Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research papers

Powering up the energy storage: Exploring the potential of Graphitic

Carbon Nitride-Strontium Oxide Nanohybrid for next-generation energy
and photocatalytic applications
Sami Ullah a, Muhammad Arshad Kamran a, *, Muhammad Raheel a, Thamer Alharbi b,
Wasif Ali a, Bingsuo Zou c
a
Department of Physics, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
b
Department of Physics, College of Science, Majmaah University, Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia
c
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Processing for Non-Ferrous Metals and Featured Materials, School of Resources, Environments, and Materials, Guangxi University, Nanning
530004, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The world today is facing an unprecedented environmental and energy crisis. To tackle these issues, there is a
Nanohybrids growing focus on developing advanced energy storage and photocatalytic systems. In this study, we explored the
Electrodes potential of novel graphitic carbon nitride‑strontium oxide nanohybrids (GCN-SrO NH) for next-generation
Graphitic carbon nitride
supercapacitor and photocatalytic applications. The green microwave-assisted approach was applied to syn­
Strontium oxide
Electrochemical supercapacitors
thesize desired materials. The GCN-SrO NH electrode exhibited an excellent specific capacitance of 482 F/g at
Photocatalyst 0.5 A/g with an energy density of 16.7 Wh/kg and a power density of 146.2 W/kg. A two-electrode symmetric
supercapacitor was assembled to further examine the capacitive performance of GCN-SrO NH in practical ap­
plications. Consequently, the GCN-SrO NH//GCN-SrO NH symmetric supercapacitor device displayed an
exceptional specific capacitance of 242 F/g at 0.5 A/g. The device delivered the highest energy density at 18.9
Wh/kg with an outstanding power density of 187.5 W/kg. The practicability of the assembled device was also
demonstrated by glowing red LED. Moreover, GCN-SrO NH based catalyst showed excellent degradation effi­
ciencies (97.21 %, 98.59 %, and 92.9 %) against methylene blue (MB), methyl orange (MO), and rhodamine B
(RhB) dyes under visible light. This research reveals the potential of GCN-SrO NH for cutting-edge energy storage
and environmental applications.

1. Introduction energy storage technologies that outperform traditional energy storage

technologies in terms of durability, charging speed, and power densities.
Due to the utilization of fossil fuels, rising energy needs and envi­ These enable them to efficiently and quickly capture energy from an
ronmental concerns have stoked a rise in awareness over the past few interrupted power supply (such as those produced by renewable energy
decades. By 2050, it is anticipated that the world will need twice as sources) [6]. Nowadays, E-SCs are often utilized in applications that
much as energy it does now due to industrialization and the rapid rise of need rapid charging or discharging, such as regenerative braking sys­
the population [1,2]. Currently, the majority of the world's energy needs tems in hybrid automobiles. They are also utilized in power grids,
are met by fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, all of which are handheld devices, LEDs, backup power sources, and spotlights, among
expeditiously running out [3,4]. The use of fossil fuels unavoidably other things [7,8]. By utilizing various electrode materials, including
produces damaging emissions that are detrimental to the ecosystem. In carbon, MXenes, transition metal sulfides, oxides, or various combina­
order to get over this impediment and effectively convert energy while tions of them depending on their applicability, scientists are attempting
protecting the environment, cutting-edge research in materials science to increase the efficiency of E-SCs [9–11]. Carbonaceous materials stand
and engineering has been conducted [5,6]. out among these due to their potential for use in supercapacitors,
Electrochemical supercapacitors (E-SCs) are extremely adaptable including their notable mechanical and chemical stability, elevated

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.A. Kamran), [email protected] (T. Alharbi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108806
Received 22 May 2023; Received in revised form 30 July 2023; Accepted 21 August 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

surface area, easy fabrication, natural abundance, accessibility of pre­ was also tested using three different dyes including methylene blue
cursors, and bipolarity, which results in continuous charge/discharge (MB), methyl orange (MO), and rhodamine B (RhB) under exposure of
cycles [12–14]. visible light. GCN-SrO NH based catalyst showed superior photocatalytic
Graphitic carbon nitride (GCN), a two-dimensional semiconductor degradation efficiencies (97.21 %, 98.59 %, and 92.9 %) against MB,
with a layered structure similar to graphene, has become one of the most MO, and RhB, respectively as-compared to both pure SrO and pure GCN.
desirable materials in a variety of fields, including water splitting, This work provides the strategy to design cost-effective and high-
photocatalysis, sensing, and supercapacitors on account of its performance materials for next-generation energy and photocatalytic
outstanding chemical and thermal stability, the excess of raw materials, applications.
ease of preparation, wettability, and high nitrogen content [15]. How­
ever, limited active surface area, severe irreversible capacity loss, low 2. Experimental
electrical conductivity, fast recombination rate of electron-hole pairs,
minimal capacity to exploit the visible spectrum of light, and high 2.1. Materials
contact resistance, hinders the potential application of GCN in super­
capacitors and photocatalysis [16–18]. So, the hybridization of GCN Urea (CH4N2O), Strontium Nitrate (Sr(NO3)2), Activated Carbon
with other suitable materials can overcome the above-mentioned (AC), Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), Potassium Hydroxide (KOH), and
limitations. Ethanol (C2H6O) are bought from Sigma-Aldrich. Nickel foam (sub­
Owing to their many oxidation states, metal oxides (MOs) such as strate) is acquired from MTI USA. All of the chemicals were purchased at
ferrous oxide (Fe3O4), nickel oxides (NiO), ruthenium oxide (RuO2), analytical grade, and they were utilized without additional purification.
manganese dioxide (MnO2), cobalt oxide (Co3O4), and strontium oxide Moreover, deionized water (DIW) was used during the whole
(SrO) have been explored as pseudocapacitive materials for E-SCs experimentation.
[19–22]. They have a built-in pseudocapacitive nature. They may be
applied to raise the specific capacitance (Cp) of GCN by constructing a 2.2. Preparation of GCN
binary nanocomposite within the right potential window (Table S1).
Therefore, they have a huge potential to design supercapacitors with We applied a direct decomposition approach to synthesize pure GCN.
boosted capacitance. Among all other MOs, SrO has captivated the most In this method, GCN is obtained by the thermal treatment of urea
research consideration owing to its alluring electronic conductivity [27–29]. Simply put 50 g of urea in an alumina-crucible that was moved
[23–25]. A thorough investigation of the electrical, thermal, and elec­ to a muffle furnace. The crucible containing urea was then heated to
trochemical characteristics of stoichiometric strontium was published 550 ◦ C at a speed of 5 ◦ C/min. This temperature was retained for 180
by Marina et al. [26]. They have discussed strontium's behavior with min under atmospheric conditions. After natural cooling down to room
high conductivity. Moreover, Strontium is relatively abundant in the temperature, the powdered GCN with yellow color was obtained.
Earth's crust, and its oxide form is commercially available at a reason­
able cost. Considering the scalability and practical implementation of 2.3. Preparation of Ficus carica leaf extract
the proposed nanohybrid material, it was important for us to choose a
constituent that is readily accessible and economically viable for po­ The Ficus carica plant was utilized to get the aqueous extract. About
tential large-scale applications. SrO possesses unique chemical proper­ 25 g of the leaves were carefully cleaned three times with tap water and
ties including high melting point, good thermal stability, and excellent three times with DIW and cut into fine pieces which were again washed
electrical conductivity [23–26]. These properties are crucial for energy with ethanol to remove the dust and impurities on the surface and dried
storage systems as they ensure stability and efficient charge transfer in air. The pieces were thinly chopped and boiled in a beaker with 100
within the nanohybrid structure. Due to interfacial properties, strontium ml of DIW for 1 h at 80 ◦ C before being allowed to cool at room tem­
oxide exhibit good compatibility with GCN to ensure efficient charge perature. Ficus carica leaf extract was obtained by filtering it using
transfer and synergistic effects between the two materials. The unique Whatman No. 1 filter paper and then it was directly used in experiments.
properties of GCN and SrO can enhance each other's performance, The Ficus carica leaf extract plays a crucial dual role in our study as a
making the hybrid material more efficient for specific applications, such reducing agent and a capping agent during the synthesis of the GCN-SrO
as energy storage or photocatalysis. NH. Ficus carica leaf extract contains various bioactive compounds, such
To the authors' knowledge, no effort has been done that describes the as polyphenols and flavonoids, which possess inherent reducing prop­
hybridization of SrO with GCN for supercapacitors as well as photo­ erties [30,31]. In our study, we utilize these natural reducing agents to
catalysis, and the lack of such findings in the literature serves as the reduce metal precursors and stabilize them in their reduced form. The
main impetus for the current work. In this study, graphitic carbon reduction process leads to the formation of the desired products.
nitride‑strontium oxide nanohybrids (GCN-SrO NH) were synthesized
by using a low-cost microwave-assisted technique for the first time. The 2.4. Preparation of strontium oxide (SrO) nanostructures
fabrication of the desired materials was achieved within 10 min of mi­
crowave heating. All the fabricated materials were systematically In a typical experiment, 20 ml of DIW is used to disperse 1 g of Sr
investigated by morphological, structural, optical, and electrochemical (NO3)2 in a 250 ml beaker. After that, 20 ml of Ficus carica leaf extract
characterizations. In a three-electrode configuration, the GCN-SrO NH was dropped into the Sr(NO3)2 solution and stirred continuously for 30
electrode offered an excellent Cp value of 482 F/g at 0.5 A/g along with min at 80 ◦ C. The attained solution was put into a standard microwave
an elevated energy density (Ed) of 16.7 Wh/Kg and a high power density oven for about 10 min, which caused decomposition and dehydration
(Pd) of 146.2 W/Kg. The designed electrode (GCN-SrO NH) exhibited reactions to occur. Centrifugation at 5000 RPM was used to separate the
elevated cycling stability with a capacity retention of 88 % and resulting residue, which was then cleaned with DIW and then treated
Coulombic efficiency of 95 % after 6000 cycles. Moreover, the sym­ with ethanol to eliminate contaminants. After drying, the product un­
metric supercapacitor device (SSCD) was fabricated based on two pieces derwent the 2 h annealing process at 500 ◦ C.
of GCN-SrO NH electrode, which exhibits a superior Cp value of 242 F/g The plant extract has the highest phenolic content, the chemical
at 0.5 A/g with the Ed value of 18.9 Wh/kg at a Pd of 187.5 W/kg. Up to equation for the reaction can be expressed by using the generic formula
10,000 cycles, the device maintained remarkable cycling stability per­ for phenol (C6H6O), the chemical equation for the reaction can be
formance with 90 % of cyclic retention. The potentiality of the assem­ written as equation (Eq. (1)):
bled device was also demonstrated by illuminating a red LED.
C6 H6 O + Sr(NO3 )2 →SrO + CO2 + NO2 + H2 O (1)
Furthermore, the photocatalytic performance of the prepared materials

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

dried at 60o C and kept for the reusability experiments.

2.5. Preparation of Graphitic Carbon Nitride-Strontium Oxide
Nanohybrid (GCN-SrO NH) 3. Results and discussion

Graphitic Carbon Nitride-Strontium Oxide Nanohybrid (GCN-SrO 3.1. Structural properties

NH) was successfully synthesized by facile green synthesis. In a typical
experiment, 1 g of GCN and 1 g of Sr(NO3)2 were dispersed in 20 ml DIW 3.1.1. X-ray diffraction
in a 250 ml beaker. The solution was then gradually supplemented with The crystal structure and phase composition of the fabricated elec­
20 ml of Ficus carica leaf extract while being continuously stirred for half trode materials were explored via X-ray diffraction (XRD), as-displayed
an hour at 80 ◦ C. The combination of a solution was put into a standard in Fig. 1. XRD pattern of pure SrO nanostructures is depicted in Fig. 1(a).
household microwave oven for 10 min, which caused decomposition The peaks at 2θ30◦ , 2θ35.6◦ , 2θ50◦ , 2θ58.96◦ , and 2θ62.96◦ are accredited to
and dehydration reactions to occur. Centrifugation at 5000 RPM was reflections from (111), (200), (220), (311), and (222) planes of SrO, as
used to separate the resulting residue, which was then cleaned with DIW indicated in Fig. 1(a). Every diffraction peak has been found to match
and then treated with ethanol to eliminate contaminants. The dried the reference data (JCPDS no. 00-006-0520) quite well [32,33]. XRD
product was then annealed at 500 ◦ C for 2 h. The schematic illustration pattern of pristine GCN showed two characteristic peaks at 2θ13.1◦ and
of the preparation of GCN-SrO NH is displayed in Fig. S1. The equation
2θ27.3◦ which are attributed to reflection planes (100) with d = 6.7205 Å
of the chemical reaction can be written as (Eq. (2)):
and (002) with d = 3.3602 Å, respectively (Fig. 1(b)). These diffraction
GCN + C6 H6 O + Sr(NO3 )2 →GCN − SrO + CO2 + NO2 + H2 O (2) peaks are in accordance with the JCPDS card No. 87-1526 and indexed
to the hexagonal phase of pure GCN [34]. The XRD pattern of GCN-SrO
2.6. Characterization techniques NH showed the characteristic peaks of both GCN and SrO which in­
dicates the successful formation of nanohybrid (Fig. 1(c)). The peaks at
The crystalline structure of the GCN, SrO, and GCN-SrO NH were 2θ34.5◦ , 2θ49.8◦ , 2θ56.5◦ , and 2θ61.1◦ are attributed to reflections from
characterized by JDX-3532 diffractometer made by JEOL, Japan with Cu (200), (220), (311), and (222) planes of SrO while peaks at 2θ12.2◦ and
Kα radiation of wavelength (1.5418 Å) operated at 2θ range from 10◦ to 2θ27◦ are accredited to reflection planes (100) and (002) of GCN. The
70◦ . The morphology of the fabricated electrode materials was explored broadening of XRD pattern and the decrease in peak intensities observed
using MIRA3 TESCAN SEM running at a 5.0 KV accelerating voltage. in the composite material can be attributed to the structural modifica­
Elemental analyses of the samples were carried out through EDX tions induced by the Interfacial Interactions between GCN and SrO
incorporated with the SEM. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra were nanoparticles (Fig. 1(c)). When two different materials with different
taken via Edinburgh Instruments FLS920 spectrofluorometer. The crystal structures are combined, it can lead to lattice distortions, strain,
UV–Vis absorbance studies of the samples were recorded by Peak In­ and disorder within the composite structure. These structural modifi­
strument (Model C7200) in the range of 190–700 nm. Fourier-transform cations often result in broader diffraction peaks and reduced peak in­
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis was executed to confirm the mo­ tensities compared to the individual components. The reduced peak
lecular configuration of the materials in the range of 400–4000 cm− 1. intensity in the XRD pattern can also be attributed to a decrease in the
crystalline domain size of the composite material. The integration of
GCN and SrO nanoparticles can result in the formation of smaller crys­
2.7. Electrochemical measurements
tallites, which scatter X-rays less efficiently, thereby reducing the peak
intensity in the diffraction pattern. The nanohybrid composite material
All the electrochemical studies of the designed electrodes were
may exhibit increased porosity compared to the individual components.
evaluated via an electrochemical workstation GAMRY Reference 3000
The presence of pores, voids, or interstitial spaces can contribute to
(42012). The working electrode was designed by mixing 10 wt% acti­
diffraction broadening and lower peak intensities. Additionally, the
vated carbon, 5 wt% nafion, and 85 wt% of the active material. Attained
integration of different materials at the nanoscale can introduce local
slurry was pressed on a piece of Ni foam (2.5 × 1.5 cm2) which was then
lattice distortions and disorder, leading to a decrease in peak intensity.
dried at 70 ◦ C for 8 h. The mass loading of the synthesized electrode was
Moreover, GCN itself is a partially graphitic and partially amorphous
~2 mg. In a three-electrode system, a platinum wire functioned as the
counter electrode, an Ag/AgCl electrode acted as the reference elec­
trode, and a 2 M KOH aqueous solution served as the electrolyte. The
electrochemical performance of designed electrodes was evaluated via
cyclic voltammetry (CV), constant-current galvanostatic-charge-
discharge (GCD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

2.8. Photocatalytic evaluation

In order to test the photocatalytic activity, 15 mg of catalyst was

dissolved in an aqueous solution of test dyes (MB, MO, and RhB) in a
100 ml glass container. The concentrations of test dyes were 10 mg/l of
water. The solution was continuously stirred for half an hour in the dark
to bring the photocatalyst and the test dyes into equilibrium. The
chemical solution was then positioned 5 cm away from the source of
visible light (390–730 nm). After that, visible light was shone on the
mixture for an additional 70 min. 5 ml of the MB solution were removed
and centrifuged after each period of 10 min. In order to quantify
absorbance in a UV–vis spectrophotometer, the suspension was retained.
Decomposition of MB, MO, and RhB is indicated by a decrease in their
highest absorption at 664 nm, 483.5 nm, and 554 nm, respectively, with
increasing exposure duration. After initial degradation trial, the reaction Fig. 1. (a) X-ray diffraction patterns of pure SrO (a), pure GCN (b), and GCN-
mixture was centrifuged to separate the photocatalyst, which was then SrO NH (c).

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

material. The presence of amorphous regions can also lead to a decrease commonly attributed to the breathing mode of the triazine ring within
in the intensity of XRD peaks as compared to fully crystalline materials. the GCN lattice. The breathing mode refers to the in-plane vibrations of
The amorphous regions within the GCN-SrO nanohybrid contribute to the atoms in the six-membered ring, where the atoms move toward and
the observed decrease in peak intensity. It is worth noting that the broad away from each other, causing a change in the bond lengths and angles.
PXRD pattern and reduced peak intensity are commonly observed in The origin of this peak lies in the force constants and bond lengths be­
nanoscale materials and composite systems. These phenomena do not tween the carbon and nitrogen atoms in the triazine ring. When the
necessarily indicate a lack of crystallinity or the absence of desirable material interacts with incident photons, this specific vibrational mode
properties. In fact, the unique structural characteristics of nanohybrids is excited, leading to the Raman peak at 1482 cm− 1 in the spectrum as-
can offer enhanced functionalities and catalytic performance. The displayed in Fig. 2(b) [39–43].
average crystallite size of the synthesized electrode materials was Raman spectrum of GCN-SrO NH is composed of peaks from both
computed using Debye Scherer's equation (Eq. (3)) [35,36]. GCN and SrO as-displayed in Fig. 2(c). The first peak appears at 611
cm− 1 is accredited to the out-of-plane bending vibration of C–N bonds
kλ
D= (3) in the GCN-SrO NH. The second peak is around 767 cm− 1 relates to the
βcosθ
anti-symmetric stretching mode of the C–C bonds in the GCN frame­
where K is the shape factor, β is the full-width at half maximum, λ is the work. The peak at 850 cm− 1 is due to the stretching vibration of the
wavelength of Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å), and θ is the diffraction C–H bond in the GCN layer [39–43]. The peak at 940 cm− 1 agrees to the
angle. The average crystallite sizes of pure GCN, pure SrO, and GCN-SrO bending vibrations of the C–H bonds in the SrO. The strong peak at
NH were attained to be 42.2 nm, 25.2 nm, and 8.6 nm respectively. 1040 cm− 1 is due to the symmetrical stretching of the Sr–O bonds. The
peak at 1422 cm− 1 is due to the vibration of O–Sr–O groups in SrO
3.1.2. Raman spectroscopy [37,38]. The peak at 1240 cm− 1 is due to the C–C–N out-of-plane
Raman spectra of the prepared samples were taken to get valuable stretching mode of the GCN sheet. The last strong peak, at 1530 cm− 1,
information about their structure, chemical composition, bonding and is ascribed to the stretching mode of C–– C bonds of the graphitic sheets

the vibrational modes as-displayed in Fig. 2. In the Raman spectrum of of GCN (Fig. 2(c)) [43].
pure SrO, the peak originated at 644 cm− 1 corresponds to the Eg mode
that is accredited to the stretching vibration of the SrO bond in the 3.1.3. FTIR spectroscopy
crystal lattice (Fig. 2(a)). The peak positioned at around 803 cm− 1 is FTIR spectra of Ficus carica leaf extract, pristine GCN, pure SrO, and
ascribed to the symmetric stretching mode of the Sr–O bond in the GCN-SrO NH are presented in Fig. S2. The FTIR spectrum of a Ficus
lattice structure of SrO. This peak is sensitive to the crystal symmetry. carica leaf extract showed a series of peaks, each corresponding to the
The peak located at 890 cm− 1 is attributed to the bending mode of the absorption of infrared light by different functional groups present in the
O–Sr–O bond angle. This peak is less sensitive to the crystal symmetry extract as-presented in Fig. S2(a). A broad peak centered at 3326 cm− 1 is
but can be affected by the presence of surface adsorbents or defects. The associated with the stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups (alcohol or
most intensive peak at around 1052 cm− 1 corresponds to the symmetric phenol) present in compounds like phenolics, flavonoids, and other
stretching of the O–O bonds in the strontium oxide lattice. This peak is polyphenols found in Ficus carica leaves. Peaks in the region of
commonly known as the A1g peak. A peak at around 1415–1420 cm− 1 2800–3000 cm− 1 are usually related to C − H stretching vibrations. A
corresponds to the anti-symmetric stretching mode of the O–Sr–O peak at around 1618 cm− 1 indicates the presence of aromatic com­
bond in the distorted structure of SrO as-depicted in Fig. 2(a) [37,38]. pounds, such as flavonoids and other polyphenols, which contain aro­
In the Raman spectrum of the GCN, the first peak originated at matic ring structures. A band around 1432 cm− 1 represents the C − H
around 707 cm− 1 is known as the G band (Fig. 2(b)). This peak arises bending vibrations. Strong signal at 1051 cm− 1 is associated with the
from the in-plane stretching vibrations of the carbon atoms in the sp2- stretching vibrations of C − O bonds, which are characteristic of various
hybridized graphitic structure of GCN. The intensity of this peak is functional groups, including phenols, ethers, and esters [44,45]. The
related to the degree of disorder in the material, with more disordered obtained FTIR spectra of SrO nanostructures is shown in Fig. S2(b). The
samples showing a higher intensity G band. A strong peak observed in SrO peak bands with modest changes were seen and found to be
the range of 1200–1300 cm− 1 is referred to as the D peak and is related consistent with the publications that had been published [46–48]. The
to the presence of defects and disorder in the GCN lattice. The term “D” FTIR spectra of SrO nanostructures shows peaks at 477 cm− 1, 737.5
is historically used to represent disorder. The D peak arises due to the cm− 1, 813.9 cm− 1, 1354.2 cm− 1, 1440 cm− 1, 1786.8 cm− 1, and 2422
breathing modes of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms. These breathing modes cm− 1. The absorption bands appear at 1354.2 cm− 1, 1440 cm− 1, and
are activated in the presence of defects or structural disorder, such as 1786.8 cm–1originating from stretching vibration and deformation vi­
vacancies, grain boundaries, or dislocations in the GCN lattice. The in­ bration of O − H, and stretching vibrations of C − O. The peaks at 477
tensity of the D peak is related to the degree of disorder in the sample. cm− 1, 737.5 cm− 1 and 813.9 cm− 1 are associated to the asymmetric and
Higher intensity of the D peak indicates more significant structural im­ symmetric stretching vibrations frequencies of Sr − O. The peak at 2422
perfections. The Raman peak at 1482 cm− 1 in the GCN spectrum is cm− 1 reflects the stretching vibration of carbon‑hydrogen (C − H)
groups. The occurrence of C − C, O − H, C − N, and C − O groups sug­
gests that SrO nanostructures were synthesized utilizing the Ficus Carica
leaf extract as a capping and reducing agent [46–48]. The characteristic
peaks at 809 cm− 1, 1235 cm− 1, 1317 cm− 1, 1406 cm− 1, 1459 cm− 1,
1545 cm− 1, 1636 cm− 1, and 3184 cm− 1 could be seen in the FTIR spectra
of GCN (Fig. S2(c)). It has been found that each and every peak band for
GCN corresponded to the reported papers with a minor shifts [40–42].
The N − H stretching frequency was responsible for the wide peak band
that developed at about 3188 cm− 1. The C = N and C = N stretching
frequencies are reflected in the sharp bands seen between 1230 and
1630 cm− 1. The breathing mode of the triazine units seen in GCN is
confirmed by the strong peak seen at 808 cm− 1 [49–51]. The FTIR
spectrum of GCN-SrO NH is depicted in Fig. S2(d). Peaks are located at
733 cm− 1, 807 cm− 1, 888 cm− 1, 1235 cm− 1, 1316 cm− 1, 1405 cm− 1,
Fig. 2. Raman spectra of pure SrO (a), pure GCN (b), and GCN-SrO NH (c). 1456 cm− 1, 1537.9 cm− 1, 1630 cm− 1, and 3170 cm− 1. Additionally, the

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

C = C stretching of GCN was somewhat displaced toward the lower re­ spaces within the structure. This arrangement indicates the potential for
gion side, which suggests the formation of GCN-SrO NH. The fabrication high surface area and elevated porosity. These characteristics make the
of the GCN-SrO NH was effectively demonstrated by all of the typical migration of electrolyte ions easier and faster which is required to
peaks of GCN and SrO. achieve high electrochemical performance. To determine the elemental
composition of the prepared electrodes, EDX analysis was performed.
EDX spectra of pure SrO, pure GCN, and GCN-SrO NH have presented in
3.2. Morphology and chemical composition
Fig. S3 (a, b, and c respectively). EDX spectrum of GCN-SrO NH has
shown the weight percentages of carbon (C), oxygen (O), strontium (Sr),
The SEM micrographs showed that the GCN sample contained a
and nitrogen (N) as follows: C = 11.20 %, O = 16.90 %, Sr = 47.10 %,
sizable number of curved and corrugated edges with flaky multi-layered
and N = 24.80 %. GCN/SrO ratio in GCN-SrO NH sample is computed to
sheets of a large aspect ratio as-displayed in Fig. 3(a1, a2). The Beach
be ≈ 0.5625. The elemental composition shows that the prepared elec­
stone-like morphology can be seen in the SEM micrographs of SrO
trode materials are made of only desired elements which demonstrate
nanostructures (Fig. 3(b1, b2)). The SEM micrographs of GCN-SrO NH
their high purity and the absence of contaminants.
revealed an embryo-shaped morphology as-shown in Fig. 3(c1, c2). The
formation of agglomerated clusters, with their distinctive non-uniform
nearly spherical morphology, suggests the presence of ample open

Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of (a1, a2) pure GCN, (b1, b2) pure SrO, and (c1, c1) GCN-SrO NH.

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

3.3. Optical properties recombination rates result in lower PL intensities [54]. The PL spectra of
GCN, SrO, and GCN-SrO NH have presented in Fig. 4(c). The emission
The optical properties of all the synthesized samples were examined peaks were found at 415 nm for pure SrO, 455 nm for GCN, and 465 nm
and verified via UV–Vis Spectrophotometer (PEAK Instruments Model: C for GCN-SrO NH with the excitation wavelength being 350 nm. It can be
7200). The UV–Vis absorption spectra of GCN, SrO, and GCN-SrO NH are noticed clearly that the PL spectra of the GCN-SrO NH composite showed
displayed in Fig. 4(a), and they exhibit a distinctive absorption peak at much lower PL intensity than the pure SrO, which suggests that charge
294 nm, 307 nm, and 358 nm respectively. The energy band gap (Eg) of transfer across the interface was significantly sped up and that charge
all the prepared electrode materials is determined using the Tauc rela­ carrier lifetime was increased, as shown in Fig. 4(c). The acquired PL
tion (Eq. (4)) [52]: results confirmed that the successful formation of GCN-SrO NH, which is
( ) more photoactive than the individual components.
A hν − Eg = (αhν)n (4)

Fig. 4(b) showed the Tauc plots for all the samples. The computed 3.4. Electrochemical studies
band gap energy of pure GCN (Eg = 2.71 eV) is consistent with the
literature [34]. The Eg value of pure SrO is calculated to be 2.98 eV that 3.4.1. Cyclic voltammetry (CV)
is greater than the bulk SrO (Eg = 1.8 eV) [53]. The rise in the value of Eg The electrochemical response of the synthesized materials (SrO,
is ascribed to the quantum size effect. The decrease in particle size has an GCN, and GCN-SrO NH) for supercapacitors was assessed by CV. The CV
impact on a material's band gap energy. The band gap energy rises as a profiles were performed at distinct sweep rates (20, 25, 50, 75, and 100
consequence of the quantum confinement effect. Furthermore, the Eg mV/s) and the acquired plots are presented in Fig. 5(a–c). The CV scans
value of GCN-SrO NH is computed to be 2.5 eV, which is smaller as- were taken using the potential window of 0.0 to 0.5 V vs. SCE. The
compared to both pure GCN and pure SrO. The reduction in the band appearance of clearly defined redox peaks at all scan speeds indicates
gap is attributed to the formation of nanohybrid. that the electrode's capability to store charge may come from a pseu­
A useful tool for identifying charge carrier transfer, dissociation, and docapacitive mechanism, which suggests the possibility of faradaic
recombination is the photoluminescence (PL) spectrum. The primary charge transfer. The total stored charge is indicated by the area bounded
emphasis of photocatalytic activity is the charge recombination rate of the CV curve. Increasing the sweep rate has no appreciable effect on the
photoinduced electron-hole pairs. The pace at which a hole and an shape of the CV profiles, demonstrating better mass transportation and
electron pair recombine determines the intensity of the PL. Higher PL electron conduction of the host material [55]. The area of the CV profiles
intensity results from quicker recombination rates, while lower grew along with the scan rate, demonstrating that the electrode had

Fig. 4. (a) UV–Vis absorption spectra, (b) Tauc plots of (αhν)2 vs. photon energy, and (c) PL emission spectra of the synthesized electrode materials.

6
S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 5. CV profiles of (a) pure SrO, (b) pure GCN, and (c) GCN-SrO NH at different sweep rates. (d) CV profiles at 1 mV/s of the designed electrode materials. GCD
profiles at altered current densities of the pure SrO (e), pure GCN (f) and GCN-SrO NH (g). GCD profile at 0.5 A/g of all the fabricated electrode materials (h). (i)
Variation of Cp as a function of current densities for all the fabricated electrodes obtained from GCD curves. (j) Comparison of Cp values obtained from GCD profiles at
0.5 A/g for all three prepared electrodes. (k) Life cycle stability test and Coulombic efficiency of GCN-SrO NH electrode. (l) EIS spectrum (Nyquist plot) of all three
designed electrodes. Inset presents the magnified image of EIS spectrum. (m) An equivalent electrical circuit of EIS spectra.

strong reversibility and had a better capacity for storing charge [56]. of designed electrodes were attained from CV profiles using the given
Additionally, the electrolyte ions have time to penetrate material pores relation (Eq. (5)) [58,59]:
at lower sweep rates, but due to current dependence on sweep rate, at ∫
Idv
higher sweep rates, they are only gathered on the electrode's outermost Cp = (5)
2 × K × m × ΔV
surface. As the sweep rate is increased, the current likewise rises [57].
Fig. S4(a) demonstrates the variation of Cp with scan rate. The Cp values

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 5. (continued).

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

∫
where Idv is the area enclosed the curve, m is the active mass, ΔV is the Table 1
potential window, and K is the scan rate. The Cp values attained from CV Cp, Ed, and Pd values at distinct Id values of the GCN-SrO NH electrode.
profiles for all the prepared electrodes at distinct sweep rates are pre­ Electrode material Δt Id Cp Ed Pd
sented in Table S2. (s) (A/g) (F/g) (Wh/kg) (W/kg)
CV curves of pure SrO and GCN (Fig. 5(a) and (b)) show a peak only GCN-SrO NH 412 0.5 482 16.7 146.2
in the reverse direction (oxidation peak) due to faster reaction rates. 151.7 1 315 10.9 259.5
During oxidation, electrons are removed from the analyte, resulting in 36.17 4 277 9.4 1056.5
more reactive species and higher current response. In contrast, during 0.9 8 21.5 0.7 3839.2

reduction, electrons are added, leading to slower reaction rates, stable Δt, Id, Cp, Ed, and Pd refers to discharging time, current density, specific
species, and a smaller current response. Additionally, surface adsorption capacitance, energy density, and power density respectively.
or electrode fouling may influence the reduction peak, explaining its
smaller size compared to the oxidation peak [60,61]. Among the Coulumbic efficiency is also a crucial metric in evaluating the perfor­
designed electrodes, GCN-SrO NH electrode resulted in superior Cp (443 mance and stability of an electrode. It indicates the efficiency of charge
F/g) at 1 mV/s of sweep rate, since it covers more area under the curve transfer during cycling, specifically the ratio of the actual capacity
than other both electrode materials (SrO and GCN) clearly analyzed in delivered during discharge to the theoretical capacity based on the
Fig. 5(d). The comparison of Cp values at 1 mV/s of all three designed charge input during charging. A higher Coulombic efficiency signifies
electrodes is displayed by a bar graph in Fig. S4(b). better stability and reversibility of the electrochemical reactions within
the electrode. Fig. 5(k) presents the graph of Coulombic efficiency. The
3.4.2. Galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) achievement of 95 % Coulombic efficiency is highly promising and
To further assess the electrochemical performance of the designed demonstrates that the electrode performs admirably during the stability
electrodes (i.e. SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH), the galvanostatic charge test. This level of efficiency indicates minimal capacity loss and suggests
discharge (GCD) studies were taken under same conditions as the CV that the electrode maintains its electrochemical performance consis­
profiles, such as the identical electrolyte, temperature, and potential tently over multiple cycles, which is vital for practical applications.
window. GCD curves of the SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH electrodes were
taken at distinct current densities (i.e. 0.5, 1, 4, and 8 A/g) are presented 3.4.3. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
in Fig. 5(e-g). The nonlinear GCD profiles of the fabricated electrodes EIS experiments were also conducted to elucidate the electro­
demonstrate their pseudocapacitive nature and are quite consistent with chemical properties of the designed electrodes. Fig. 5(l) presents the
their CV curves. It is clear that the GCN-SrO NH electrode showed a high Nyquist plots of pure SrO, pure GCN, and GCN-SrO NH. An equivalent
Cp value and that the electrochemical processes that take place in GCN- electrical circuit of EIS spectra has displayed in Fig. 5(m). Generally
SrO NH electrode are highly reversible in nature given the significantly speaking; low-frequency, medium-frequency, and High-frequency re­
prolonged and almost symmetrical nature of the GCD profiles. Cp values gions are three useful divisions of the impedance spectrum [65]. The
of the prepared electrodes were calculated at distinct current densities intercept at the real axis in the high-frequency region signifies equiva­
from GCD curves by using equation (Eq. (6)) [62,63]: lent series resistance (Rs), which is the consequence of the internal
∫ resistance of the utilized electrode and electrolyte resistance [66]. The
2 I Vdt
Cp = (6) Nyquist plot's semi-circular arc is used to compute the faradic charge
m × (ΔV)2
transfer resistance (Rct) in the middle frequency range [67]. Finally, the
where Cp indicates the specific capacitance, while m, I, and ΔV were the Warburg impedance (Zw) in the lower frequency zone can be seen in the
active mass (g), discharging current (A), and discharge voltage range diagonal region of Nyquist plot [68,69]. Fig. 5(l) demonstrates that, in
(V), respectively. comparison to the Nyquist plots of both pure SrO and pure GCN, the
The Ed values of the designed electrode materials can be attained GCN-SrO NH electrode exhibits a more vertical diagonal line, a narrower
with the help of the relation (Eq. (7)) [64]: semi-circular curve, and an x-intercept that is nearer to the origin.
Additionally, it can be deduced from the findings of EIS investigation
Cp × (ΔV)2 that our fabricated GCN-SrO NH electrode possesses lower values of Zw,
Ed = (7)
2 × 3.6 Rct, and Rs than pure GCN and pure SrO based electrodes as-presented in
The Pd values of the fabricated electrodes can be find out by equation Table 2. The Rct can be calculated using the semicircle in the high fre­
(Eq. (8)) [64]: quency zone. As seen, nearly invisible semicircle in the Nyquist plot of
GCN-SrO NH denotes low Rct values. GCN-SrO NH exhibits a low Rct
Pd =
Ed × 3600
(8) value of 0.000985 Ω, which is quite lesser than those of pure GCN
Δt (0.0372 Ω) and pure SrO (0.05948 Ω), according to the findings of fitted
Fig. 5(h) presents the GCD profiles of all the designed electrodes at Nyquist plots. From the real axis intercept in the high-frequency zone, Rs
current density (0.5 A/g). The plot between Cp and current density is may be evaluated [66]. The fitting values of Rs for pure GCN, pure SrO,
demonstrated in Fig. 5(i). The shorter electrode-electrolyte contact and GCN-SrO NH are 1.878, 2.965, and 1.219 Ω, respectively as-
period, which results in a more surface-dependent faradic reaction, can presented in Fig. S4(c). This indicates that GCN-SrO NH has a rela­
be ascribed to the drop in Cp value at higher current densities. The GCN- tively greater electronic conductivity. Additionally, compared to pure
SrO NH electrode material showed an exceptional Cp value of 482 F/g at GCN and pure SrO electrodes, the GCN-SrO NH electrode exhibits a more
0.5 A/g as-compared to both pure SrO (221 F/g) and pure GCN (251 F/ vertical line in the low-frequency zone, showing the best capacitive
g) as demonstrated in the bar graph (Fig. 5(j)). The comparison of Cp performance [70–72]. Pure GCN, pure SrO, and GCN-SrO NH showed Zw
values of previously available reports on GCN-based electrodes with the
present work is shown in Table S1. Moreover, the values of Cp, Ed, and Pd
Table 2
attained from GCD profiles for the GCN-SrO NH electrode at altered
EIS parameters of all the designed electrode materials.
current densities are displayed in Table 1. Furthermore, cyclic stability
Electrodes Ru Cdl ZW Rct
which is a vital parameter for evaluating the electrochemical perfor­
Ohm F Ohm Ohm
mance of electrodes was investigated. Fig. 5(k) illustrates the cycling
performance of the GCN-SrO NH electrode measured at 8 A/g of current Pure SrO 2.965 0.00122 0.05339 0.05948
Pure GCN 1.878 0.000762 0.001244 0.0372
density. It demonstrates 88 % capacity retention after 6000 cycles.
GCN-SrO NH 1.219 1.095 0.000903 0.000985

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

values of 0.001244, 0.05339, and 0.000903 Ω, respectively. These re­ Moreover, the outstanding charge-discharge reversibility and
sults demonstrate our prepared nanohybrid is a promising material for outstanding rate capability of the device are demonstrated by the CV
cutting-edge pseudocapacitors. profiles, which show no noticeable distortion as scan rates are raised.
Fig. 7(b) provides GCD profiles at altered current densities of the
3.5. Assembling of symmetric supercapacitor device (SSCD) assembled SSCD. The Cp, Ed and Pd values of the designed symmetrical
supercapacitor device from the GCD graphs were calculated using Eqs.
To explore the capacitive performance of GCN-SrO NH in a real (10), (11) and (12) [73].
display, a two-electrode SSCD was assembled. The working electrode 2 × I × Δt
was designed in the same way as described in the three-electrode sys­ Cp = (10)
m × ΔV
tem. Moreover, a Whatman filter paper pre-soaked in the electrolyte (2
M KOH) was sandwiched between two similar electrodes that were Cp × (ΔV)2 × 1000
Ed = (11)
made by coating the Ni substrate with the GCN-SrO NH slurry on one 8 × 3600
side to design an SSCD. The schematic illustration of GCN-SrO NH//
GCN-SrO NH based SSCD is displayed in Fig. 6. Ed × 3600
Pd = (12)
Fig. 7(a) displayed the CV profiles for the designed SSCD at various Δt
scan speeds. In comparison to typical AC-based symmetric capacitors in The computed Cp values of the assembled device for distinct current
aqueous electrolytes, the cell voltage reached 1.5 V, which was twice as densities are demonstrated in Fig. 7(c). The device offered maximum Cp
high. Considering the mechanisms of charge storage, the possible elec­ values of 242, 192, 160, and 152 F/g at current densities of 0.5, 1, 2, and
trochemical reaction can be explained by the following chemical equa­ 3 A/g respectively. Energy as well as power densities were computed
tion (Eq. (9)): and presented as a Ragone plot in Fig. 7(d) to evaluate the overall ef­
ficiency of the assembled SSCD. With a Pd value of 187.5 W/kg, this
(9)
GCN
Sr2+ + 2H2 O→Sr2+ + 2H+ → SrO − GCN device was able to attain a maximum Ed value of 18.9 Wh/kg.
The surface adsorption and desorption of electrolyte cations (H ) to + Depending on the equation (Eq. (10)), the high Ed value of the assembled
the surface of Sr, as well as the quick reversible redox processes device is ascribed to the high potential window and high Cp value,
involving the intercalation and extraction of protons into and out of SrO, indicating that the device is the best nominee for extremely efficient
both contribute to the energy storage mechanism. The conductive energy applications. Table 3 presents the computed values of Cp, Ed, and
double porous structure helps with H+ adsorption and desorption as well Pd at varied current densities of the device. As illustrated in Fig. 7(f), the
as the movement of electrons and protons, providing the electrolyte GCN-SrO NH//GCN-SrO NH based SSCD maintained a capacity reten­
complete access to the electrode materials and increasing GCN-SrO NH tion of 98 % over 10,000 continuous cycles at 3 A/g. This shows that the
consumption. Consequently, the charge-transfer process is boosted. assembled device is electrochemically stable over an extended period of
time. EIS investigation was further performed to evaluate the electro­
chemical performance of the designed SSCD. In the low frequency zone
of Nyquist plot, the device displays a more vertical line, demonstrating
the best capacitive performance (Fig. 7(e)). The computed values of Rct
and Ru for the GCN-SrO NH//GCN-SrO NH based SSCD are 2.352 Ω and
0.119 Ω, respectively. The assembled SSCD with low Ru exhibit strong
ionic conduction at the electrode/electrolyte contact which raises its Cp.
Furthermore, the equivalent circuit for the GCN-SrO NH//GCN-SrO NH
based SSCD was shown in the inset of the Nyquist plot, as-presented in
Fig. 7(e).
Fig. 7(g, h) presents a practical demonstration of the designed device
by connecting three solid state devices in series, which illuminates a Red
LED (2.2 V). The integrated device can sustain the glowing of the Red
LED for more than 190 s when charged for 60 s. The practicability of the
assembled SSCD for glowing Red LED is shown in the Supplementary
Video. The results of this experiment demonstrate the potentiality of the
designed SSCD for next-generation portable electronics, power backup,
and energy harvesting devices.

3.6. Photocatalysis study

Three organic dyes (MB, MO, and RhB) were used to examine the
photocatalytic response of GCN, SrO, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts
under visible light. Fig. 9(a, b, c), Fig. 9(g, h, i), and Fig. 9(m, n, o)
display the absorption spectra of MB, MO, and RhB measured in pres­
ence of SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts respectively. It was
noted that the primary absorbance peaks of the test dyes were steadily
declining with the exposure time. For the same period of time, the GCN-
SrO NH catalyst degraded dyes faster than both pure SrO and GCN. The
conceivable process by which dyes can experience photodegradation in
which the dye's peak intensity is decreased but the position of the main
absorption peak is left unaltered. The incoming light energy is absorbed
by the photocatalysts (GCN, SrO, and GCN-SrO NH), which is greater
than their band gap (Eg) led to the production of holes in the valence
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of the GCN-SrO NH based SSCD. band (VB) and electrons in the conduction band (CB) of the

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 7. (a) CV profiles at distinct sweep rates and (b) GCDS curves of the GCN-SrO NH based SSCD at distinct current densities. (c) Cp as a function of current
densities and (d) Ragone plot for the GCN-SrO NH based SSCD. (e) EIS spectrum (Nyquist plot) of the designed SSCD with an electrical equivalent circuit model as an
inset. (f) Cycling stability of the assembled SSCD. (g) Digital pictures of charging of three devices connected in series; and (h) Red LED lit by three assembled devices.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 7. (continued).

surface. Superoxide radical anions (O2•− ) and hydroxyl radicals (•OH)

Table 3 are produced when the photogenerated charge carriers interact with O2
Cp, Ed, and Pd values at distinct Id values of the GCN-SrO NH//GCN-SrO NH
and H2O on the photocatalyst surface. Organic contaminants are
symmetric device.
degraded as a result of the powerful oxidation and reduction potentials
Δt Id Cp Ed Pd of these radicals. The following chemical reactions (Eqs. (13)–(19))
(s) (A/ (F/ (Wh/ (W/
g) g) kg) kg)
occur to decompose the dye:
/
GCN-SrO NH//GCN-SrO NH 363 0.5 242 18.9 187.5 GCN SrO + hʋ→e−CB + h+ VB (13)
symmetric device 144 1 192 15 375
60 2 160 12.5 750
(14)
◦
(H2 O ↔ H + + OH − )ads + h+ +
VB →H + OH
38 3 152 11.9 1125

Δt, Id, Cp, Ed, and Pd refers to discharging time, current density, specific ◦
O2− + H + →HO2
◦
(15)
capacitance, energy density, and power density respectively.
(16)
◦
2HO2− →H2 O2 + O2
photocatalyst. The photoinduced electrons on the CB of GCN were also
readily transferred to the CB of SrO due to the CB location of GCN being (17)
◦
H2 O2 + e− →OH + OH −
more negative than that of SrO. The photoinduced holes on the VB of
SrO, however, were transferred to the VB of GCN. As a consequence, the dye + OH →dye′⋅ + H2 O
◦
(18)
CB and VB of SrO and GCN were exposed to an accumulation of electrons
and holes, which caused them to become separated from one another. ◦
dye + h+ →dye+ →degradation product (19)
The extremely effective photocatalytic activity of the GCN-SrO NH for
the dye breakdown resulted from this reduction in the rate of charge Fig. 9(d, j, p) demonstrates the plots between the change in the
carrier recombination (electron-hole). Fig. 8 provides a schematic rep­ concentration ratio (C/Co) of MB, MO, RhB dyes and the exposure time
resentation of the process based on the band arrangement. To promote (t), where Co is the concentration of the dye before exposure and C is the
redox reactions, photoinduced holes and electrons move to the catalyst's concentration of the dye after t min irradiation. The rate of dye degra­
dation can be estimated by applying the pseudo-first-order kinetics. As

Fig. 8. Schematic illustration of the band structure of GCN-SrO NH photocatalyst.

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 9. Absorbance spectra vs. time of MB dye solution in presence of (a) SrO, (b) GCN, and (c) GCN-SrO NH. (d) Relationship between C/Co vs. exposure time. (e)
Application of pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics to MB photodegradation on a blank MB, SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts. (f) Comparison of MB
degradation percentage and related rate constants for blank MB, SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts. Absorbance spectra vs. time of MO dye solution in
presence of (g) SrO, (h) GCN, and (i) GCN-SrO NH. (j) Relationship between C/Co vs. exposure time. (k) Application of pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics to MO
photodegradation on a blank MO, SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts. (l) Comparison of MO degradation percentage and related rate constants for blank
MO, SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts. Absorbance spectra vs. time of RhB dye solution in presence of (m) SrO, (n) GCN, and (o) GCN-SrO NH. (p)
Relationship between C/Co vs. exposure time. (q) Application of pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics to RhB photodegradation on a blank RhB, SrO, GCN, and GCN-
SrO NH based catalysts. (r) Comparison of RhB degradation percentage and related rate constants for blank RhB, SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts.

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 9. (continued).

presented in Fig. 9(e, k, q), the apparent rate constants (kapp) of the 0.0489 min− 1, while 89.49 % and 78.53 % of MB was degraded by
photocatalyst were obtained using the slope of the graph formed be­ pristine GCN and SrO for the same exposure time with kapp values of
tween ln (Co/C) and time (t). The values of kapp and degradation effi­ 0.0300 min− 1 and 0.0210 min− 1 respectively. The values of kapp and D
ciency (D %) of the prepared catalysts were determined by using % associated to blank MB are 0.000193 min− 1 and 1.24 % respectively.
following equations (Eqs. (20) and (21)) [74]. Fig. 9(l) presents D % and kapp values against MO dye without catalyst
and in presence of SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts. The
CO
kapp = Ln (20) attained values of D % against MO dye are 4.02 %, 77.31 %, 90.54 %,
C
and 98.59 % for blank MO, pure SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH catalyst,
Co − C respectively. The values of kapp associated to blank MO, SrO, GCN, and
D(%) = × 100 (21) GCN-SrO NH based catalysts are 0.00058 min− 1, 0.0207 min− 1, 0.0340
C
min− 1, and 0.0529 min− 1, respectively. D% and kapp values against RhB
Fig. 9(f) demonstrates that up to 97.21 % of MB was degraded by
dye associated to blank RhB, pure SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH catalyst
GCN-SrO NH over an exposure time of 70 min with an associated kapp of

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S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

Fig. 9. (continued).

are presented in Fig. 9(r). The values of D % associated to blank RhB, fabricated catalysts in degrading MB, MO, and RhB dyes is also pre­
SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH based catalysts are 1.58 %, 76.2 %, 88.4 %, sented in bar graphs Fig. 9(f, l, r). In the presence of GCN-SrO NH, test
and 92.9 %, respectively. The attained values of kapp for blank RhB, pure dyes were significantly degraded after 70 min of exposure and the
SrO, GCN, and GCN-SrO NH are.000276 min− 1, 0.0139 min− 1, 0.0236 decolorization of dyes is also demonstrated in Fig. S6(a, b, c). The results
min− 1, and 0.0388 min− 1, respectively. obtained indicate that GCN-SrO NH exhibit remarkable photocatalytic
Moreover, the comparison of degradation efficiencies of the activity in comparison to both pure SrO and pure GCN. Regeneration of

15
S. Ullah et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108806

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