Hindawi

Journal of Food Quality

Volume 2022, Article ID 5159084, 10 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5159084

Research Article
Physicochemical, Rheological, and Sensory Properties of
Gluten-Free Cookie Produced by Flour of Chestnut, Date Seed, and
Modified Starch

Mehrdad Mohammadi ,1 Nasim Khorshidian ,1 Mojtaba Yousefi ,2

and Amin Mousavi Khaneghah 3
1
Department of Food Technology Research, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute,
Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
2
Food Safety Research Center (Salt), Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
3
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil

Correspondence should be addressed to Nasim Khorshidian; [email protected] and Amin Mousavi Khaneghah;
[email protected]

Received 1 September 2021; Revised 26 November 2021; Accepted 30 December 2021; Published 2 February 2022

Academic Editor: Shudong He

Copyright © 2022 Mehrdad Mohammadi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
A gluten-free rice flour-based cookie was produced using different mixtures of chestnut flour (0, 30, 40, and 50%), date seed flour
(0, 10, and 20%), and modified starch (0.3, 0.5, 0.6, and 0.9%). Physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties of the
prepared treatments were investigated. The results showed that moisture, specific volume, and dough viscosity were the lowest in
control and the highest in treatment T1 containing 20% date seed flour, 30% chestnut flour, and 0.9% modified starch (P < 0.05).
The highest (22.15 N) and the lowest hardness (13.5 N) were obtained in the control and T1, respectively, both of which increased
over the storage time (P < 0.05). Regarding the texture characteristics of different dough treatments, the control illustrated the
lowest adhesiveness and the highest hardness and chewiness. Sensory evaluation revealed that gluten-free treatments were
acceptable from the consumers’ point of view. It was concluded that T1 as a gluten-free cookie had the highest quality.

1. Introduction products, and the limited availability of GF products indi-

cates this difficulty [3–5]. To prevail this issue, utilization of
Coeliac or celiac disease (CD) is among the most common various GF flours (rice, maize, and sorghum), pseudocereals
chronic diseases worldwide that emerge in individuals ge- (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat), legumes (soybean,
netically susceptible to gluten resulting in enteritis and chickpea, and carob germ flour), starches (corn, potato,
nutrient malabsorption. Consumption of prolamines found cassava, and modified starch (MS)), hydrocolloids, and
in cereals like wheat, barley, rye, some oat cultivars, and their proteins have been investigated to modify GF products’
derivatives has been reported as the leading cause of this technological, sensory, and nutritional features [6, 7].
disease [1]. Adherence to a gluten-free (GF) diet is proposed Cookies are extensively consumed throughout the world
for CD treatment. According to Codex Alimentarius, “GF” and are a good energy source for all age groups. They are
label can be applied only for foods made of GF ingredients available in different shapes and flavors with long shelf life
containing less than 20 ppm gluten [2]. and low cost. Moreover, they can be produced through GF
Producing GF food products, especially those with ac- formulations with excellent quality and sensory properties.
ceptable functional and sensory properties, is a great chal- There is no need for gluten network development, and the
lenge since gluten is responsible for the structure of these influential primary factor on the texture is the gelatinization
2 Journal of Food Quality

of starch [8]. A large number of ingredients such as alfalfa preparation because it increases the formulated product’s
seed [9], quinoa [10], and germinated pinto bean [11] flour phenolic compounds and dietary fiber [36].
as well as locust bean gum [12], xanthan gum [13], waxy rice The literature review shows no investigation of the in-
starch [14], and pea protein [15] have so far been used as an fluence of different CF, DSF, and MS combinations on the
alternative for wheat flour in the cookie recipe. GF cookies. The reason could be that the date mainly grows
Rice flour is one of the most suitable cereals for de- in the Middle Eastern countries, including Iran. Hence, the
veloping gluten-free products due to its mild taste, color- present research attempts to develop a GF rice flour (RF)-
lessness, hypoallergenic properties, low levels of sodium, and based cookie using different CF, DSF, and MS levels and
easily digestible carbohydrates [16]. However, one of the determine their effect on the cookie.
significant problems associated with GF bakery products is
low nutritional quality as a result of the lower content of 2. Materials and Methods
vitamins (folate and B12), minerals (iron, zinc, magnesium,
and calcium), and dietary fibers [17] that can be addressed by 2.1. Materials. Rice, Fajr cultivar, purchased from a market
adding suitable ingredients in the formulation such as in Rasht city, Iran, was soaked in water, ground, and then
chestnut flour and date seed flour. passed through an 80-mesh sieve. The obtained flour was
Chestnut is composed of water, carbohydrate, and a low heated in an oven at 45°C to reach the moisture content of
quantity of fat. Chestnut flour (CF) is used for producing GF 10%. Sugar, shortening, eggs, vanilla powder, and baking
foods such as GF bread and biscuit [18–26]. Its composition powder were obtained from the local supermarkets in the
is near to cereal flours regarding the amount of starch same city.
(40–50% w/w); however, its sucrose content is higher In order to prepare CF, European chestnut (Castanea
(20–32%) [27]. Besides, it is a good source of essential amino sativa) fruits were purchased from a local market. Then, they
acids, dietary fibers, vitamin E, vitamin B group, potassium, were added to boiling water to facilitate peeling and reducing
phosphorous, and magnesium and contains low-fat content bitterness. After drying and peeling the fruits, they were
mainly composed of unsaturated ones and phenolic com- ground, and the fine flour with 180–200 µm was obtained
pounds and vitamins [28]. after sieving. In order to prepare DSF, seed powder of date,
Modified starch (MS) could be used as a substitute for Shahani cultivars, was purchased from Minoo Co. (Shiraz,
wheat starch as it influences water absorption and rheo- Iran). Then, it was ground, and the fine flour with 300–500
logical properties of the dough, degree of starch gelatini- um was obtained after sieving. The heat-moisture method
zation, texture, and bread staling [29–31]. Reports show that was applied to modify wheat starch [37].
modified starch is used in GF bakery products like high
amylose corn starch, acetylated distarch adipate, and 2.2. Cookie Preparation. The ingredients used for the
hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate in GF bread [32]; pre- preparation and treatment of cookies are presented in Ta-
gelatinized tapioca starch in rice bread [33]; and malto- ble 1. Initially, shortening and sugar were mixed for 3 min.
dextrin [34]. In the heat-moisture treatment of starch, the Then, we added water, eggs, and MS and mixed them all for
granular shape is maintained at heating above 100°C in the 5 min. Next, RF and other powdered ingredients were added
presence of water. Heat-moisture treatment starch increases and mixed to achieve a dough flattened into sheets of 0.6 cm
the stability to mechanical agitation, increases the hydro- thickness. Next, it was allowed to rest for 30 min at 4°C.
phobicity, and decreases the hydrophilicity of starch paste Afterward, it was cut using a circular mold (4.5 cm diameter)
[35]. and baked at 180°C for 14 min. Then, all cookies were cooled
Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) mainly grows in the down and maintained in distinct sealed bags at room
Middle East and North Africa. The date is a nutritious and temperature. For each formulation, three batch replicates
high-energy food. Date seeds contain significant dietary fiber were produced. GF cookies were prepared based on the
and micronutrients such as selenium, iron, calcium, phe- control method by adding CF and DSF.
nolic compounds, mainly flavonoids, sterols, tocopherols,
metal ions, and essential amino acids. Date seed is con-
sidered a good source of bioactive ingredients in the for- 2.3. Physicochemical Analysis. Moisture (Method 44–19)
mulation of functional foods. Date seed flour (DSF) has been was measured using the AACC method. The specific volume
used as an alternative for wheat flour in pita bread of treatments was calculated by the method of rapeseed
displacement 2 h after baking [38] as follows:

volume displacement by each treatment

specific volume 􏼐cm3 /g􏼑 � . (1)
weight of each treatment
Journal of Food Quality 3

Table 1: Quantities of variable ingredients (g) used in the for- 3. Results and Discussion
mulation of cookies doughs.
3.1. Physicochemical Characteristics. Moisture content
TreatmentsA Rice flour CF DSF MS
substantially influences the cookies’ mechanical strength
ControlB 100 0 0 0.5
(crumbliness) and crunchiness. As shown in Figure 1, the
T1 50 30 20 0.9
T2 50 40 10 0.9
control has the lowest moisture content (35.5%) compared
T3 50 50 0 0.9 to other treatments (p < 0.05). Furthermore, T1 showed the
T4 50 30 20 0.6 highest moisture content (51%) among all treatments
T5 50 40 10 0.6 (p < 0.05). This can be attributed to the high protein and
T6 50 50 0 0.6 fiber content in DSF and CF and the presence of hydroxyl
T7 50 30 20 0.3 groups that enhanced the capability of interaction with water
T8 50 40 10 0.3 molecules and thus increased moisture content. The high MS
T9 50 50 0 0.3 (0.9%) level also contributed to maintaining the moisture
A
The other ingredients (g) in all treatments: sugar: 45, shortening: 30, water: within these treatments.
20, egg: 8, baking powder: 0.9, NaHCO3: 0.75. BControl (cookie without CF Reference [42] found an increase in the moisture amount
and DSF).
of bread containing guar gum because of hydrocolloids’ high
water holding capacity. According to [43], CF exhibited
Color analysis was performed using HunterLab Col- higher water holding capacity than other GF flours for its
orFlex EZ (USA) in three different zones of the crust, and higher fiber content. Moreover, it has been declared that CF
the output was reported as three measurements’ average contained a high level of damaged starch, which increased
using the values of CIE L ∗ , a ∗ , and b ∗ . L ∗ is indicative water absorption [44].
of lightness varying from 0 (black) to 100 (perfect white), Bakery product volume is a crucial factor influencing
whereas a∗ and b∗, respectively, illustrate +redness/ consumer acceptability. Many GF products are formulated
−greenness and +yellowness/−blueness [39]. with RF; however, the lack of gluten in RF decreases CO2
retention [45]. The influence of RF replacement by CF, DSF,
and MS on a specific volume of treatments is demonstrated
2.4. Dough Viscosity Measurement. Apparent viscosity in Figure 2. The control and T1 showed the lowest (2.85 cm3/
(mPa·s) of different dough treatments was measured using g) and the highest (4.6 cm3/g) values, respectively, compared
Brookfield viscometer (Model DVII, USA). Spindle No. 7 to the other treatments (p < 0.05). Reference [46] mixed
was set to 10 rpm. We used spindle No. 7 for all experiments, potato starch and CF to prepare GF cake. They reported that
and viscosity measurement was conducted at room tem- a specific volume of treatments decreased by increasing CF
perature (25 ± 1 °C). in the formulation. Likewise, as [47] mentioned, increasing
the level of okara flour substitution in GF cookies decreased
2.5. Textural Analysis. Textural analysis of different treat- the specific volume because fibers interfered in the structure
ments was determined for hardness, adhesiveness, and and gas retention, hindering the dough. It has also been
chewiness using a TA. XTplus texture analyzer (Stable Micro expressed that increasing the protein content led to an in-
Systems, UK) [40]. Hardness was determined on the 1st and crease in cake volume due to an increase in batters’ visco-
4th days after baking. Texture properties were determined 6 elasticity and the time the batters need to become semisolid.
times for each treatment. The peak force to snap the This can be attributed to protein-starch transition and in-
treatments was reported as fracture force in “N.” teraction [48].
Protein and sugar interaction during baking ends with
Maillard reaction and change of color values. Thus, a baked
2.6. Sensory Evaluation. Sensory analysis of fresh treatments product’s color, texture, and taste are important in con-
was done on a baking day by 10 male and 10 female trained sumers’ acceptability. Figure 3 presents the L ∗ , a ∗ , and b
assessors comprising technicians and laboratory members of ∗ values of prepared treatments with different flours. As
the cookie producer company with ages ranging from 30 to shown, the control is brighter than other treatments, as
45 years in separate booths. Three-digit random codes were indicated by higher L∗ values, and T1 has the lowest value.
assigned to the treatments and were assessed for flavor, Concerning a ∗ , T7 possesses the highest a ∗ value
firmness, chewing ability, and overall acceptability based on compared to other treatments (p < 0.05), except T3 and T9,
a 5-score hedonic scale (like extremely � 5 and dislike sig- whereas T5 showed the lowest a∗ . As shown in Figure 3, the
nificantly � 1). Bottled water at room temperature was also highest b∗ value is observed in T5 compared to other
provided to clean the palate between the treatments [41]. treatments (p < 0.05), and the lowest value belongs to T1. In
terms of the recorded difference in total color (ΔE), the
2.7. Statistical Analysis. All statistical analyses were per- lowest and the highest values were T1 (47.48) and T5 (66.18),
formed by the SPSS software (ver. 22) (IBM Corporation, respectively (p ˂ 0.05). It can be elucidated that incorporating
Somers, NY). Data were presented as M ±SD and analyzed different flours as gluten replacers reduced L∗ value and
by the ANOVA. Duncan’s multiple range test was used to elevated a∗ value. A similar trend was observed by incor-
determine significance between means. Differences at porating okara into the GF cookie, where a reddish color and
p < 0.05 were considered to be significant. an increased yellowness were achieved. In addition, a
4 Journal of Food Quality

60

b
50 c c
cd
d cd d d
40 da
a
Moisture (%)

30

20

10

0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment
Figure 1: Moisture content of cookies prepared with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS. For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1. The
treatments with different lowercase letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

5 b
4.5
e
4 d d
d d
cd cd
3.5 cd
Specific volume (cm3/g)

a
3

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment
Figure 2: Specific volume of cookies prepared with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS. For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1. The
treatments with different lowercase letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

negative relation was found between the lightness of the containing CF indicated lower L∗ and higher values of a ∗
cookie and protein content due to an increase in Maillard and b ∗ than the control justified by naturally darker color
reaction [47]. and higher sugar content of CF, leading to more browning
Reference [18] stated that supplementation with CF in during baking. This darker color was considered desirable
GF biscuits significantly lowered L ∗ and elevated a ∗ and since most GF products possess lighter colors than prod-
b ∗ . Similarly, [14] reported that addition of alfalfa seed ucts with gluten. Moreover, consumer demand is higher for
flour to GF rice cookies decreased L ∗ and increased a ∗ these dark-colored GF products [23]. In addition, [49]
and b ∗ . The changes in color indices were attributed to the reported increased values of a∗ and b ∗ and decreased
native pigmentation of flour and the Maillard reaction value of L ∗ by increasing the level of CF incorporated into
during baking. Reference [26] found that cookies cookies.
Journal of Food Quality 5

60 a a
bc a c 50 e
50 b bc b b b
40 40 a
a a a a
30 30 b ab
L*

b*
20 c
20
10 10
0 0
Control

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

Control

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9
Treatment Treatment
(a) (b)
10
d d
a a d
5 c c
b e f
0
Control

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9
-5 70 e
a ad ad ad
a*

Color difference
60 c c c c
-10 50 b
-15 40
30
-20 20
10
-25 0

Control

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9
Treatment

Treatment
(c) (d)

Figure 3: Color parameters of cookies prepared with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS. For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1. The
treatments with different lowercase letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

3.2. Apparent Viscosity of Cookie Dough. As shown in Fig- T1, respectively (p < 0.05). In line with our results, [26]
ure 4, the lowest and the highest viscosity were obtained in illustrated that cookies prepared from RF demonstrated the
control (442 cP) and T1 (2425 cP), respectively, compared to highest hardness value due to the absence of enough vis-
the other treatments (p < 0.05). This can be ascribed to the cosity to inhibit air bubble loss during baking. It was further
high hydroxyl groups in DSF and maintaining the water. mentioned that RF replacement with CF up to 40% de-
Moreover, the fibrous structure of CF is the other reason creased the hardness of cookies considerably [26].
influencing viscosity. Fiber entanglement also helps resist According to [24], increasing the level of chestnut flour and
flow and increases the viscosity [23]. Reference [50] showed xanthan-guar gum blend decreased the bread staling con-
the viscosity increase of GF cake batters by increasing the siderably by reducing the amylopectin retrogradation, bread
quinoa flour content. The authors declared that the increase hardness, and moisture loss. Similarly, [52] reported a de-
of viscosity was associated with the amount of water crease in cookie hardness by increasing the amount of chiku
available in the system, which was influenced by the level of fiber added to cookie formulation.
proteins in the flour. Since quinoa flour absorbed water, Reference [53] pointed out that the mixture of CF and
there was less free water for promoting particle movement in brown rice (60 : 40%) decreased GF snacks’ hardness sig-
batters, leading to increased viscosity. The effect of flour’s nificantly. It was emphasized that the high sugar content of
protein content on viscosity has been proved by some other CF probably delayed starch gelatinization through inter-
researchers [48]. acting with starch linkages and reducing water activity that
resulted in stabilization of the amorphous regions of starch
granules and texture changes during frying. Reference [54]
3.3. Texture Characteristics. Figure 5 indicates the effect of stated that the desirable texture of dry food products such as
different flours on the hardness of treatments. As shown, by cookies could be destroyed during storage, possibly due to
increasing the storage time, the hardness increases signifi- the recrystallization of sucrose in cookies with high sugar
cantly. This increase is defined as the staling process for and low moisture that was confirmed by [55].
water departure from crumb to crust and starch recrystal- Results of the texture characteristics of dough treatments
lization, which changes the bread texture [51]. On the first are demonstrated in Figure 6. The lowest hardness and
day of storage, the control showed the highest hardness chewiness were recorded in T1, while the highest values were
(22.15 N), and T1 indicated the lowest hardness (13.5 N) observed in the control dough (p < 0.05). In the case of
(p < 0.05). Four days after storage, the highest (22.39 N) and adhesiveness, T8 showed the highest value, while T6 and
lowest (13.87 N) hardness were observed in the control and control exhibited the lowest values (p < 0.05). Reference [56]
6 Journal of Food Quality

3000

b
2500

Apparent viscosity (mPa.s) c

2000 c c

d
1500
f

1000 e e
ae
a
500

0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment
Figure 4: Apparent viscosity of cookies prepared with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS. For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1. The
treatments with different lowercase letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

25
a
c
c c
20
d
d d
d d
Hardness (N)

15 b

10

0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment

Day 1
Day 4
Figure 5: Hardness of cookies prepared with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS during storage. For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1.
The treatments with different lowercase letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

observed a change in GF cookies’ textural properties by in- texture, aroma, and taste compared to wheat flour products.
corporating king palm flour. It has been noted that by adding Generally, GF bakery products exhibit lower sensory ac-
king palm flour, the adhesiveness of dough treatments de- ceptability due to the undesirable appearance, darker color,
creased compared to the control due to the existence of fibers. more complex texture, and dry sandy feeling in the mouth
Incorporating fiber sources in bakery products increased the [41].
water binding capacity because of the hydroxyl groups Table 2 indicates the influence of RF replacement with
existing in the fiber structure and facilitated hydrogen CF, DSF, and MS on GF treatments’ sensory characteristics.
bonding with water, affecting textural characteristics [57]. The results illustrated that incorporating gluten replacers in
cookie formulation had little influence (p < 0.05) on dif-
ferent treatments’ flavor and chewing ability. The lowest
3.4. Sensory Properties. Gaining favorable sensory charac- scores were recorded in control and T2 concerning firmness,
teristics is a tremendous challenge in developing GF while the highest values were those of T3 and T5. The control
products. GF products exhibit different appearances, colors, and T4 showed the lowest overall acceptability, while T6
Journal of Food Quality 7

10
9 a

8
e e
7 c de de
c
Hardness (N) 6 c cd
5
4 b
3
2
1
0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment
(a)
0.09
f
0.08
0.07 e
c
Adhesiveness (N.S)

0.06
d d
0.05
b b
0.04 b
a
0.03 a
0.02
0.01
0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment
(b)
1 a
0.9 a ae
de
0.8 d d
d
0.7 c
Chewiness (mj)

c
0.6
0.5
b
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Treatment
(c)

Figure 6: Textural characteristics of cookies prepared with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS. For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1.
The treatments with different lowercase letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

received the highest score (p < 0.05). Consistently, [58] the most significant overall acceptance. In the study [52], the
expressed that treatments containing 100% RF demonstrated addition of 7% concentrated chiku fiber powder to GF cookie
the lowest overall acceptability, but the incorporation of resulted in the highest overall acceptability. Similarly, [41]
soybean flour improved the sensory characteristics. Besides, reported that RF replacement with almond flour ended with
cookies containing 85% RF and 15% soybean flour obtained higher overall acceptability scores by panelists.
8 Journal of Food Quality

Table 2: Sensory characterization of GF cookies formulated with varying levels of CF, DSF, and MS.
TreatmentsA Flavor Firmness Chewing ability Overall acceptability
Control 3.5 ± 0.83a 2.83 ± 1.16a 3.16 ± 0.75a 3.0 ± 0.63a
T1 4.0 ± 1.4a 3.8 ± 0.44b 3.8 ± 0.8a 4.0 ± 0.7b
T2 3.6 ± 1.1a 2.6 ± 0.54a 3.4 ± 0.54a 3.4 ± 0.89b
T3 3.75 ± 0.5a 4.25 ± 0.5c 3.25 ± 0.5a 3.75 ± 0.5b
T4 3.0 ± 0.7a 4.0 ± 0.7ab 3.6 ± 0.89a 3.0 ± 0.11a
T5 3.6 ± 1.1a 4.2 ± 0.44c 3.2 ± 0.83a 3.8 ± 1.0b
T6 3.6 ± 1.1a 3.4 ± 0.89b 3.6 ± 1.1a 4.2 ± 0.83b
T7 3.83 ± 0.75a 3.5 ± 1.0b 3.83 ± 0.75a 3.83 ± 0.4b
T8 3.25 ± 0.95a 3.25 ± 1.5b 3.5 ± 1.29a 3.5 ± 1.0b
T9 4.0 ± 1.1a 3.8 ± 1.3b 3.4 ± 1.1a 3.4 ± 0.54b
A
For the treatments’ descriptions, see Table 1. Means followed by different lowercase letters within a column are significantly different (p < 0.05). A higher
value indicates higher overall acceptability.

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