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STORAGE STUDIES OF CHINCHIN PRODUCTS FROM NATIVE

SWEET POTATO (PEELED AND UNPEELED) WITH DIFFERENT

PACKAGING MATERIALS

BY

MOSHOOD KAFILAT WURAOLA

(192196)

PROJECT PROPOSAL

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE


FACULTY OF FOOD CONSUMER SCIENCES,
LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
OGBOMOSO.
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF THE BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH.)
DEGREE IN FOOD SCIENCE

JUNE, 2024
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Snacks have become a major portion of human nutrition in most countries around the

world due to its increasing consumption pattern. This is because consumers have increasingly

and recently been demanding for healthy foods that can provide quick and affordable sources

of nutrients. The food industry in a bid to respond to this has resorted to the development and

production of “convenient products” (Abioye et al., 2020).

Chinchin is a fried snack popular in West Africa. It is a sweet, hard, doughnut-like

baked or fried dough of wheat flour and other customary baking items. It is deep-fried until

golden brown and crispy (Abu-Salem et al., 2011; Adebayo-Oyetoro et al., 2017). This

golden-brown crunchy food product is eaten amongst several age brackets. It is available in

various shapes and sizes and is also widely accepted and promoted for commercial

production and marketing by entrepreneurs (Adelekan et al., 2019). Chinchin is a traditional

Nigerian snack prepared using wheat flour, butter, milk and eggs from which a stiff paste is

made. It is deep-fried until golden brown and crispy. It is quite popular across Nigeria and in

most of Western Africa countries (Adegunwa et al., 2014).

Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam.), is an important economic crop in many

countries. In terms of annual production, sweet potato ranks as the fifth most important food

crop in the tropics and the seventh in the world food production after wheat, rice, maize,

potato, barley, and cassava (FAO 2016). Sweet potato is rich in carbohydrate, dietary fiber,

B-carotene, ascorbic acid, folic acid and minerals (Bovell-Benjamin, 2017; ILSI, 2018).

Therefore, sweet potato is now widely used as an important human diet around the world.

Nigeria is currently the third largest producer of sweet potato in the world with a production

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of 2.12 million metric tonnes (FAOSTAT, 2011). Sweet potato has been recognized as

having an important role to play in improving household and national food security, health,

and livelihoods of poor families in sub-Saharan Africa (Low et al., 2009).

1.2 Problem Statement of the Study

Literatures on storage conditions of this snack are scarce. One of the most important

factors which determine sensory and nutritive quality retentions of food products is

packaging. Also, there is a gross over dependence on improved wheat flour, Nigeria climate

does not favour the cultivation of wheat. The demand for wheat is on the increase and has by

far exceeded its supply. About 75% of our foreign exchange is lost through importation of

wheat hence we are looking for a substitute which will even yield a foreign exchange through

export for the country. Attempts are being made in recent days to improve the nutritional

qualities and functionalities of chinchin, due to competition in the market for more healthy,

natural and functional products. There is an increase in demand for bakery products and

hence more demand for importation of wheat which has negative effect on Nigeria economy.

The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much

attention from researchers, especially in the production of snacks, bakery products and

pastries. There is also a demand on the food processors to produce functional ingredients to

meet the nutritional requirement of the populace. The growing increase in sweet potatoes

consumption in Nigeria could generate significant quantity of sweet potatoes from which

essential product could be recovered for use in food processing.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this project is to evaluate the storage studies of chinchin products from

native sweet potato (peeled and unpeeled) with different packaging materials.

The objectives are to:

i. Produce chinchin from wheat and sweet potato (peeled and unpeeled).

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ii. Determine the storage stabilities of chinchin from wheat and sweet potato (peeled and

unpeeled) using plastic bottles (PB), High and Low Densities Polyethylene (HDP and

LDP) for 4 weeks.

iii. Determine the microbial analysis of chinchin from wheat and sweet potato (peeled

and unpeeled) using plastic bottles (PB), High and Low Densities Polyethylene (HDP

and LDP) for 4 weeks.

1.4 Justification of the study

Development of wheat- and sweet potato (peeled and unpeeled) chinchin will help

diversify the uses of sweet potato and provide an alternate healthy and nutritious food for

most people. Due to its high protein, mineral and vitamin A, it also help with efforts to reduce

protein and vitamin A deficiency. The diversification and utilization of wheat-sweet potato

blends will help efforts to achieve Food and Nutrient security. Sweet potato contribute

significantly in overcoming disease in developing countries because nutraceuticals, that is

responsible for their antioxidant, antitumor and antimicrobial properties. Sweet potato are

said to possess many unsubstantiated nutritional properties but document and adequate

scientific validation and measures for their sustainable utilization is still to be explored. Chin

chin is a traditional Nigeria snack prepared using wheat flour therefore substituting Sweet

potato in the production of snacks will improve on the nutritional status of the populace and

also increase the economic importance of Sweet potato.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Snacks Food

Snack is a portion of food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between

meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged snack foods and other

processed foods, as well as items made from fresh ingredients at home. Snack foods are

typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form

of convenience food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable, and more portable than

prepared foods. A snack eaten shortly before going to bed or during the night may be called a

midnight snack. Healthy snacks include those that have significant vitamins, are low in

saturated fat and added sugars, and have low sodium content (Brooks, 2011).

Snacks are important in food consumption among adolescents; when snacks are

consumed in addition to three meals in a day, they will improve the nutritional status of

adolescents (Olumakaiye et al., 2008). Snacks can keep younger children from getting so

hungry that they become cranky, and they can keep older children from over eating at larger

meals. And for picky eaters of all ages, snacks can be added insurance that they are getting

the necessary nutrients.

2.1.1 Importance of snacks

The importance of snacks has grown remarkably in the last few years. Selling of

snacks is an important way of obtaining income. Snacks are inexpensive and widely

consumed as they are often a major source of daily food intakes of children and adults (FAO,

1996). Snacks are important because young people usually do not eat enough at one meal to

get all the vitamin and nutrients they need for a day. And because they do not eat enough at a

meal time, they get hungry between meals. Eating a healthy snack makes one g et all the

things needed in the day to keep one healthy and full of energy (Foskett et al., 2004).

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The type of food we eat and the times we eat them are strongly influenced simply by

hunger but also cultural and social factors that vary from region to region and country to

country,. Traditions, religious habits, working culture and levels of disposable income all

contributes to shape what we consume and the number of times we eat each day. Despite the

difference in eating habits throughout the country, one thing is consistent; snacking is on the

increase (FAO, 1996).

2.1.2 Contribution of snack foods to the economy

Snack food sellers are attracted to the occupation because of the possibility of earning

relatively high incomes. In South-east Asia, the average earning of a snack food vendor is

three times the minimum wages of skilled labours employed in formal sector (FAO, 1996).

Matitiya (1994) in her report stated that Nigeria as an agricultural country is blessed

with so many food stuffs which are consumed by her citizens for their nutritive value. An

International Agricultural College Deventer (IACD) viewed that, it is not enough to grow and

have food stuffs within reach, but it has to be cooked for better palatability. The cooking

requires technical skills, originality for better appearance, flavor, digestibility and nutritive

value which are the significance for most snack foods.

Peter (1998) indicated that all snacks; both local and continental ones have one

important thing in common, apart from homemade, they are industrially produced, hence

improving the productivity force by increasing employment rate. Snacks are sold in every

market place from prison to wall marts, restaurants, eateries, fast food outlets. They are eaten

at every meal time, as in between meals from breakfast to mid-night meals as appetizers in

socializing, at gathering, and they are popular in every demographic age group from cradle to

grave.

Pierce (1995) pointed out that snacks are the epitome of the portable food for a

society on the go; it is fast, fun, easy and cheap. Selling of snacks is an important way to

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obtain income especially for poor urban women, they are widely consumed and are often a

major source of daily food intake of children, teenagers and adults. It has been reported that

although 65% of snacks consumer in America are trying to eat healthy, 33% do not have time

to prepare or eat healthy meals. An unmistakable new pattern of food consumption is

emerging in Nigeria. The country is witnessing an upsurge in the number of fast food

restaurants. At present, there are well over 70 different brand names. They are so conspicuous

that it would be difficult to miss their 'colourful edifices and billboards' (Olutayo, 2000).

2.2 Wheat (Triticum spp)

Wheat is the world’s third most important crop after maize and rice. Worldwide,

wheat flour is used as the raw material for baking. The gluten protein in wheat makes it a

unique substrate for breadmaking. The three main types of wheat are soft, hard, and durum.

Unlike hard and durum wheats, which are used mainly for bread and pasta products,

respectively, soft wheat has more than one major use, Including cookies, cakes, crackers and

pretzels (Hoseney 2018).

The protein content varies significantly in wheat varieties and it ranges between 10

and 15% (Anjum and Walker, 2000). Wheat proteins contain albumins, globulins, gliadins

and glutenins. While albumins and globulins are soluble in water and salt solution,

respectively, gliadins and glutenins are collectively called gluten and are insoluble in water

and salt solution. It has been shown that the gluten proteins are responsible for the cohesive,

viscoelastic property of wheat flour dough and the dough’s ability to retain gas during

fermentation as well as dough setting during baking (Hoseney, 2018). To form cohesive and

viscoelastic dough, gluten requires adequate hydration and kneading to promote cross

linkages between glutenins and gliadins.

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2.3 Composite Flour

According to Shittu et al. (2007), composite flours either binary or ternary mixtures of

flours from some other crops with or without wheat flour. The use of composite flours had a

few advantages for developing countries such as Nigeria terms of: i) the saving of hard

currency; ii) promotion of high yielding, native plant species; iii) a better supply of protein

for human nutrition; and iv) better overall use of domestic agriculture production (Berghofer,

2000; Bugusu et al., 2001). Composite flour is considered advantageous in developing

countries as it reduces the importation of wheat flour and encourages the use of locally grown

crops as flour (Hasmadi et al., 2014). Local raw materials substitution for wheat flour is

increasing due to the growing market for confectioneries (Noor Aziah and Komathi, 2009).

Thus, several developing countries have encouraged several initiatives of programmes

to evaluate the feasibility of alternative locally available flours as a substitute for wheat flour

(Abdelghafor et al., 2011). The FAO reported that the application of composite flour in

various food products would be economically advantageous if the imports of wheat could be

reduced or even eliminated, and that demand for bread and pastry products could be met by

the use of domestically grown products instead of wheat (Jisha et al., 2008). Bakery products

produced using composite flour was of good quality, with some characteristics similar to

wheat-flour bread, though the texture and the properties of the composite flour bakery

products could different from those made from wheat flour in terms of nutritional value and

appearance.

Apart from being a good source of calories and other nutrients, wheat is considered

nutritionally poor, as cereal proteins are deficient in essential amino acids such as lysine and

threonine (Dhingra and Jood, 2001). Therefore, supplementation of wheat flour with

inexpensive staples, such as cereals and pulses, helps improve the nutritional quality of wheat

products (Sharma et al., 1999). For example, protein quality of both cassava-soya and

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cassava-groundnut breads is higher than that of common wheat bread (Nilufer et al., 2008).

In Malaysia, the bakery industry has grown tremendously over recent years (Noor Aziah and

Komathi, 2009).

2.4 Sweet Potato

Sweet potatoes are a significant crop and are popular among consumers, it is the

seventh-most significant crop based on global annual production. The sweet potato is

extremely important for worldwide food security. China produces the most sweet potatoes,

which accounts for 80% of production worldwide; whereas, the United States accounts for

0.8% of sweet potato production (Leksrisompong et al., 2012). In 2009, the foremost

producing countries included China, Russian Federation, India, Ukraine and the United States

(Oke and Workneh 2013). In the United States, sweet potatoes are mostly grown in North

Carolina, Louisiana, and California. Other states produce at lower production volumes, such

as Mississippi, Alabama, New Jersey, Texas, and South Carolina (Pszczola, 2011).

Sweet potatoes are roots and part of the morning glory family. They are not related to

the regular white potato (Solanum tuberosum), which is a tuber (Pszczola, 2011). Sweet

potatoes have a great potential for use in developing countries due to the high yields of dry

matter. When grown in the tropics, sweet potatoes have a short growing cycle of about 4

months. They are harvested after the leaves turn yellow, and the harvesting is labor intensive

because the crop must be picked by hand to avoid damaging the sweet potatoes. Mechanical

harvesters have been developed to lift the sweet potatoes, remove the vines, and sort, but

these do damage the sweet potatoes. Sweet potatoes can be used as livestock feed and are

eaten as a major carbohydrate in the human diet. Specifically in developing countries, sweet

potatoes can be dried in the form of chips and used as a constant source of food when other

food staples have been depleted (Diop, 1998).

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2.5 Sweet Potato Varieties

There are hundreds of varieties of sweet potatoes with colors ranging from white,

orange, and purple. Carotenoids and phenolic compounds give sweet potatoes the distinct

flesh color. White Delight is a variety with white flesh, and NC414, NC415, Purple 04-069

and Okinawa are purple fleshed (Leksrisompong et al.,2012; North Carolina Sweet Potato

Commission, 2015). The more consumer-recognized orange flesh sweet potato varieties

include Beauregard, Hernandez, Jewel, Carolina Ruby, Porto Rico, Cordner and Covington

(North Carolina Sweet Potato Commission, 2015). Because of the varying flesh colors, the

nutritional content can vary as well as the consumer acceptance.

2.6 Nutritional Composition of Sweet potatoes

All the plant parts, roots, vines, and young leaves of sweet potatoes are used as foods,

animal feeds and traditional medicine around the world (Mohanraj and Sivasankar, 2014).

The nutritional values of sweet potato roots and leaves and selected processed products. In

Asia and Africa, the sweet potato leaves are eaten as green vegetables. The nutrient content

of sweet potato leaves varies among the varieties, harvest dates, crop years and cooking

methods. On dry weight basis, sweet potato leaves contain 25–37% protein, 42–61%

carbohydrate, 2–5% crude fat, 23–38% total dietary fiber, 60–200 mg/100 g ascorbic acid,

and 60–120 mg/100 g carotene (Sun et al., 2014). They are also rich in calcium (230–1,958

mg/100 g), iron (2–22 mg), potassium (479–5,230 mg), and magnesium (220–910 mg). The

high level of phenolics (1.4–17.1 mg/100 g dry weight), anthocyanins, and radical‐

scavenging activities in sweet potato leaves indicates their potential benefits on human health

and nutrition (Truong et al., 2017).

Sweet potato greens are very rich in lutein, 38–51 mg/100 g in fresh leaves, which are

even higher than the lutein levels in the vegetables that are known as a source for lutein, such

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as kale (38 mg/100 g) and spinach (12 mg/100 g) (Menelaou et al., 2006). Novel

galactolipids

Table 2.1: Nutritional value of raw sweet potato per 100g


Nutrient unit value per 100
Water g 77.28
Energy Kcal 86
Protein g 1.57
Total lipid (fat ) g 0.05
Carbohydrate g 20.12
Fibre, total dietary g 3
Sugars g 0.61
Calcium mg 30
Iron mg 0.61
Magnesium mg 25
Phosphorus mg 47
Potassium mg 337
Sodium mg 55
Zinc mg 0.3
Vitamin C mg 2.4
Thiamin mg 0.078
Riboflavin mg 0.061
Niacin mg 0.557
Vitamin B6 mg 0.209
Folate µg 11
Vitamin A µg 709
Vitamin A IU 14187
Vitamin E mg 0.26
Vitamin K µg 1.8
Source: USDA (2009)

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were recently isolated and characterized from sweet potato leaves (Napolitano et al., 2007),

indicating that this leafy vegetable can be a potential source of omega ‐3 polyunsaturated fatty

acid. Health benefits and disease prevention of bioactive compounds in sweet potato leaves

have been reported (Johnson and Pace, 2010). The nutrient composition of sweet potato roots

varies widely, depending on the cultivar, growing conditions, maturity, and storage. Overall,

sweet potato roots have a high moisture level with an average dry matter content of 25–30%.

A wide range of dry matter content of 13–45% from a sweet potato germplasm collection was

reported by Tsou and Hong (2017).

Sweet potato roots are good source of carbohydrates and generally low in protein and

fat. Protein content ranged from 1.73–9.14% on dry weight with substantial levels of

nonprotein nitrogen (Yeoh and Truong, 2016). Sweet potato protein overall, however, is of

good quality, and the levels of essential amino acids compare significantly to the FAO

reference protein (Maloney et al., 2014). Most of the dry matter in sweet potatoes consists of

carbohydrates, primarily starch and sugars and to a lesser extent pectins, cellulose, and

hemicellulose. Dietary fiber in sweet potato roots range from 2 to 4% of fresh weight.

Residues from sweet potato starch and juice processing of commercial varieties are good

sources of dietary fiber, 16–36% of dry weight (Truong et al., 2012). Starch comprises 60–

70% of the total dry matter, but the values vary for different types of cultivars. As with other

starches, sweet potato starch granules are made up of amylose (20%) and amylopectin and

pasting temperatures are usually in a range of 60–76°C (Zhu and Wang, 2014). A special

sweet potato cultivar in Japan named Quick Sweet has starch gelatinization temperature of <

50°C and short cooking time. Short amylopectin chain length and cracking on the hilum of

starch granules contribute to the lower pasting temperature of the quick sweet cultivar

(Takahata et al., 2010). Much variability in sugars exists between sweet potato types. Truong

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et al., (2016) found total sugars to vary from 5.6% in a Filipino cultivar to 38% in a

Louisiana cultivar on a dry weight basis (db). Sucrose, glucose, and fructose make up the

majority of the total sugars in raw sweet potato roots. During cooking, amylases act on the

gelatinized starch resulting in the formation of maltose in cooked sweet potatoes. There is

substantial genetic diversity within the sweet potato genotypes collected around the world in

term of sugar content and degree of sweetness that contribute to the consumer preferences of

processed products (Leksrisompong et al., 2012).

The glycemic indices of cooked sweet potatoes were about 63–66, indicative of

moderate glycemic index food (Allen et al., 2012). Ash content of sweet potatoes is

approximately 3% of the dry weight or between 0.3% and 1.0% of the fresh weight basis

(fwb). Potassium is the mineral with the greatest concentration in sweet potato, with an

average of 396 mg/100 g fwb. Phosphorous, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and

magnesium are also present in significant amounts (Woolfe, 2002). Sweet potato roots also

contain vitamins such as ascorbic acid, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B6),

pantothenic acid (B5), folic acid, and vitamin E. Bradbury and Singh (2016) reported values

between 9.5 and 25.0 mg/100 g (fwb) for ascorbic acid and 7.3–13.6 mg/100 g (fwb) for

dehydroascorbic acid resulting in a total vitamin C range of 17.3–34.5 mg/100 g for the sweet

potato roots.

Orange‐fleshed sweet potatoes are rich in β‐carotene. A wider range of β ‐carotene

content in cooked orange‐fleshed sweet potatoes, 6.7–16.0 mg/100 g fwb, has been reported

by different investigators (Bovell‐ Benjamin, 2007). The sweet potato carotenoids exist in an

all trans configuration, which exhibits the highest provitamin A activity among the

carotenoids. van Jaarsveld et al. (2015) advocate the increased consumption of orange‐

fleshed sweet potatoes as an effective approach to improve the vitamin A nutrition in the

developing countries. Total carotenoid content is correlated with the dry matter content and

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sensory attributes involving visual, odor, taste and textural characteristics of cooked sweet

potatoes. Doubling in carotenoid content would result in a decrease of about 1.2% of dry

matter content in sweet potato varieties (Tomlins et al., 2012). Epidemiological studies

indicated the beneficial effects of high carotene diets in reducing the risks of cancer, age‐

related macular degeneration, and heart diseases (Tanumihardjo, 2008).

Purple‐fleshed sweet potato roots have attractive reddish ‐purple color with high levels

of anthocyanins and total phenolics. The flowable purees with a solids content of 18%

processed from this sweet potato type had total phenolic and anthocyanin contents of 314 mg

chlorogenic acid equivalent/100 g fwb and 58 mg cyanidin‐3‐glucosdie equivalent/100 g fwb,

respectively. The 2, 2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity was 47

μmol trolox equivalent/g fwb and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of 26 μmol

trolox equivalent/g fwb (Steed and Truong, 2008). The purple ‐fleshed sweet potato varieties

have anthocyanin content up to 348 mg/100 g fwb) and antioxidant activities in a competitive

level with other food commodities known to be a good source of antioxidants such as black

bean, red onion, black berries, cultivated blueberries, sweet cherries, and strawberries.

Seventeen anthocyanins were identified by HPL‐MS/MS. The major anthocyanidins,

cyaniding and peonidin, contributors to the blue and red hues of purple ‐fleshed sweet

potatoes, can be simply quantified by acid hydrolysis of the extracted anthocyanins. This

method has been adapted in the breeding programs to select clones with various levels of

cyanidin or peonidin for targeted reddish‐purple flesh colors (Xu et al., 2015).

2.7 Processing and Utilization of Sweet Potato

Sweet potato roots and other plant parts are used as human food, animal feed, and

processing industry. Various processing technologies that convert sweet potatoes into

functional ingredients, food, and industrial products. For industrial processing, starch, sugars,

and natural colorants are the major intermediate products that can be used in both food and

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nonfood processing industry. Sweet potato varieties with high levels of dry matter (35–41%),

total starch (25–27%), and extractable starch (20–23%) are available for starch processing

(Brabet et al., 2008). There are many small and medium factories in Asia producing about

26% of starch production (Bovell‐ Benjamin, 2007). The process for manufacturing sweet

potato starch is basically similar to the starch extraction from other sources. The roots are

ground in limewater (pH 8.6–9.2) to prevent browning due to polyphenol oxidase, to dissolve

pigments, and to flocculate the impurities. The extracted starch is separated from the pulp by

thoroughly washing over a series of screens, bleaching with sodium hypochlorite, and then

settling by gravity or centrifugation. In smallscale establishments, starch is stored wet in

concrete tanks or sun‐dried to a moisture content of about 12%, pulverized and screened.

Centrifugation and mechanical drying, such as flash dryer, are commonly used for

mediumscale factories (Padmaja 2009).

2.7.1 Purees and Juices Processing

The use of sweet potatoes in the food industry often involves processing of the roots

into purees that can be subsequently frozen, canned, or packaged in aseptic conditions to

produce shelf‐stable products for year‐round availability. In puree processing, roots of all

sizes and shapes can be utilized and, therefore, the entire harvested crop is utilized including

the 30–40% off‐grade from the fresh root markets (Kays, 2015). The challenges in puree

processing industry are: (1) the difficulty in adjusting the process to account for differences in

cultivar types, root handling, curing, and storage; and processing techniques in order to

produce consistent and high quality puree; and (2) the preservation technology that could

produce shelf‐stable product for convenient incorporation in processed foods. Several

techniques have been developed for puree processing in order to produce purees with

consistent quality, despite the variations due to cultivar differences in carbohydrate content,

starch degrading enzyme activities, and postharvest handling practices (Kays, 2015).

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Process operations for pureeing of sweet potatoes include washing, peeling, hand‐

trimming, cutting, steamed blanching or cooking, and grinding into purees which can be

subjected to canning or freezing for preservation. Raw sweet potatoes can be peeled by

abrasive rollers, lye solution, or steam flashing. Lye peeling is no longer a common method

in the industry due to the issues on equipment corrosion and waste disposal. The peeled sweet

potatoes are then washed thoroughly to remove all disintegrated peel, followed by trimming,

cutting into slices or dices. The purees can be simply produced by steam cooking of the

chunks, slices, strips, cubes, or ground particles, and passing the cooked materials through a

pulp finisher. Hoover and Harmon (2017) developed an enzyme activation technique using

the endogenous amylolytic enzymes for starch hydrolysis in sweet potato puree processing,

and this process is now commonly used in the food industry. The peeled sweet potatoes either

can be cut into cubes of 2 cm, strips of 2 × 2 × 6 cm, and slices of 0.5–0.95 cm thickness or

mashed using a hammer mill with rotating blades to chop and push the materials through a

1.5–2.3 mm mesh screen (Walter and Schwartz, 2003).

2.7.2 Frozen Products

Sweet potatoes can be frozen in different forms such as whole roots, halves, quarters,

slices, cubes, French fries, paste, or as puree. The processing steps include peeling, sizing,

cutting, blanching or cooking, packaging, and freezing. Sizing is important to assure

appropriate blanching or cooking and freezing time when the roots are to be frozen whole

(Bouwkamp, 2015). Packaging may precede freezing such as frozen purees or may follow

freezing when the roots or cut pieces are individually quick frozen (IQF). In Japan, sweet

potato slices/crushed roots mixed with 35% sugar are packed in plastic bags and blast frozen

at −40°C (Woolfe, 2002).

In large‐scale production of French fries, partially fried products are frozen for

distribution to institutional and retailed consumers. Good quality fries could be produced by

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blanching thestrips in 60% sucrose solution for 4.5 minutes or for 3 minutes in boiling water

containing 0.25% sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and 0.25% calcium chloride (Padmaja,

2009). Textural properties of the frozen french fries are affected by root storage, and the

problem can be overcome by calcium treatment and low ‐temperature blanching. Loss in

ascorbic acid and color score were reported for French fries stored frozen for 1 year

(Schwartz et al., 2017).

2.7.3 Canned Products

Canned sweet potatoes are widely consumed among the sweet potato products

available to consumers in the United States. Sweet potatoes can be canned whole, halved, or

cut into chunks, in either syrup or water. Sweet potatoes can also be pureed and canned as a

solid pack. The unit operations leading to the production of canned sweet potato roots include

peeling, cutting, sizing, blanching, filling, syruping, exhausting, and retorting. Blanching in

water at 77°C for 1–3 minutes is done to drive out gases, maintain can vacuum, and increase

the initial temperature of the contents of the cans (Bouwkamp, 2015). However, low‐

temperature blanching at 62 °C increases firmness and intactness retention of canned sweet

potatoes as compared to the unblanched samples or samples blanched at higher temperatures

(Truong et al., 2008). Immediately after blanching, the material is packed in cans and covered

with syrup at 95°C to prevent discoloration. Sugar (20–40%) or water is used, depending on

consumer preferences. Cans should be exhausted long enough for the internal temperature to

reach 77°C to ensure a good vacuum of the finished cans (Bouwkamp, 2015).

2.7.4 Dehydrated Forms: Slices, Granules, Flakes, and Flour

Sweet potato roots are processed into dehydrated forms such as dried chips, cubes,

granules, flakes, and flour for storage and use in food preparations, including soups, bakery

products, vermicelli, noodles, extruded snack foods, and breakfast cereals ( Waramboi et al.,

2014). Drying produces a light, compact, relatively inexpensive, easily stored, and

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transported material. Processing methods vary in sophistication from simple slicing and field

sun‐drying of roots as practiced at the village levels in many tropical countries to the large ‐

scale, multistage production of dehydrated products by large food companies. Functionality,

nutrient retention, and product storability of dehydrated products of sweet potato roots are

important to provide competitiveness of these ingredients in food processing (Kotecha and

Kadam, 2008).

2.7.5 Fried Products: Chips, French Fries

Sweet potato chips and french fries are popular in many countries. In the past few

years, several food companies in the United States have ventured into processing of sweet

potato chips and french fries with high beta‐carotene content from orange ‐fleshed sweet

potatoes in response to the growing demands of the consumers on healthy foods. For

commercial success, the product should be of consistent quality regardless of root storage

duration. Consistent quality SPFF can be produced year round from SP roots stored under

appropriate conditions. Sweet potato French fries have relatively low fat content, 10% fresh

weight (fw), and high carotene content, 10 mg/100 g fw (Truong et al., 2014). Reconstituted

sweet potato chips were developed in China, and extruded snack products with alternative

shapes to those of conventional chips were produced in Japan, with characteristics similar to

those of extruded potato snacks (Woolfe, 2002).

For chip processing, unpeeled or peeled roots are sliced into 0.8–2.0 mm thin chips,

which are blanched for 2 minutes at 93°C, then drained and partially dehydrated using heated

forced air at 119 °C. The thickness of the chip is important, since it affects the length of

cooking and the quality of the finished product. Partial drying has a pronounced effect on the

appearance, flavor, and texture of the finished product. Optimum frying temperature was

between 143 and 154 °C (Hoover and Miller, 20133). Frying at lower temperature under

17
vacuum (130 °C) and deoiling by centrifuging system can produce good ‐quality chips with

low fat content (Ravli et al., 2013).

2.7.6 Fermented Products

Being rich in starch, sugars, and other nutrients, sweet potatoes have been used in the

production of many fermented products. In Japan, highstarch sweet potato varieties are used

in shochu fermentation. Shochu is traditional distilled liquor from sweet potatoes or other

sources

such as rice, barley, corn, or potato (Sakamoto and Bouwkamp, 2015). Sweet potato shochu

is very popular, especially in southern Japan. The process involves the inoculation of steamed

sweet potato slurry with a starter Koji containing Aspergillus niger or A. kawachii as an

enzyme source for starch conversion to sugars, followed by fermentation to alcohol by yeast

Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The whole process usually takes 12–14 days to yield a broth

having 13–15% alcohol, which is then distilled and blended to produce shochu with 20–40%

alcohol. Recently, sweet potato vodka with 40% alcohol has been produced and

commercialized by companies in the United States. Wine and beer are the recent alcoholic

beverages from the orange‐ and purple‐fleshed sweet potatoes (Yamakawa 2000).

Red vinegar with high antioxidant activity and antihyperglycemic effect made from

purple‐fleshed sweet potatoes was developed (Matsui et al., 2004). Sweet potatoes are also

used as substrates in soy sauce fermentation (Data et al., 2016). Other fermented sweet potato

products rich in carotene and anthocyanins that have been developed in recent years include

yogurt (Collins et al., 2000), curd (Mohapatra et al., 2007), fermented beverages (Saigusa et

al., 2005), lacto‐pickle (Panda et al., 2009), lacto‐juice (Panda et al., 2009), and probiotic

milk‐sweet potato drink (Perez and Tan, 2006). The application of bioprocessing technology

and the progress in the development of fermented products from sweet potatoes has been

reviewed by Ray et al. (2010).

18
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Sweet potato and wheat will be purchased from a local market (Bodija) in Ibadan,

Oyo State. Other ingredients such as sugar, yeast, fat, magarine, egg and baking powder, will

be purchased from Sabo market in Ogbomoso.

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Production of Peeled Sweet Potato Flour

Sweet potatoes will be cleaned to remove the dirt and peeled and then sliced into

pieces, after which they will be washed to remove the dirt and will be treated with sodium

and potassium meta-bisulphate, followed by dicing. Sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes and orange

fleshed sweet potatoes will be blanched using steam method and dried in a hot air oven at 50-

600C. It will then be tempered, dried and milled. The flour will be sieved and milled again,

and then the instant sweet potatoes flour is cooled, packaged and stored as described by

(Adeleke et al., 2002).

3.2.2 Production of Uneeled Potato Flour

Sweet potatoes will be cleaned to remove the dirt, sliced into pieces, after which they

will be washed to remove the dirt and will be treated with sodium and potassium meta-

bisulphate, followed by dicing. Sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes and orange fleshed sweet

potatoes will be blanched using steam method and dried in a hot air oven at 50-60 0C. It will

then be tempered, dried and milled. The flour will be sieved and milled again, and then the

19
instant sweet potatoes flour is cooled, packaged and stored as described by (Adeleke et al.,

2002).

Sweet potatoes

Washing

Peeling

Slicing

Dicing

Sulphating

Steam blanching

Oven drying (50-60°C)

Milling

Sieving

Sweet potato flour

Cooling

Packaging
Fig. 3.1: Flow chat on the production of peeled sweet potatoes flour
Source: Adeleke et al. (2002).

20
Sweet potatoes

Washing

Slicing

Dicing

Sulphating

Steam blanching

Oven drying (50-60°C)

Milling

Sieving

Sweet potato flour

Cooling

Packaging
Fig. 3.1: Flow chat on the production of unpeeled sweet potatoes flour
Source: Adeleke et al. (2002).

21
3.2.3 Preparation of Wheat- Peeled and Unpeeled Sweet Potato Composite Flour

Different formulations of wheat- peeled and unpeeled sweet potato flour will be

mixed as shown in Table 3.1.

3.2.4 Production of Chin-Chin

Chin-chin will be prepared using the method outlined by Akubor (2004) with

modifications. Hundred grams (100g) of wheat flour will be weighed and sieved using 250

micron particle size sieve and mixed at different proportions with sweet potatoes (peeled and

unpeeled) in a clean bowels labelled. All dry ingredients such as sugar, salt and baking

powder will be weighed and sieved into the bowls and mixed thoroughly to ensure

uniformity. Margarine will be rubbed-in, a mixture of egg and milk will be turned in and mix

to form dough. The dough will be placed on a floured surface and kneaded until smooth and

elastic. The kneaded dough will be rolled out to approximately 2cm thick and then cut into

small squares of about 2cm by 2cm in size. Vegetable oil (Corn oil) will be put inside a deep

fryer and allowed to heat until the temperature of fryer reached 180 ̊C. Dough cubes will be

placed in the hot oil and the chin-chin will be deep fried for 8min until golden brown. The

fried chin-chin will be removed and drains off excess oil, package and stored at room

temperature (28±2 ̊C) for analysis.

3.3 Microbiological analysis of Chinchin

3.3.1 Total viable count (TVC)

The microbiological analysis will be carried out according to the method of Harrigan

(1998). Plate count agar will be used for enumeration of bacteria. A well homogenized

22
sample will be serially diluted with 0.1% peptone water up to 10 -6. One ml aliquot from a

suitable dilution will be transferred aseptically into sterile petri dishes. To each plate about

15ml of melted and cooled PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) will be added. The inocula will be

evenly

Wheat and sweet potatoes (peeled and unpeeled)

Weighing

Sieving

Addition of sugar, salt and baking powder

Sieving

Mixing thoroughly

Addition of margarine, egg and milk

Mixing

Formulation of dough

Kneading

Cutting

Frying (180℃ for 5 mins)

Fried chin-chin

Draining

23
Packaging
Fig. 3.2: Production of Chin-Chin from wheat-African yam bean blends

Source: Akubor (2004)

mixed with media by rotating the plates and allowed to solidify. The inverted plate will be

incubated for 48hours. The TVC (cfu/ml) will be determined using a colony counter.

3.3.2 Total coliform (TC)

Mac Conkey broth will be used for the detection of coliform bacteria by the multiple

tube technique. The medium will be distributed in 9ml quantities standard test tubes with

inverted Durham tube and will be then autoclaved for 20 mins at 121 ℃ . Well homogenized

samples were serially diluted (10-1, 10-2, 10-3 and 10-4) with 0.1 % peptone water. About 1 ml

from each dilution will be aseptically inoculated into triplicate of 9 ml sterile Mac Conkey

broth in standard test tube and incubated for 48hrs at 37 ℃ . Positive tests gave gas in the

Durham tubes and changed the color of the medium (Harrigan, 1998).

3.3.3.3 Mold enumeration

Potato dextrose agar (PDA) will be used for enumeration of yeast and mould .Well

homogenised samples will be serially diluted with 0.1%pepetone water up to 10-6. Aliquots

(0.1ml) from a suitable dilution were transferred asceptically into solidified PDA plates.

Samples were spread all over the surface of the plates using sterile bent glass rod. The plates

were then incubated for 48 to 72 h at 28 oC.Counting (cfu/ml) will be carried out by using

colony counter (Harrigan, 1998).

3.5 Statistical Analysis

The result of the experiment will be subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and

the mean will be separated with the use of Duncan’s multiple range test to detect significant

24
difference (p<0.05) among the sample values using the statistical package for the social

science (SPSS).

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