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Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

2.1 Introduction
• A lamina is a thin layer of a composite material that is
generally of a thickness on the order of 0.005 in. (0.125 mm).
A laminate is constructed by stacking a number of such
laminae in the direction of the lamina thickness. Mechanical
structures made of these laminates are subjected to various
loads. The design and analysis of such laminated structures
demands knowledge of the stresses and strains in the
laminate. Also, design tools, such as failure theories, stiffness
models, and optimization algorithms, need the values of
these laminate stresses and strains.
• However, the building blocks of a laminate are single
lamina, so understanding the mechanical analysis of a
lamina precedes understanding that of a laminate.
• A lamina is unlike an isotropic homogeneous material. For
example, if the lamina is made of isotropic homogeneous
fibers and an isotropic homogeneous matrix, the stiffness
of the lamina varies from point to point depending on
whether the point is in the fiber, the matrix, or the fiber–
matrix interface.

Typical laminate made of three

laminae.

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• Accounting for these variations will make any kind of
mechanical modeling of the lamina very complicated. For
this reason, the macromechanical analysis of a lamina is
based on average properties and considering the lamina to
be homogeneous. Methods to find these average properties
based on the individual mechanical properties of the fiber
and the matrix, as well as the content, packing geometry,
and shape of fibers are discussed in Chapter 3.
• Even with the homogenization of a lamina, the mechanical
behavior is still different from that of a homogeneous
isotropic material that is proven as follows:

Deformation of square plate taken from an isotropic plate under normal loads.

Note that,
1A = 2B ,

2A = 1B .

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 Deformation of a square plate taken from a unidirectional lamina with fibers at
zero angle under normal loads.

Note that,
1A  2B ,

2A  1B .
because the stiffness of the unidirectional lamina in the direction
of fibers is much larger than the stiffness in the direction
perpendicular to the fibers.

Also, note that if the square plate taken out of the lamina has fibers
at an angle to the sides of the square plate, the deformations will
be different for different angles. In fact, the square plate would
not only havedeformations in the normal directions but would
also distort.

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 Deformation of a square plate taken from a unidirectional lamina with fibers at an
angle under normal loads.
2.2 Review of definitions
➢ Stress
The intensity of the load per unit area.

Stresses on an infinitesimal area on an arbitrary Forces on an infinitesimal area on the

plane. y–z plane.

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 Stresses on an infinitesimal cuboid.

➢ Strain
The relative change in the size and shape of the body
u = u(x,y,z) = displacement in x-direction at point (x,y,z)
v = v(x,y,z) = displacement in y-direction at point (x,y,z)
w = w(x,y,z) = displacement in z-direction at point (x,y,z)

Normal and shearing strains on an infinitesimal area in the x–y plane.

Normal strains Shearing strains

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 ➢ Strain energy
In solid, deformable, elastic bodies under loads, the work done by
external loads is stored as recoverable strain energy. The strain
energy stored in the body per unit volume is then defined as

2.3 Hooke’s Law for Different Types of Materials

For a body that is linearly elastic and has small deformations,
stresses and strains at a point are related through six simultaneous
linear equations called Hooke’s law.
Assuming linear and elastic behavior for a composite is acceptable;
however, assuming it to be isotropic is generally unacceptable.
Thus, the stress–strain relationships follow Hooke’s law, but the
constants relating stress and strain are more in number than for
isotropic materials.

The general stress-strain relationship is:

General stiffness matrix

The general strain-stress relationship is: General compliance matrix

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The strain energy

Thus, only 21 independent elastic constants are in the general

stiffness matrix and the general compliance matrix.

➢ Anisotropic material
Has 21 independent elastic constants at a point.

➢ Monoclinic material
Has one plane of material
symmetry , for example, direction
3 is normal to the plane of material
symmetry, then the stiffness and
compliance matrices reduce to

• It has only 13 independent constants.

• When applying a normal stress 𝜎3 to the element,(𝛾23 =
0, 𝛾31 = 0, 𝛾12 = 𝑆36 𝜎3 ), only the shape of (1-2) plane will
change.

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 ➢ Orthotropic material
Has three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry,
then the stiffness and compliance matrices are given by

• It has only 9 independent constants.

• When applying a normal stress 𝜎3 to the element,(𝛾23 =
𝛾31 = 𝛾12 = 0), the shear strains in all three planes (1-2, 2-3,
3-1) will be zero.

➢ Transversely isotropic material

Considering a plane of material isotropy in one of the planes of an
orthotropic body. If direction 1 is normal to that plane (2–3) of
isotropy, then the stiffness and compliance matrice are given by

• It has only 5 independent constants.

➢ Isotropic material
If all planes in an orthotropic body are identical, it is an
isotropic material; then, the stiffness and compliance matrices

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 Poisson’s ratio
are given by Elastic modulus

Shear modulus

• It has only 2 independent constants.

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 2.4 Hooke’s Law for a Two-Dimensional
Unidirectional Lamina

➢ Plane stress assumption.

• If a plate is thin and there are no
out-of-plane loads, it can be
considered to be under plane
stress.
• The upper and lower surfaces
of the plate are free from
external loads, then 𝜎3 =
0, 𝜏31 = 0, 𝜏23 = 0. Because the
plate is thin, these three stresses within the plate are
assumed to vary little from the magnitude of stresses at the
top and the bottom surfaces. This assumption then reduces
the three-dimensional stress–strain equations to two-
dimensional stress–strain equations.
• The unidirectional lamina falls under the orthotropic
material category. So, from its compliance matrix:

The normal strain, 𝜀3 , is not an independent strain because it is a

function of the other two normal strains. Therefore, it can also be
omitted from the stress–strain relationship.

Where [𝑄𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑆𝑖𝑗 ]−1

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 ➢ Relationship of Compliance and Stiffness Matrix to
Engineering Elastic Constants of a Lamina.

E1 = longitudinal Young’s modulus (in direction 1)

E2 = transverse Young’s modulus (in direction 2)
𝝂𝟏𝟐 = major Poisson’s ratio (𝜈12 = −𝜀2 /𝜀1 ), because the stiffness of
material in direction 1 (longitudinal direction) is greater than the
stiffness in direction 2 (transverse direction)
G12 = in-plane shear modulus (in plane 1–2)

• Applying a pure tensile load in direction 1

(𝜎1 ≠ 0, 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜏12 = 0)

• Applying a pure tensile load in

direction 2 (𝜎1 = 0, 𝜎2 ≠ 0, 𝜏12 = 0)

• Applying a pure shear stress in plane 1-2

(𝜎1 = 0, 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜏12 ≠ 0)

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Thus, we proved that

2.5 Hooke’s Law for a Two-Dimensional Angle

Lamina
To get the stress–strain equations
for the x–y coordinate system:

Where [T] is the transformation

Local and global axes of an angle lamina
matrix.
c = Cos(𝜃)

s = Sin(𝜃)

Reuter matrix

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Thus,

̅ 𝒊𝒋 ] = [𝑺
[𝑸 ̅𝒊𝒋 ]−𝟏

̅ 𝒊𝒋 are the elements of the transformed reduced stiffness matrix.

𝑸
̅𝒊𝒋 are the elements of the transformed reduced compliance matrix.
𝑺

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 2.6 Engineering Constants of an Angle Lamina
• For finding the engineering elastic moduli in direction x,
apply 𝜎𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝜎𝑦 = 0, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0.

Shear coupling in x-direction

In an angle lamina, interaction occurs between the shear strain
and the normal stresses. This is called shear coupling.

• Similarly, by applying stresses 𝜎𝑥 =

0, 𝜎𝑦 ≠ 0, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0.

From the equations of 𝐸𝑥 , 𝜈𝑥𝑦 , 𝐸𝑦 , 𝜈𝑦𝑥 , we get

• By applying the stresses 𝜎𝑥 = 0, 𝜎𝑦 = 0, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ≠ 0.

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Thus, the strain–stress Equation of an angle lamina

2.7 Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance

Matrices for an Angle Lamina
To allow a direct study of the effect of the angle of the lamina on
the [𝑄̅ ] and [𝑆̅] matrices. The stiffness elements can be written in
invariant form as

The terms U1, U2, U3, and U4 are the four invariants and are
combinations of the Qij, which are invariants as well.

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The compliance elements can also be written in invariant form as

2.8 Strength Failure Theories of an Angle Lamina

For a unidirectional lamina
(𝝈𝑻𝟏 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 =Ultimate longitudinal tensile strength (in direction 1),
(𝝈𝒄𝟏 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 = Ultimate longitudinal compressive strength (in direction 1),
(𝝈𝑻𝟐 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 = Ultimate transverse tensile strength (in direction 2),
(𝝈𝒄𝟐 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 =Ultimate transverse compressive strength (in direction 2), and
(𝝉𝟏𝟐 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 =Ultimate in-plane shear strength (in plane 12).

➢ Maximum Stress Failure Theory

• The stresses acting on a lamina are resolved into the normal

and shear stresses in the local axes. Failure is predicted in a
lamina, if any of the normal or shear stresses in the local axes
of a lamina is equal to or exceeds the corresponding ultimate
strengths of the unidirectional lamina.

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 • The lamina is considered to be failed if

is violated.
Note: All five strength parameters are treated as positive numbers,
and the normal stresses are positive if tensile and negative if
compressive.

➢ Maximum Strain Failure Theory

• Failure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal or

shearing strains in the local axes of a lamina equal or exceed
the corresponding ultimate strains of the unidirectional
lamina.
• Then, a lamina is considered to be failed if

is violated.
Note: The ultimate strains can be found directly from the ultimate
strength parameters and the elastic moduli, assuming the stress–
strain response is linear until failure.

Note: The maximum strain failure theory is like the maximum

stress failure theory in that no interaction occurs between various
components of strain. However, the two failure theories give

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different results because the local strains in a lamina include the
Poisson’s ratio effect. In fact, if the Poisson’s ratio is zero in the
unidirectional lamina, the two failure theories will give identical
results.

➢ Tsai–Hill Failure Theory

• This theory is based on the distortion energy failure theory

of Von-Mises’ distortional energy yield criterion for
isotropic materials as applied to aniso-tropic materials.
• The strain energy in a body consists of two parts;
Dilation energy due to change in volume
Distortion energy due to change in shape
• For Tsai-Hill Failure Theory, a lamina is considered to be
failed if

is violated.
Notes:
• Unlike the maximum strain and maximum stress failure
theories, the Tsai–Hill failure theory considers the
interaction among the three unidirectional lamina strength
parameters.
• The Tsai–Hill failure theory does not distinguish between
the compressive and tensile strengths in its equations. This
can result in underestimation of the maximum loads that
can be applied when compared to other failure theories,
because the transverse tensile strength of a unidirectional
lamina is generally much less than its transverse
compressive strength.But, it can be modified to be

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where

➢ Tsai–Wu Failure Theory

A lamina is considered to be failed if

is violated, where

➢ Strength Ratio (SR)

Gives the information about how much the load can be increased
if the lamina is safe or how much the load should be decreased if
the lamina has failed.

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 2.9 Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains in a Lamina
Composite materials are generally processed at high temperatures
and then cooled down to room temperatures. Due to mismatch of
the coefficients of thermal expansion of the fiber and matrix,
residual stresses result in a lamina when it is cooled down.

➢ Hygrothermal Stress–Strain Relationships for a

Unidirectional Lamina
The stress–strain relationship with temperature and moisture
difference gives

where the subscripts T and C are used to denote temperature and

moisture, respectively.

𝜶𝟏 and 𝜶𝟐 are the longitudinal and transverse coefficients of

thermal expansion, respectively, and 𝜟𝑻 is the temperature
change.
𝜷𝟏 and 𝜷𝟐 are the longitudinal and transverse coefficients of
moisture, respectively, and 𝜟𝑪 is the weight of moisture absorption
per unit weight of the lamina.

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➢ Hygrothermal Stress–Strain Relationships for an Angle
Lamina

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