Chapter On5
Chapter On5
Chapter On5
PACKAGING MATERIALS
BY
(192196)
PROJECT PROPOSAL
SUBMITTED TO
JUNE, 2024
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Snacks have become a major portion of human nutrition in most countries around the
world due to its increasing consumption pattern. This is because consumers have increasingly
and recently been demanding for healthy foods that can provide quick and affordable sources
of nutrients. The food industry in a bid to respond to this has resorted to the development and
baked or fried dough of wheat flour and other customary baking items. It is deep-fried until
golden brown and crispy (Abu-Salem et al., 2011; Adebayo-Oyetoro et al., 2017). This
golden-brown crunchy food product is eaten amongst several age brackets. It is available in
various shapes and sizes and is also widely accepted and promoted for commercial
Nigerian snack prepared using wheat flour, butter, milk and eggs from which a stiff paste is
made. It is deep-fried until golden brown and crispy. It is quite popular across Nigeria and in
countries. In terms of annual production, sweet potato ranks as the fifth most important food
crop in the tropics and the seventh in the world food production after wheat, rice, maize,
potato, barley, and cassava (FAO 2016). Sweet potato is rich in carbohydrate, dietary fiber,
B-carotene, ascorbic acid, folic acid and minerals (Bovell-Benjamin, 2017; ILSI, 2018).
Therefore, sweet potato is now widely used as an important human diet around the world.
Nigeria is currently the third largest producer of sweet potato in the world with a production
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of 2.12 million metric tonnes (FAOSTAT, 2011). Sweet potato has been recognized as
having an important role to play in improving household and national food security, health,
Literatures on storage conditions of this snack are scarce. One of the most important
factors which determine sensory and nutritive quality retentions of food products is
packaging. Also, there is a gross over dependence on improved wheat flour, Nigeria climate
does not favour the cultivation of wheat. The demand for wheat is on the increase and has by
far exceeded its supply. About 75% of our foreign exchange is lost through importation of
wheat hence we are looking for a substitute which will even yield a foreign exchange through
export for the country. Attempts are being made in recent days to improve the nutritional
qualities and functionalities of chinchin, due to competition in the market for more healthy,
natural and functional products. There is an increase in demand for bakery products and
hence more demand for importation of wheat which has negative effect on Nigeria economy.
The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much
attention from researchers, especially in the production of snacks, bakery products and
pastries. There is also a demand on the food processors to produce functional ingredients to
meet the nutritional requirement of the populace. The growing increase in sweet potatoes
consumption in Nigeria could generate significant quantity of sweet potatoes from which
The aim of this project is to evaluate the storage studies of chinchin products from
native sweet potato (peeled and unpeeled) with different packaging materials.
i. Produce chinchin from wheat and sweet potato (peeled and unpeeled).
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ii. Determine the storage stabilities of chinchin from wheat and sweet potato (peeled and
unpeeled) using plastic bottles (PB), High and Low Densities Polyethylene (HDP and
iii. Determine the microbial analysis of chinchin from wheat and sweet potato (peeled
and unpeeled) using plastic bottles (PB), High and Low Densities Polyethylene (HDP
Development of wheat- and sweet potato (peeled and unpeeled) chinchin will help
diversify the uses of sweet potato and provide an alternate healthy and nutritious food for
most people. Due to its high protein, mineral and vitamin A, it also help with efforts to reduce
protein and vitamin A deficiency. The diversification and utilization of wheat-sweet potato
blends will help efforts to achieve Food and Nutrient security. Sweet potato contribute
responsible for their antioxidant, antitumor and antimicrobial properties. Sweet potato are
said to possess many unsubstantiated nutritional properties but document and adequate
scientific validation and measures for their sustainable utilization is still to be explored. Chin
chin is a traditional Nigeria snack prepared using wheat flour therefore substituting Sweet
potato in the production of snacks will improve on the nutritional status of the populace and
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CHAPTER TWO
Snack is a portion of food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between
meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged snack foods and other
processed foods, as well as items made from fresh ingredients at home. Snack foods are
typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form
of convenience food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable, and more portable than
prepared foods. A snack eaten shortly before going to bed or during the night may be called a
midnight snack. Healthy snacks include those that have significant vitamins, are low in
saturated fat and added sugars, and have low sodium content (Brooks, 2011).
Snacks are important in food consumption among adolescents; when snacks are
consumed in addition to three meals in a day, they will improve the nutritional status of
adolescents (Olumakaiye et al., 2008). Snacks can keep younger children from getting so
hungry that they become cranky, and they can keep older children from over eating at larger
meals. And for picky eaters of all ages, snacks can be added insurance that they are getting
The importance of snacks has grown remarkably in the last few years. Selling of
snacks is an important way of obtaining income. Snacks are inexpensive and widely
consumed as they are often a major source of daily food intakes of children and adults (FAO,
1996). Snacks are important because young people usually do not eat enough at one meal to
get all the vitamin and nutrients they need for a day. And because they do not eat enough at a
meal time, they get hungry between meals. Eating a healthy snack makes one g et all the
things needed in the day to keep one healthy and full of energy (Foskett et al., 2004).
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The type of food we eat and the times we eat them are strongly influenced simply by
hunger but also cultural and social factors that vary from region to region and country to
country,. Traditions, religious habits, working culture and levels of disposable income all
contributes to shape what we consume and the number of times we eat each day. Despite the
difference in eating habits throughout the country, one thing is consistent; snacking is on the
Snack food sellers are attracted to the occupation because of the possibility of earning
relatively high incomes. In South-east Asia, the average earning of a snack food vendor is
three times the minimum wages of skilled labours employed in formal sector (FAO, 1996).
Matitiya (1994) in her report stated that Nigeria as an agricultural country is blessed
with so many food stuffs which are consumed by her citizens for their nutritive value. An
International Agricultural College Deventer (IACD) viewed that, it is not enough to grow and
have food stuffs within reach, but it has to be cooked for better palatability. The cooking
requires technical skills, originality for better appearance, flavor, digestibility and nutritive
Peter (1998) indicated that all snacks; both local and continental ones have one
important thing in common, apart from homemade, they are industrially produced, hence
improving the productivity force by increasing employment rate. Snacks are sold in every
market place from prison to wall marts, restaurants, eateries, fast food outlets. They are eaten
at every meal time, as in between meals from breakfast to mid-night meals as appetizers in
socializing, at gathering, and they are popular in every demographic age group from cradle to
grave.
Pierce (1995) pointed out that snacks are the epitome of the portable food for a
society on the go; it is fast, fun, easy and cheap. Selling of snacks is an important way to
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obtain income especially for poor urban women, they are widely consumed and are often a
major source of daily food intake of children, teenagers and adults. It has been reported that
although 65% of snacks consumer in America are trying to eat healthy, 33% do not have time
emerging in Nigeria. The country is witnessing an upsurge in the number of fast food
restaurants. At present, there are well over 70 different brand names. They are so conspicuous
that it would be difficult to miss their 'colourful edifices and billboards' (Olutayo, 2000).
Wheat is the world’s third most important crop after maize and rice. Worldwide,
wheat flour is used as the raw material for baking. The gluten protein in wheat makes it a
unique substrate for breadmaking. The three main types of wheat are soft, hard, and durum.
Unlike hard and durum wheats, which are used mainly for bread and pasta products,
respectively, soft wheat has more than one major use, Including cookies, cakes, crackers and
The protein content varies significantly in wheat varieties and it ranges between 10
and 15% (Anjum and Walker, 2000). Wheat proteins contain albumins, globulins, gliadins
and glutenins. While albumins and globulins are soluble in water and salt solution,
respectively, gliadins and glutenins are collectively called gluten and are insoluble in water
and salt solution. It has been shown that the gluten proteins are responsible for the cohesive,
viscoelastic property of wheat flour dough and the dough’s ability to retain gas during
fermentation as well as dough setting during baking (Hoseney, 2018). To form cohesive and
viscoelastic dough, gluten requires adequate hydration and kneading to promote cross
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2.3 Composite Flour
According to Shittu et al. (2007), composite flours either binary or ternary mixtures of
flours from some other crops with or without wheat flour. The use of composite flours had a
few advantages for developing countries such as Nigeria terms of: i) the saving of hard
currency; ii) promotion of high yielding, native plant species; iii) a better supply of protein
for human nutrition; and iv) better overall use of domestic agriculture production (Berghofer,
countries as it reduces the importation of wheat flour and encourages the use of locally grown
crops as flour (Hasmadi et al., 2014). Local raw materials substitution for wheat flour is
increasing due to the growing market for confectioneries (Noor Aziah and Komathi, 2009).
to evaluate the feasibility of alternative locally available flours as a substitute for wheat flour
(Abdelghafor et al., 2011). The FAO reported that the application of composite flour in
various food products would be economically advantageous if the imports of wheat could be
reduced or even eliminated, and that demand for bread and pastry products could be met by
the use of domestically grown products instead of wheat (Jisha et al., 2008). Bakery products
produced using composite flour was of good quality, with some characteristics similar to
wheat-flour bread, though the texture and the properties of the composite flour bakery
products could different from those made from wheat flour in terms of nutritional value and
appearance.
Apart from being a good source of calories and other nutrients, wheat is considered
nutritionally poor, as cereal proteins are deficient in essential amino acids such as lysine and
threonine (Dhingra and Jood, 2001). Therefore, supplementation of wheat flour with
inexpensive staples, such as cereals and pulses, helps improve the nutritional quality of wheat
products (Sharma et al., 1999). For example, protein quality of both cassava-soya and
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cassava-groundnut breads is higher than that of common wheat bread (Nilufer et al., 2008).
In Malaysia, the bakery industry has grown tremendously over recent years (Noor Aziah and
Komathi, 2009).
Sweet potatoes are a significant crop and are popular among consumers, it is the
seventh-most significant crop based on global annual production. The sweet potato is
extremely important for worldwide food security. China produces the most sweet potatoes,
which accounts for 80% of production worldwide; whereas, the United States accounts for
0.8% of sweet potato production (Leksrisompong et al., 2012). In 2009, the foremost
producing countries included China, Russian Federation, India, Ukraine and the United States
(Oke and Workneh 2013). In the United States, sweet potatoes are mostly grown in North
Carolina, Louisiana, and California. Other states produce at lower production volumes, such
as Mississippi, Alabama, New Jersey, Texas, and South Carolina (Pszczola, 2011).
Sweet potatoes are roots and part of the morning glory family. They are not related to
the regular white potato (Solanum tuberosum), which is a tuber (Pszczola, 2011). Sweet
potatoes have a great potential for use in developing countries due to the high yields of dry
matter. When grown in the tropics, sweet potatoes have a short growing cycle of about 4
months. They are harvested after the leaves turn yellow, and the harvesting is labor intensive
because the crop must be picked by hand to avoid damaging the sweet potatoes. Mechanical
harvesters have been developed to lift the sweet potatoes, remove the vines, and sort, but
these do damage the sweet potatoes. Sweet potatoes can be used as livestock feed and are
eaten as a major carbohydrate in the human diet. Specifically in developing countries, sweet
potatoes can be dried in the form of chips and used as a constant source of food when other
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2.5 Sweet Potato Varieties
There are hundreds of varieties of sweet potatoes with colors ranging from white,
orange, and purple. Carotenoids and phenolic compounds give sweet potatoes the distinct
flesh color. White Delight is a variety with white flesh, and NC414, NC415, Purple 04-069
and Okinawa are purple fleshed (Leksrisompong et al.,2012; North Carolina Sweet Potato
Commission, 2015). The more consumer-recognized orange flesh sweet potato varieties
include Beauregard, Hernandez, Jewel, Carolina Ruby, Porto Rico, Cordner and Covington
(North Carolina Sweet Potato Commission, 2015). Because of the varying flesh colors, the
All the plant parts, roots, vines, and young leaves of sweet potatoes are used as foods,
animal feeds and traditional medicine around the world (Mohanraj and Sivasankar, 2014).
The nutritional values of sweet potato roots and leaves and selected processed products. In
Asia and Africa, the sweet potato leaves are eaten as green vegetables. The nutrient content
of sweet potato leaves varies among the varieties, harvest dates, crop years and cooking
methods. On dry weight basis, sweet potato leaves contain 25–37% protein, 42–61%
carbohydrate, 2–5% crude fat, 23–38% total dietary fiber, 60–200 mg/100 g ascorbic acid,
and 60–120 mg/100 g carotene (Sun et al., 2014). They are also rich in calcium (230–1,958
mg/100 g), iron (2–22 mg), potassium (479–5,230 mg), and magnesium (220–910 mg). The
high level of phenolics (1.4–17.1 mg/100 g dry weight), anthocyanins, and radical‐
scavenging activities in sweet potato leaves indicates their potential benefits on human health
Sweet potato greens are very rich in lutein, 38–51 mg/100 g in fresh leaves, which are
even higher than the lutein levels in the vegetables that are known as a source for lutein, such
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as kale (38 mg/100 g) and spinach (12 mg/100 g) (Menelaou et al., 2006). Novel
galactolipids
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were recently isolated and characterized from sweet potato leaves (Napolitano et al., 2007),
indicating that this leafy vegetable can be a potential source of omega ‐3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid. Health benefits and disease prevention of bioactive compounds in sweet potato leaves
have been reported (Johnson and Pace, 2010). The nutrient composition of sweet potato roots
varies widely, depending on the cultivar, growing conditions, maturity, and storage. Overall,
sweet potato roots have a high moisture level with an average dry matter content of 25–30%.
A wide range of dry matter content of 13–45% from a sweet potato germplasm collection was
Sweet potato roots are good source of carbohydrates and generally low in protein and
fat. Protein content ranged from 1.73–9.14% on dry weight with substantial levels of
nonprotein nitrogen (Yeoh and Truong, 2016). Sweet potato protein overall, however, is of
good quality, and the levels of essential amino acids compare significantly to the FAO
reference protein (Maloney et al., 2014). Most of the dry matter in sweet potatoes consists of
carbohydrates, primarily starch and sugars and to a lesser extent pectins, cellulose, and
hemicellulose. Dietary fiber in sweet potato roots range from 2 to 4% of fresh weight.
Residues from sweet potato starch and juice processing of commercial varieties are good
sources of dietary fiber, 16–36% of dry weight (Truong et al., 2012). Starch comprises 60–
70% of the total dry matter, but the values vary for different types of cultivars. As with other
starches, sweet potato starch granules are made up of amylose (20%) and amylopectin and
pasting temperatures are usually in a range of 60–76°C (Zhu and Wang, 2014). A special
sweet potato cultivar in Japan named Quick Sweet has starch gelatinization temperature of <
50°C and short cooking time. Short amylopectin chain length and cracking on the hilum of
starch granules contribute to the lower pasting temperature of the quick sweet cultivar
(Takahata et al., 2010). Much variability in sugars exists between sweet potato types. Truong
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et al., (2016) found total sugars to vary from 5.6% in a Filipino cultivar to 38% in a
Louisiana cultivar on a dry weight basis (db). Sucrose, glucose, and fructose make up the
majority of the total sugars in raw sweet potato roots. During cooking, amylases act on the
gelatinized starch resulting in the formation of maltose in cooked sweet potatoes. There is
substantial genetic diversity within the sweet potato genotypes collected around the world in
term of sugar content and degree of sweetness that contribute to the consumer preferences of
The glycemic indices of cooked sweet potatoes were about 63–66, indicative of
moderate glycemic index food (Allen et al., 2012). Ash content of sweet potatoes is
approximately 3% of the dry weight or between 0.3% and 1.0% of the fresh weight basis
(fwb). Potassium is the mineral with the greatest concentration in sweet potato, with an
average of 396 mg/100 g fwb. Phosphorous, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and
magnesium are also present in significant amounts (Woolfe, 2002). Sweet potato roots also
contain vitamins such as ascorbic acid, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B6),
pantothenic acid (B5), folic acid, and vitamin E. Bradbury and Singh (2016) reported values
between 9.5 and 25.0 mg/100 g (fwb) for ascorbic acid and 7.3–13.6 mg/100 g (fwb) for
dehydroascorbic acid resulting in a total vitamin C range of 17.3–34.5 mg/100 g for the sweet
potato roots.
content in cooked orange‐fleshed sweet potatoes, 6.7–16.0 mg/100 g fwb, has been reported
by different investigators (Bovell‐ Benjamin, 2007). The sweet potato carotenoids exist in an
all trans configuration, which exhibits the highest provitamin A activity among the
carotenoids. van Jaarsveld et al. (2015) advocate the increased consumption of orange‐
fleshed sweet potatoes as an effective approach to improve the vitamin A nutrition in the
developing countries. Total carotenoid content is correlated with the dry matter content and
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sensory attributes involving visual, odor, taste and textural characteristics of cooked sweet
potatoes. Doubling in carotenoid content would result in a decrease of about 1.2% of dry
matter content in sweet potato varieties (Tomlins et al., 2012). Epidemiological studies
indicated the beneficial effects of high carotene diets in reducing the risks of cancer, age‐
Purple‐fleshed sweet potato roots have attractive reddish ‐purple color with high levels
of anthocyanins and total phenolics. The flowable purees with a solids content of 18%
processed from this sweet potato type had total phenolic and anthocyanin contents of 314 mg
μmol trolox equivalent/g fwb and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of 26 μmol
trolox equivalent/g fwb (Steed and Truong, 2008). The purple ‐fleshed sweet potato varieties
have anthocyanin content up to 348 mg/100 g fwb) and antioxidant activities in a competitive
level with other food commodities known to be a good source of antioxidants such as black
bean, red onion, black berries, cultivated blueberries, sweet cherries, and strawberries.
cyaniding and peonidin, contributors to the blue and red hues of purple ‐fleshed sweet
potatoes, can be simply quantified by acid hydrolysis of the extracted anthocyanins. This
method has been adapted in the breeding programs to select clones with various levels of
cyanidin or peonidin for targeted reddish‐purple flesh colors (Xu et al., 2015).
Sweet potato roots and other plant parts are used as human food, animal feed, and
processing industry. Various processing technologies that convert sweet potatoes into
functional ingredients, food, and industrial products. For industrial processing, starch, sugars,
and natural colorants are the major intermediate products that can be used in both food and
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nonfood processing industry. Sweet potato varieties with high levels of dry matter (35–41%),
total starch (25–27%), and extractable starch (20–23%) are available for starch processing
(Brabet et al., 2008). There are many small and medium factories in Asia producing about
26% of starch production (Bovell‐ Benjamin, 2007). The process for manufacturing sweet
potato starch is basically similar to the starch extraction from other sources. The roots are
ground in limewater (pH 8.6–9.2) to prevent browning due to polyphenol oxidase, to dissolve
pigments, and to flocculate the impurities. The extracted starch is separated from the pulp by
thoroughly washing over a series of screens, bleaching with sodium hypochlorite, and then
concrete tanks or sun‐dried to a moisture content of about 12%, pulverized and screened.
Centrifugation and mechanical drying, such as flash dryer, are commonly used for
The use of sweet potatoes in the food industry often involves processing of the roots
into purees that can be subsequently frozen, canned, or packaged in aseptic conditions to
produce shelf‐stable products for year‐round availability. In puree processing, roots of all
sizes and shapes can be utilized and, therefore, the entire harvested crop is utilized including
the 30–40% off‐grade from the fresh root markets (Kays, 2015). The challenges in puree
processing industry are: (1) the difficulty in adjusting the process to account for differences in
cultivar types, root handling, curing, and storage; and processing techniques in order to
produce consistent and high quality puree; and (2) the preservation technology that could
techniques have been developed for puree processing in order to produce purees with
consistent quality, despite the variations due to cultivar differences in carbohydrate content,
starch degrading enzyme activities, and postharvest handling practices (Kays, 2015).
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Process operations for pureeing of sweet potatoes include washing, peeling, hand‐
trimming, cutting, steamed blanching or cooking, and grinding into purees which can be
subjected to canning or freezing for preservation. Raw sweet potatoes can be peeled by
abrasive rollers, lye solution, or steam flashing. Lye peeling is no longer a common method
in the industry due to the issues on equipment corrosion and waste disposal. The peeled sweet
potatoes are then washed thoroughly to remove all disintegrated peel, followed by trimming,
cutting into slices or dices. The purees can be simply produced by steam cooking of the
chunks, slices, strips, cubes, or ground particles, and passing the cooked materials through a
pulp finisher. Hoover and Harmon (2017) developed an enzyme activation technique using
the endogenous amylolytic enzymes for starch hydrolysis in sweet potato puree processing,
and this process is now commonly used in the food industry. The peeled sweet potatoes either
can be cut into cubes of 2 cm, strips of 2 × 2 × 6 cm, and slices of 0.5–0.95 cm thickness or
mashed using a hammer mill with rotating blades to chop and push the materials through a
Sweet potatoes can be frozen in different forms such as whole roots, halves, quarters,
slices, cubes, French fries, paste, or as puree. The processing steps include peeling, sizing,
appropriate blanching or cooking and freezing time when the roots are to be frozen whole
(Bouwkamp, 2015). Packaging may precede freezing such as frozen purees or may follow
freezing when the roots or cut pieces are individually quick frozen (IQF). In Japan, sweet
potato slices/crushed roots mixed with 35% sugar are packed in plastic bags and blast frozen
In large‐scale production of French fries, partially fried products are frozen for
distribution to institutional and retailed consumers. Good quality fries could be produced by
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blanching thestrips in 60% sucrose solution for 4.5 minutes or for 3 minutes in boiling water
containing 0.25% sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and 0.25% calcium chloride (Padmaja,
2009). Textural properties of the frozen french fries are affected by root storage, and the
problem can be overcome by calcium treatment and low ‐temperature blanching. Loss in
ascorbic acid and color score were reported for French fries stored frozen for 1 year
Canned sweet potatoes are widely consumed among the sweet potato products
available to consumers in the United States. Sweet potatoes can be canned whole, halved, or
cut into chunks, in either syrup or water. Sweet potatoes can also be pureed and canned as a
solid pack. The unit operations leading to the production of canned sweet potato roots include
peeling, cutting, sizing, blanching, filling, syruping, exhausting, and retorting. Blanching in
water at 77°C for 1–3 minutes is done to drive out gases, maintain can vacuum, and increase
the initial temperature of the contents of the cans (Bouwkamp, 2015). However, low‐
(Truong et al., 2008). Immediately after blanching, the material is packed in cans and covered
with syrup at 95°C to prevent discoloration. Sugar (20–40%) or water is used, depending on
consumer preferences. Cans should be exhausted long enough for the internal temperature to
reach 77°C to ensure a good vacuum of the finished cans (Bouwkamp, 2015).
Sweet potato roots are processed into dehydrated forms such as dried chips, cubes,
granules, flakes, and flour for storage and use in food preparations, including soups, bakery
products, vermicelli, noodles, extruded snack foods, and breakfast cereals ( Waramboi et al.,
2014). Drying produces a light, compact, relatively inexpensive, easily stored, and
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transported material. Processing methods vary in sophistication from simple slicing and field
sun‐drying of roots as practiced at the village levels in many tropical countries to the large ‐
nutrient retention, and product storability of dehydrated products of sweet potato roots are
Kadam, 2008).
Sweet potato chips and french fries are popular in many countries. In the past few
years, several food companies in the United States have ventured into processing of sweet
potato chips and french fries with high beta‐carotene content from orange ‐fleshed sweet
potatoes in response to the growing demands of the consumers on healthy foods. For
commercial success, the product should be of consistent quality regardless of root storage
duration. Consistent quality SPFF can be produced year round from SP roots stored under
appropriate conditions. Sweet potato French fries have relatively low fat content, 10% fresh
weight (fw), and high carotene content, 10 mg/100 g fw (Truong et al., 2014). Reconstituted
sweet potato chips were developed in China, and extruded snack products with alternative
shapes to those of conventional chips were produced in Japan, with characteristics similar to
For chip processing, unpeeled or peeled roots are sliced into 0.8–2.0 mm thin chips,
which are blanched for 2 minutes at 93°C, then drained and partially dehydrated using heated
forced air at 119 °C. The thickness of the chip is important, since it affects the length of
cooking and the quality of the finished product. Partial drying has a pronounced effect on the
appearance, flavor, and texture of the finished product. Optimum frying temperature was
between 143 and 154 °C (Hoover and Miller, 20133). Frying at lower temperature under
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vacuum (130 °C) and deoiling by centrifuging system can produce good ‐quality chips with
Being rich in starch, sugars, and other nutrients, sweet potatoes have been used in the
production of many fermented products. In Japan, highstarch sweet potato varieties are used
in shochu fermentation. Shochu is traditional distilled liquor from sweet potatoes or other
sources
such as rice, barley, corn, or potato (Sakamoto and Bouwkamp, 2015). Sweet potato shochu
is very popular, especially in southern Japan. The process involves the inoculation of steamed
sweet potato slurry with a starter Koji containing Aspergillus niger or A. kawachii as an
enzyme source for starch conversion to sugars, followed by fermentation to alcohol by yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The whole process usually takes 12–14 days to yield a broth
having 13–15% alcohol, which is then distilled and blended to produce shochu with 20–40%
alcohol. Recently, sweet potato vodka with 40% alcohol has been produced and
commercialized by companies in the United States. Wine and beer are the recent alcoholic
beverages from the orange‐ and purple‐fleshed sweet potatoes (Yamakawa 2000).
Red vinegar with high antioxidant activity and antihyperglycemic effect made from
purple‐fleshed sweet potatoes was developed (Matsui et al., 2004). Sweet potatoes are also
used as substrates in soy sauce fermentation (Data et al., 2016). Other fermented sweet potato
products rich in carotene and anthocyanins that have been developed in recent years include
yogurt (Collins et al., 2000), curd (Mohapatra et al., 2007), fermented beverages (Saigusa et
al., 2005), lacto‐pickle (Panda et al., 2009), lacto‐juice (Panda et al., 2009), and probiotic
milk‐sweet potato drink (Perez and Tan, 2006). The application of bioprocessing technology
and the progress in the development of fermented products from sweet potatoes has been
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CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Materials
Sweet potato and wheat will be purchased from a local market (Bodija) in Ibadan,
Oyo State. Other ingredients such as sugar, yeast, fat, magarine, egg and baking powder, will
3.2 Methods
Sweet potatoes will be cleaned to remove the dirt and peeled and then sliced into
pieces, after which they will be washed to remove the dirt and will be treated with sodium
and potassium meta-bisulphate, followed by dicing. Sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes and orange
fleshed sweet potatoes will be blanched using steam method and dried in a hot air oven at 50-
600C. It will then be tempered, dried and milled. The flour will be sieved and milled again,
and then the instant sweet potatoes flour is cooled, packaged and stored as described by
Sweet potatoes will be cleaned to remove the dirt, sliced into pieces, after which they
will be washed to remove the dirt and will be treated with sodium and potassium meta-
bisulphate, followed by dicing. Sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes and orange fleshed sweet
potatoes will be blanched using steam method and dried in a hot air oven at 50-60 0C. It will
then be tempered, dried and milled. The flour will be sieved and milled again, and then the
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instant sweet potatoes flour is cooled, packaged and stored as described by (Adeleke et al.,
2002).
Sweet potatoes
Washing
Peeling
Slicing
Dicing
Sulphating
Steam blanching
Milling
Sieving
Cooling
Packaging
Fig. 3.1: Flow chat on the production of peeled sweet potatoes flour
Source: Adeleke et al. (2002).
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Sweet potatoes
Washing
Slicing
Dicing
Sulphating
Steam blanching
Milling
Sieving
Cooling
Packaging
Fig. 3.1: Flow chat on the production of unpeeled sweet potatoes flour
Source: Adeleke et al. (2002).
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3.2.3 Preparation of Wheat- Peeled and Unpeeled Sweet Potato Composite Flour
Different formulations of wheat- peeled and unpeeled sweet potato flour will be
Chin-chin will be prepared using the method outlined by Akubor (2004) with
modifications. Hundred grams (100g) of wheat flour will be weighed and sieved using 250
micron particle size sieve and mixed at different proportions with sweet potatoes (peeled and
unpeeled) in a clean bowels labelled. All dry ingredients such as sugar, salt and baking
powder will be weighed and sieved into the bowls and mixed thoroughly to ensure
uniformity. Margarine will be rubbed-in, a mixture of egg and milk will be turned in and mix
to form dough. The dough will be placed on a floured surface and kneaded until smooth and
elastic. The kneaded dough will be rolled out to approximately 2cm thick and then cut into
small squares of about 2cm by 2cm in size. Vegetable oil (Corn oil) will be put inside a deep
fryer and allowed to heat until the temperature of fryer reached 180 ̊C. Dough cubes will be
placed in the hot oil and the chin-chin will be deep fried for 8min until golden brown. The
fried chin-chin will be removed and drains off excess oil, package and stored at room
The microbiological analysis will be carried out according to the method of Harrigan
(1998). Plate count agar will be used for enumeration of bacteria. A well homogenized
22
sample will be serially diluted with 0.1% peptone water up to 10 -6. One ml aliquot from a
suitable dilution will be transferred aseptically into sterile petri dishes. To each plate about
15ml of melted and cooled PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) will be added. The inocula will be
evenly
Weighing
Sieving
Sieving
Mixing thoroughly
Mixing
Formulation of dough
Kneading
Cutting
Fried chin-chin
Draining
23
Packaging
Fig. 3.2: Production of Chin-Chin from wheat-African yam bean blends
mixed with media by rotating the plates and allowed to solidify. The inverted plate will be
incubated for 48hours. The TVC (cfu/ml) will be determined using a colony counter.
Mac Conkey broth will be used for the detection of coliform bacteria by the multiple
tube technique. The medium will be distributed in 9ml quantities standard test tubes with
inverted Durham tube and will be then autoclaved for 20 mins at 121 ℃ . Well homogenized
samples were serially diluted (10-1, 10-2, 10-3 and 10-4) with 0.1 % peptone water. About 1 ml
from each dilution will be aseptically inoculated into triplicate of 9 ml sterile Mac Conkey
broth in standard test tube and incubated for 48hrs at 37 ℃ . Positive tests gave gas in the
Durham tubes and changed the color of the medium (Harrigan, 1998).
Potato dextrose agar (PDA) will be used for enumeration of yeast and mould .Well
homogenised samples will be serially diluted with 0.1%pepetone water up to 10-6. Aliquots
(0.1ml) from a suitable dilution were transferred asceptically into solidified PDA plates.
Samples were spread all over the surface of the plates using sterile bent glass rod. The plates
were then incubated for 48 to 72 h at 28 oC.Counting (cfu/ml) will be carried out by using
The result of the experiment will be subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
the mean will be separated with the use of Duncan’s multiple range test to detect significant
24
difference (p<0.05) among the sample values using the statistical package for the social
science (SPSS).
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