, respectively. Chen et al. [41] found from a planting
experiment in Yunnan, China, that a flue-cured tobacco–vetch–rice rotation model could
effectively improve the nutrients of the original soil, increasing the organic matter by 45%,
the alkali-hydroxy nitrogen by 32.5%, the available phosphorus by 227.5%, and the avail-
able potassium by13.3%. In addition, crop rotation can effectively enhance the soil scour’s
resistance and soil erosion resistance, reduce the severe damage caused by malignant soil
erosion due to extreme weather, and reduce the sensitivity of the planting system [42].
Alternate planting of deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants results in uniform root dis-
tribution, good loose soil structure, increased soil porosity and permeability, reduced soil
bulk density, improved soil aggregate stability, increased water retention and stability, and
increased resistance to soil erosion by extreme weather. A study by Goff [43] in Iowa,
USA, found that, compared with continuous cropping, rotating alfalfa with maize could
increase the stability of soil aggregates by 35%. Wang et al. [44] conducted a crop rotation
experiment in a double-cropping rice area in Jiangxi Province, rotating double-cropped rice
with milk vetch, rapeseed, and other crops. The results showed that multiple cropping and
rotation in rice fields could effectively reduce microaggregates and form large aggregates.
The soil became more stable, which improved the water and soil erosion rate and reduced
the likelihood of flooding triggered by extreme weather. Meanwhile, it prevented the
loss of pollutants in farmland soil to water bodies, reduced agricultural non-point source
pollution, and protected the ecological environment.

2.2.2. Increasing Soil Enzyme Activity, Activating Nutrients, and Improving

Nutrient Utilization
Soil enzymes are biological catalysts for soil biochemical reactions and participate
in a series of biochemical processes in the soil. Soil enzyme activity is usually used to
characterize the level of soil fertility. Higher soil enzyme activity can indicate high soil
fertility and good soil health [45]. Crop rotation can create a good soil environment,
increase soil moisture, and promote the reproduction and growth of microorganisms.
Microorganisms act as mediators to catalyze the reaction process of enzymes, thereby
increasing enzyme activity, boosting soil fertility, and improving the ability of crops to
resist extreme weather [46]. The potato–maize rotation study of Wan et al. [47] found
that the soil urease, catalase, and sucrase activities of the sweet potato rotation and the
jade yam rotation increased by 5.71%, 2.19%, and 4.85% and 52.07%, 32.23%, and 11.62%,
respectively, compared with those before sowing, which were much higher than those
under potato continuous cropping. In terms of fruit and vegetable crops, Hong et al. [48]
found that a lettuce–spinach rotation increased catalase activity by 12.81% compared with
continuous lettuce cropping, and enhanced the abundance and diversity of bacteria in
the soil. Xu et al. [49] showed that the soil urease, invertase, catalase, and phosphatase
activities increased by 23.4%, 5.1%, 29.8%, and 12.8, respectively, after a rotation of apples
and onions.
Therefore, crop rotation can effectively improve the soil enzyme activities of cropping
systems Soil enzyme activity can characterize potential effective nutrients and the adsorp-
tion properties of colloids in the soil. These two characteristics are important indicators of
soil quality [50]. Hence, an increase in soil enzyme activity brought about by crop rotation
can effectively show the good development of the soil and an improvement in soil fertility.
Healthy soil gives strong support to crops against extreme weather.
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 6 of 18

2.2.3. Managing Pests and Plant Diseases by Improving the Soil’s Micro-Ecology, Reducing
the Pathogenic Bacteria Population, and Increasing the Beneficial Bacteria Population
Climate change will cause an imbalance in soil microbial flora and diversity, causing a
reduction in the beneficial microbial populations, along with the enrichment of pathogenic
microorganisms, which will trigger various soil-borne plant diseases. Launay et al. [51]
predicted that by 2100, due to climate change, the risk of wheat leaf rust caused by Puccinia
triticina in France is expected to greatly increase. St-Marseille et al. [52] predicted in Quebec,
Canada, that the number of generations of Heterodera glycines is expected to increase by 2070.
In addition, studies have shown that with an increase in continuous cropping years, the
problem of pests and diseases will also become more serious, increasing the damage to the
ecological environment [53]. However, crop rotation can reduce the occurrence of soil-borne
diseases by increasing the number of soil microbial communities, microbial abundance,
the soil bacteria/fungus ratio, and the microbial carbon and nitrogen content. After crop
rotation, plant residue enters the soil to provide a carbon source, a nitrogen source, and an
energy flow for microbial reproduction. In addition, a decrease in the number of pathogenic
fungi reduces their nutritional competition with the bacteria, promoting the bacteria to
produce antibiotics and extracellular enzymes and restoring the balance of the soil microe-
cosystem [54]. Meng et al. [55] used PCR-DGGE technology to explore the differences in
the soil’s fungal community structure between continuous potato cropping and a potato–
maize rotation, and found that with the increase in continuous potato cropping years,
pathogenic bacteria in the soil, such as Fusarium oxysporum and F. solani increased signifi-
cantly. Zhao et al. [56] explored the impact of continuous potato cropping and crop rotation
on the soil bacterial community through high-throughput sequencing. They concluded that
the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolicus, Acinetobacter
calcoaceticus, and Ethizobium etli was higher than that in potato continuous cropping soil.
Crop rotation improves the ability of crops to resist soil-borne diseases by increasing the
abundance of microorganisms in the soil and the number of microbial communities, and
by controlling the number of harmful pathogens, thereby greatly reducing the probability
of crops being affected by soil-borne diseases and guaranteeing improvements in crop
yield and quality. In Canada, Guo et al. [57] rotated wheat, flax, and other crops with
rapeseed, and found that crop rotation could reduce the incidence of rapeseed blackleg
by 14–76% and the severity of the disease by 6–65%. Adhikari [58], in field trials of crop
rotation in Chitwan, Nepal, found that the onset of bacterial wilt was delayed by 1–3 weeks
and the severity of bacterial wilt was reduced by 20–26% after the rotation of tomato and
maize, carob, cowpea, or disease-resistant tomato. However, crop rotation cannot control
the population of harmful microorganisms when introducing all kinds of crops. Through
an experiment at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Marburger et al. [59] found that
the introduction of wheat into a crop rotation increases the presence and population of
Fusarium spp.
Therefore, crop rotation can effectively solve the problem of the high incidence of pests
and diseases caused by climate change, improve soil health and ecological environment
while improving crop quality, reduce the costs of agricultural producers, and promote the
green development of agriculture.

2.3. The Role of Crop Rotation in Biology

Crop rotation can increase the biodiversity in the planting system [60]. On the one
hand, it increases the number of weeds, reducing the dominance of each weed, decreasing
the number and density of weeds in the planting system, and resisting the increase in weed
populations caused by climate change to guarantee production [61]. On the other hand, the
introduction of multiple crops can reduce the exposure of specific crops, share the risk of
a particular crop reduction caused by extreme weather, and lower the impact of extreme
weather on yield [62].
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 7 of 18

2.3.1. Reduce the Dominance of Each Weed and Control Weeds by Enriching the Diversity
of Weed Species
Climate change will cause an increase in weed acreage around the world. Sha-
bani et al. [63] found 32 species of weeds worldwide that are expected to increase by
2050 in European countries, northern Brazil, eastern United States, and southeastern Aus-
tralia. Wan et al. [64] found eight major weeds in China, and the area of six of them is
expected to increase. The growth of weeds often causes many problems. They will compete
with crops for resources such as space, light, nutrients, water, etc., resulting in crop failure,
an inability to effectively face extreme weather, and declines in yield and quality [65].
Therefore, in production, farmers usually use herbicides for chemical weed control. Most
herbicides are not conducive to soil health and cause serious damage to the ecological
environment [66]. Crop rotation can affect the weed community and soil seed bank, thus
reducing the density of weeds and the number of weed seeds in the soil seed bank [67].
Zohry and Ouda [68] discussed the effect of implementing crop rotation on controlling
weeds in Egypt. In an intensive crop rotation, weeds related to wheat, maize, and cotton
were reduced by 51%, 70%, and 66%. Crop rotation can enrich the diversity of weed species
and reduce the dominance of each weed to a certain extent, thus preventing a single weed
from becoming a dominant species. The rich species diversity contributes to the good
operation of farmland ecosystems. Brankov et al. [69] searched for the best Integrated
Weed Management model in Serbia. The results showed that compared with continuous
maize cropping, the introduction of winter wheat could effectively reduce weed density
and biomass. In a crop rotation system, applying only half of the herbicide had the same
effect as the full application rate. If farmers combine crop rotation with the application of
isoxaflutole and S-metolachlor, almost all weeds will disappear. Gao et al. [70] studied the
diversity of weeds in a long-term rice–rice–milk vetch rotation cropping field in Hunan
and found that while the crop rotation reduced the weed density, it also reduced the types
of weeds during the growth period of early rice but did not affect the late rice period. The
types of weeds ensure the diversity of weeds. By controlling weed density and increasing
weed diversity, crop rotation can help farmers better manage weeds, avoid environmental
pollution caused by herbicide use, and reduce the fragility of cropping systems.

2.3.2. Dispersing the Risk of Yield Reduction and Reducing the Fragility of the Planting
System through Diversified Planting
In recent years, the climate has been severely affected by human activities, and extreme
weather has repeatedly occurred, creating major problems for the quality and yield of crops.
Xie et al. [71] calculated, through a model, that under the worst climate change scenario,
China’s wheat yield will decline by 9.4% by 2050. Lin et al. [72] predicted that from 2025 to
2080, the output of rice, maize, and wheat will reduce by 37%. Crop rotation can reduce the
risk of crop losses caused by extreme weather. Crop rotation diversifies the production of
agricultural systems. The use of multiple crop rotations can effectively reduce the exposure
of specific crops to extreme weather and share the risk of reduced yields caused by extreme
weather. Different crops can adapt to different types of extreme weather. Even if a certain
type of extreme weather will reduce the yield of a certain crop, the risk of other crops
may be lower because there are many types of crops in the system. Degani et al. [73]
conducted wheat rotation experiments under different climatic pressures and found that
increased crop diversity could ensure yield when external inputs were reduced, and the
yield increased by an average of 1 Mg/ha. Crop stress resistance can be improved by
crop rotation diversification, thus forming a more resilient system. In addition, because
most of the crop rotation combinations are within a year, choosing different time periods
to plant suitable crops will not affect the planting area of the main crops. Therefore, in
general, under the influence of extreme weather, the diversified planting strategy stabilizes
production and reduces the fragility of the planting system.
In addition, climate change will change the phenology, distribution, and abundance
of species, making some species extinct, increasing the frequency and intensity of pest
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 8 of 18

outbreaks, changing the structure and function of ecosystems, and significantly increasing
the fragility of planting systems [74]. The rotation of diversified crops, compared with single
crop cultivation, can provide food sources and habitats for different species, facilitating
the growth of more animals, plants, and soil microbes, therefore increasing biodiversity.
Beillouin et al. [52] collected data on 120 crops in 85 countries around the world for
meta-analysis and found that diversification increased crop yields by 14% and the related
biodiversity by 24%. Torralba et al. [75] also used a meta-analysis to summarize 53 studies
on agroforestry planting systems in Europe. The results showed that agroforestry planting
has a positive effect on biodiversity, and the results were heterogeneous. Therefore, crop
rotation technology, unlike traditional agriculture, can effectively resist the adverse impact
of climate change on the biodiversity of the agricultural system. Farmland with rich species
diversity can better resist pests, promote pollination, reduce the risk of reduced production,
and ensure the sustainable development of agricultural systems.

3. China’s History of Crop Rotation

Crop rotation systems have been practiced in China for a long time. Since the Spring
and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there have been irregular crop rotations.
However, in the process of crop rotation, no other advantageous crop rotation combinations
have been explored. The crop rotation system is in a relatively primitive state [65,66].
Since the Qin and Han dynasties, China has continuously explored some more profitable
crop rotation modes, such as paddy and dry rotations in the southern rice-growing areas,
and rotations of beans, cereals, and wheat in the north; at the same time, China has
explored some planting techniques that can be combined with crop rotation, such as
intercropping, which can greatly increase food production and increase harvests [61–68].
Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, China has gradually strengthened its
emphasis on environmental protection, expanded the types of crop rotation, and increased
the diversity of crop rotations [69–72]. The development history of crop rotation in China
is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. The development of crop rotation in China.

Time Background and Purpose Crop Rotation Mode and Characteristics

It was gradually discovered that crop rotation
The Spring and Autumn Random crop rotation was adopted [76]. It was
could reduce the damage to soil fertility caused
Period and Warring States flexible in crop types, rotation sequence, and
by continuous cropping, the dominant
Period (400 B.C.) rotation cycle [77].
planting method at the time [76].
Soybean and cereal crop rotations and paddy
Due to the increasing attention paid to soil and dry rotations were initially formed [48].
The Periods of the Pre-Qin
fertility, farmers actively changed their farming Intercropping and multiple cropping were also
and Han Dynasty (200 B.C.)
methods to develop crop rotation [77]. implemented. The cropping system established
fixed patterns in different regions [76].
To restore the depressed economy, resist
Rotations of beans and cereals were
The period of the Wei and Jin drought, and ensure harvests, people
widely used [78].
Dynasties and the South and improved farmland water conservancy and
Rotations of food crops and green manure
North Dynasty (200–580 A.D.) farming technology, contributing to
crops received attention [79].
development of the crop rotation system [77].
With the emphasis on agriculture, the Paddy and dry rotations, and beans and cereal
government set up specialized agencies to rotations were further developed, and the
The period of the Sui, Tang, assist farmers, promoting the diversification of double-cropping system of wheat–rice rotation,
Song, and Yuan Dynasties crop rotation patterns [80]. The demand for soybean–rice rotation, and rapeseed–rice
(580–907 A.D.) crops in south China increased because of rotation were widely promoted [79];
population growth, improving the rotation of The rotation of grain crops and green manure
typical southern crops [81]. crops spread to the north [76].
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 9 of 18

Table 2. Cont.

Time Background and Purpose Crop Rotation Mode and Characteristics

To maintain and stabilize the agricultural In the south, the rice-based crop rotation was
economy, people continued the previous crop mature, while in the north, the cotton–grain
The period since the Ming and
rotation system. To improve land utilization to rotation was dominant [76];
Qing Dynasties
obtain the maximum economic benefits, Rotation with intercropping was more widely
(1368–1912 A.D.)
farmers strengthened a combination of crop used, such as interplanting winter wheat with
rotation and intercropping [81]. maize in the 2-yearly triple cropping zone [81].
The area of double-cropping and
To solve the problem of food shortages due to
triple-cropping per year expanded. Fruit and
Since the establishment of the the large population base and rapid growth
vegetable crops were added to the rotation [83].
People’s Republic of [82], the country actively promoted the
The cropping system was developed to
China (1949) intensive and high-yield crop rotation method
improve the multi-cropping index and
to improve grain yield.
crop diversification.

China has a long rotation cropping history. Various cropping rotation systems have
been hugely important, and a large amount of planting experience has been accumulated
in production. However, throughout the historical development of crop rotation in China,
farmers have mainly focused on economic benefits, ignoring the ecological benefits that
crop rotation itself can bring [84]. With the emergence of climate problems in recent years,
climate disasters have occurred more frequently, massively impacting the agricultural
development of China. Crop rotation is an effective way to improve the climate resilience
of the cropping system, and it is therefore vital to explore crop rotation technology with
higher climate resilience in mind for future development.

4. Outlook of Crop Rotation in China

In response to the aforementioned problems, China should improve crop rotation
technology and further optimize the crop rotation system. China must recognize the
ecological challenges in different regions and strengthen the implementation of beneficial
techniques (e.g., conservation tillage, cover crops, water-saving irrigation, etc.) to obtain
ecological benefits, including enhanced climate resilience. The government should also
strengthen publicity on and the promotion of crop rotation to cope with climate change,
accurately implement crop rotation subsidy policies, and carry out reasonable evaluations
or policy adjustments of crop rotation on time, so as to improve China’s crop rotation
system and contribute to the development of China’s rural revitalization.

4.1. Optimize Crop Rotation Systems in Response to Climate Change and Develop Supporting
Technologies in Accordance with Local Conditions
Climate change puts forward more requirements for the implementation of crop
rotation technology. Therefore, identifying regional ecological challenges, conducting
rational crop rotations, and strengthening the implementation of supporting technologies
are key to proper execution.
China has a large land area, with significant differences in climate and soil among
regions, leading to dramatic differences in ecological challenges. Agro-ecological zones
are regional areas divided according to soil, terrain, and climate characteristics, and each
region has similar constraints and development potential in land use [85]. It is neces-
sary to improve the planting structure and develop suitable crop rotation techniques
according to the different agro-ecological zones. China’s agro-ecological zones are di-
vided into 10 regions: the middle–lower reaches of Yangtze, Jiangnan, South, Sichuan,
Southwest, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Northeast, Huang-Huai-Hai, Northwest, and North
Platea (Appendix A Figure A1) [86]. It is essential to determine a win–win economic and
environmental crop rotation method according to the different natural and socio-economic
conditions in each agro-ecological zone. The following section will describe the climatic
and environmental characteristics of the major productive zones, including Northwest,
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 10 of 18

Huang-Huai-Hai, Northeast, the middle–lower reaches of the Yangtze River, South, and
Southwest; demonstrate the challenges they face and explain what crop rotation methods
they can use and how rotations can help solve challenges.
Most of the irrigated areas in northwest China have a temperate continental climate
and alpine climate, with severely cold and dry winters, high temperatures in summer,
scanty precipitation, and large daily and annual temperature differences. This area is the
most sensitive zone in response to climate change, and the overall warming and drying
trend is obvious. Drought is a frequent climate problem in this region [87]. Therefore,
it is recommended to add potato, maize, cotton, and other crops to the rotation process
because these crops are drought-tolerant, require less water, play a role in preserving
water, and can make full use of favorable conditions, including sufficient sunlight and
heat, to increase crop yields [88]. In addition, supporting measures for conservation
tillage can be adopted. Conservation tillage, which involves reducing tillage and using
crop residues to cover the land, helps the soil retain nutrients and moisture, reduces the
damage caused by drought to crops, and enhances the resistance of cropping systems to
extreme weather [89]. Such measures can effectively solve the climate problems faced
by the Northwest. The application of conservation tillage in the maize–wheat–soybean
rotation system in the west of the Loess Plateau showed that maize yield increased by 9.97%
under the conditions of traditional tillage + straw mulching, and the average water storage
increased by 7.4 mm under the conditions of no-tillage + straw mulching, compared with
conventional tillage [90]. Thus, conservation tillage can significantly increase the benefits of
crop rotation, allowing the soil to retain water, reduce erosion, and withstand dry weather
in the Northwest.
The Huang-Huai-Hai Plain of northern China has a temperate monsoon climate.
In recent years, precipitation has decreased significantly, the temperature has increased
vastly, and extreme weather events have occurred frequently. There is a serious warming
trend and a clear drying trend, resulting in the low water use efficiency of crops [91].
Therefore, the main challenges facing this area are drought and water shortages, meaning
it is particularly important to save water resources in crop planting for this region. During
the process, the planting area of crops with high water consumption should be limited, and
drought-resistant varieties should be cultivated and introduced. The addition of maize and
potato to the rotation with wheat can effectively improve water use efficiency [92], which
would not only adapt to the trend of decreasing precipitation but would also maintain
water and resist drought in this environment. At the same time, the planting structure
should be adjusted in appropriate areas. The joint development of the planting industry,
the fruit growing industry, and the animal breeding industry should be adopted to ensure
economic benefits. Moreover, in the selection of supporting technologies for crop rotation,
attention should be paid to water-saving concepts, including dryland water collection and
water-saving tillage. Agricultural technologies, including drip irrigation, spray pipes, and
pipeline irrigation, should be promoted so farmers can effectively conserve water, reducing
evaporation in the farming process and resisting the arid climate in this environment [93].
After adopting water-saving irrigation in the winter wheat and summer maize rotation
regions in north China, the annual yield and annual water use efficiency increased by 5.19%
and 18.97% compared with adopting heavy irrigation [94]. Therefore, considering the
rotation-based benefits, water-saving irrigation can increase crop yield, increase water use
efficiency, improve the effectiveness of rainfall, and reduce dependence on groundwater.
Northeast China has a temperate monsoon climate with four distinct seasons, being
warm and rainy in summer, and cold and dry in winter. However, the annual mean
surface temperature has increased significantly in recent years, the decadal change in
precipitation’s has been obvious, sunshine hours have declined significantly, the number
of high-temperature days has increased slightly, and the frequency of low-temperature
days or cold waves has fallen greatly, the snow accumulation period has been shortened,
and the maximum depth of snow has been reduced. The trend of warming and drying is
obvious, with frequent occurrence of sandstorms, droughts, floods, salinization, and other
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 11 of 18

problems [95]. Therefore, rice planting in crop rotations should be promoted for northeast
China, making full use of the increased temperature and increased heat resources, and
increasing food output to avoid the adverse effects of rising temperature on crop growth
as far as possible, thus adapting to the trend of climate warming. Furthermore, due to
the abundant heat in summer, it would be a good choice to select mid-to-late-maturing
maize varieties and the drought-tolerant, waterlogged, and saline-alkali-tolerant maize
varieties [96]. In addition to climate problems, the soil in northeast China also has serious
issues. The black soil in northeast China is recognized as the most fertile land in the world.
However, because of extreme weather such as floods and strong winds, the precious topsoil
of farmland has been greatly diminishing [97]. Therefore, conservation tillage with straw
can be applied to farmland in northeast China. Furthermore, it can effectively protect
soil moisture and nutrients, along with reducing greenhouse gas emissions and slowing
down climate change. According to the findings of the DNDC model simulation [98],
conservation tillage with straw can effectively protect soil moisture and nutrients, reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, and slow down climate change. Therefore, it can be applied to
farmland in northeast China.
Unlike the dry weather in the north, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River,
South China, and southwest China mostly have subtropical monsoon and tropical monsoon
climates. It is hot and rainy in summer, and mild and rainy in winter. It is humid all year
round and has four distinct seasons. In recent years, rainfall has increased gradually, the
temperature has increased significantly, and wind speed and cloud cover have decreased,
the number of high-temperature and haze days has increased. Extreme climate events have
shown a rising trend, with frequent impacts of typhoons, severe storm surges, and frequent
flooding, resulting in a decrease in biodiversity, an increase in the growth of weeds, and
greatly increased fragility [99]. To solve this problem, we should increase the planting
of tropical crops (e.g., rubber) in crop rotations to make use of the rich heat resources,
increasing the absorption of water and adapting to the warmer and wetter climate. We
should cultivate and introduce rice, sweet potato, and other varieties that are resistant to
disease, pests and waterlogging to reduce the negative impacts, which will help resist flood
disasters and stabilize crop yields [92]. Adding cover crops in the rotation system is also
a beneficial practice. After planting cover crops in winter in rice-growing areas in south
China, Chinese milkvetch increased soil microbial carbon content by 13.97%, soil microbial
nitrogen by 152.46%, dry matter yield by 14.11%, and rice yield by 10.87% [100]. Cover
crops can improve and stabilize the soil’s organic matter content, reduce crop nutrient
losses, lower fertilizer applications, enhance soil stability, alleviate soil erosion, and fight
against extreme weather such as floods and freezing [101], which can effectively solve
the challenges in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, South China, and
southwest China.

4.2. Pay Attention to Subsidies for the Ecological Benefits of Crop Rotation, Implement Subsidy
Policies Differently, and Improve Green Finance
There are some issues with the current crop rotation subsidy policy in China. First,
the crop rotation subsidies mainly focus on spring and summer crops and ignore winter
cover crops [102], leading to the low enthusiasm of farmers about planting cover crops
in autumn and keeping farmers away from gaining the full advantage of crop rotation
stratagems during the winter. Second, the subsidy policy for crop rotation is single and
uniform. The subsidy standards for a province or a city are the same, not considering
the weather, economic, and/or environmental conditions [103]. It lacks flexibility without
validity in the market mechanism. Third, the subsidy issuance procedure is complicated,
and it is prone to inefficiency, corruption, embezzlement, and other problems [103]. These
problems limit the incentive function of the subsidy policy and are not conducive to the
development of crop rotation systems in different regions.
To solve these issues, subsidies for the ecological benefits of crop rotation should be
promoted, including planting subsidies for winter cover crops, which can cover the soil
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 12 of 18

surface during the high winds of north China’s winter to resist wind erosion and bring
additional economic benefits to farmers [102]. Moreover, a flexible subsidy system is an
important guarantee for crop rotation development and a policy tool in response to extreme
weather. The government should strengthen the degree of refinement for subsidy policies,
carry out differentiated and precise subsidies, and formulate different subsidy standards
for different regions and crop types to support crop rotation technologies and prevent
the problem of oversubsidization and undersubsidization [103]. Moreover, the govern-
ment should simplify the granting procedures for subsidies and connect the departments
of granting subsidies directly to farmers as much as possible. The government should
diversify the subsidy method, improve the subsidy evaluation system, and accurately
analyze farmers’ needs from unique levels and angles. For example, in the United States,
direct payment subsidies are very rare, whereas crop insurance plans, income guarantee
subsidies, and price support are extremely widespread subsidy methods, which effectively
reduce farmers’ risks by guaranteeing their income and providing funds [104]. Insurance
companies, trust companies, and government agencies should all become involved in
subsidies for crop production. The government could more accurately and scientifically
evaluate the farmers’ plans and give subsidies according to market feedback, reducing the
risks of rotation techniques, and therefore preventing farmers’ losses from the short-term
use of crop rotation measures. This will increase their confidence, effectively promote crop
rotation technology, and reduce the fragility of the planting system in the long run. In
addition to monetary subsidies, the government can also provide non-monetary grants.
They can purchase high-quality seeds for specific crops and distribute them to farmers
free of charge. In addition, the government can provide technical assistance for farmers.
For example, in the US’s 2018 Farm Bill, the Environmental Quality Incentives Program
introduced 5- to 10-year incentive contracts allowing farmers who adopted climate-smart
conservation practices, including crop rotation, to receive technical assistance [105]. This
increased the enthusiasm of pioneers to adopt new crop varieties and technologies, and
promoted the development of a planned sequence of specific crops. Finally, for crop ro-
tation technology innovations and applications, governments should adjust subsidies to
increase the intensity of subsidies for emerging technologies, shifting support to effective
measures more directly targeted towards climate resilience [106]. From this, they should
provide more funding for productivity research and development and subsidize the cost of
applying these technologies.

4.3. Establish a Reasonable Assessment of the Application of Crop Rotation Technology and Make
Policy Adjustments in Time
Crop rotation, as a technology that can increase the climate resilience of cropping
systems, needs to be implemented over a long period of time to be effective. The gov-
ernment should conduct regular inspections and evaluations. In many cases, due to the
lack of experience, there are loopholes in the implementation of crop rotation technology,
including an inability to select a suitable crop rotation and the lack of use of supporting
technologies that can cooperate with crop rotation [107]. Therefore, regular inspection and
evaluation can effectively find out previous mistakes, adjust in time, and maximize crop
rotation efficiency. One of the most important things is to develop a detailed and accurate
standard assessment system for the acceptance of grassroots organizations. The United
States and Canada established environmental benefit assessment systems based on soil
census data, cultivated land geographic information data, and social and economic data,
and focused on adjusting crop rotation methods according to global grain yield and market
conditions, achieving good results [108]. Soon, China should also focus on improving its
soil and geographic information databases, along with formulating accurate indicators,
accelerating monitoring methods (e.g., remote sensing technology), and cooperating with
third-party institutions to regularly evaluate crop rotations and to make relevant and timely
adjustments. This will make the crop rotation system move towards a healthy development
path. In addition, evaluations should not only focus on economic benefits but also give
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 13 of 18

importance to ecological benefits. Sustainability assessment mechanisms need to be based

on complete data on soil health, systemic biodiversity, etc. to track the performance of mod-
ified farming practices during the climate change adaptation program in the area [106]. The
establishment of complete, consistent, comparable, and transparent assessment criteria can
accurately measure the outcome of local actions and facilitate learning and communication
among different regions to update to newer action plans, effectively aiding to reduce the
cropping system’s fragility.

4.4. Improve the Ability of Farmers to Resist Climate Risks and Strengthen the Training and
Promotion of Climate Change Adaptation Technology
Farmers are the main implementers of agricultural production activities. Most farmers
in China are not well educated. They lack agricultural knowledge and technology, along
with environmental protection consciousness, and tend not to take the initiative to adopt
the rotation planting techniques of extreme weather, resulting in severe yield losses from ex-
treme weather [109]. Strengthening the promotion of environmentally friendly agricultural
technologies and climate change education will improve farmers’ ideological level and ef-
fectively publicize crop rotation policies and methods, therefore improving climate change
knowledge and the green skills required by farmers to utilize crop rotation. China can
learn from the practices of other countries and carry out publicity and promotion in several
ways [110]. First, seminars should be held regularly in villages, towns, and counties. Partici-
pants can include farmers, employees of agricultural enterprises, university professors, and
government staff, etc., providing a good platform for them to strengthen the connection
between theory and practice. Second, the government should carry out similar training
to explain to farmers the local rotation measures and policies for sustainable agricultural
development, helping them to adjust their farming and tackle the impact of the extreme
weather in a scientific and effective way. During the training period, government workers
also can learn about the ideas and needs of agricultural workers to provide good advice
for future work [108]. Third, we should encourage the development of non-governmental
voluntary organizations, which can effectively assist the work of the government and be
closer to farmers, contributing to training and education. Through effective training and
promotion, farmers can be exposed to advanced crop rotation techniques, and their under-
standing of relevant policies can be promoted effectively [110], which will help improve
climate resilience and reduce the fragility of cropping systems.

5. Conclusions
In summary, crop rotation can effectively reduce the fragility of cropping systems.
Concerning water, crop rotation can improve soil water content and crop water efficiency
by adding water-retaining crops into the cropping system. In terms of soil, crop rotation
can effectively improve the soil’s physical and chemical properties, increasing soil enzyme
activity, boosting soil fertility and stability, and enhancing the ability of the planting system
to resist extreme weather. In terms of biology, crop rotation can not only improve the soil’s
microbial ecology and increase the content of beneficial bacteria in the soil, reducing insect
pests and plant diseases in the planting system, but also can increase the biodiversity of
the ecological system, reducing the presence of a single weed to reduce the number of
weeds, diminishing the damage of weeds withing planting system, and safeguarding the
ecological balance of nature. Moreover, the climate resilience of cropping systems is greatly
enhanced, as crop rotation reduces crop exposure and the risk of yield reductions. As
climate issues become more prominent, China should develop supporting technologies for
crop rotation in the future, formulate policies related to crop rotation according to local
conditions, refine subsidies, improve farmers’ awareness of crop rotation through training,
and strengthen the supervision of crop rotation technology. Crop rotation can have better
application and development prospects in the future to effectively guarantee the climate
resilience of the cropping system.
Agronomy 2022, 12, 436 14 of 18

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.Y. and D.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, T.Y.
and X.W.; writing—review and editing, L.M., X.D., Y.L. and D.Z. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by TNC-Syngenta “China Arid and Semi-arid Region Sustainable
Agriculture Demonstration Project” (grant number P118870).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Authors would like to thank Yinlong Xu, researcher of Institute of Agricultural
Environment and Sustainable Development, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, for accurate
revision of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Figure A1. Agro-ecological zones of China [86].

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