Aero Structures-Basic Elasticity

1
Suggested Readings

Chapter 1
of
Aircraft Structures for Engg. Students/Aircraft Structural Analysis

2
 Topics

• Familiarisation with the following concepts;

• Stress in deformable bodies • Strain in deformable bodies

• Equations of equilibrium • Equations of compatibility
• Plane stress condition • Plane strain condition
• Principal stresses • Principal strains
• Mohr’s circle of stress • stress-strain relationship
• Von Mises stress and failure • Mohr’s circle of strain
criterion

3
 Introduction

• As stress engineers, you are required to obtain stresses inside

a structure due to external loading
• Before learning structural analysis methods, it is necessary to
have a better understanding of stress and strain in a 3D body

4
Stress
Arbitrary shaped 3D body In equilibrium

Continuous
deformable
material

Free body diagram

(cut through plane nn)

Resultant of external
forces at point O is δP

5
 Notation of stresses

• The resultant stress is

resolved into the following
components;
• Perpendicular to δA, i.e.  z .
It is also called “direct stress”
• Parallel to δA, i.e.  zx , zy .
They are also called “shear
stresses”

The first subscript denotes The second subscript denotes

the plane it is acting on the direction it is acting on

6
 Sign convention of stresses

• Direct stresses are

positive if they point out
of the surface, i.e. tensile
stresses
• Shear stresses are
positive if they act in the
positive direction of the
relevant axis in a plane
on which the direct tensile
stress is in the positive
direction of the axis

7
Equations of equilibrium

Generally, except in cases of uniform stress, the direct

and shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are
not equal but differ by small amounts

8
 Equations of equilibrium

• Imposing equations
of equilibrium on
the body  M  0
about the red line
gives;

• Following similar
manner we can get;

9
 Equations of equilibrium

• Imposing equations
of equilibrium on
the body  Fx  0
 Fy  0 ,  Fz  0
gives;

Body forces in x, y
and z directions
10
11
 Plane stress
• Due to thin sections in most aircraft structures,
stresses in one of the dimensions could be regarded
as negligible or zero.
• Let’s assume z axis is the thin direction, i.e.
 z   xz   yz  0
• Our problem simplifies to a 2D problem as below;
0
0
0

12
 Examples of plane stress problems

• A prismatic structure is
under plane stress if
one of its dimensions
(thickness) is much
smaller than the other
two and all the loads
are contained in the
middle plane of the
structure. The analysis
domain is the middle
section

13
 Boundary conditions

• Equilibrium must
also be satisfied
at all positions on
the boundary of
the body where
the components of
the surface force
per unit area Xare
,Y , Z .

where l, m, and n become the direction cosines of the

angles that a normal to the surface of the body
makes with the x, y, and z axes, respectively

14
 Stresses on inclined planes

• Stresses on planes
blue, orange and
green might not be
the critical ones
• What if the yellow
plane is critical?
• How do we
calculate stresses
on the yellow plane
knowing stresses
on the others?

15
 Stresses on inclined planes
Stresses on Stresses on an
2D body inclined plane

16
 Principal stresses

• Direct and shear stresses values change on each plane as θ changes

• There are two planes, Principal planes, on which shear stresses are
zero and direct stresses are either maximum or minimum
• Direct stresses on Principal planes are called Principal stresses
• To obtain the max and min we equate derivative of stress to zero
leading to identification of that particular plane;

17
 Principal stresses

•  There are two answers for this, i.e. and

• It means there are two mutually perpendicular

planes. Stress on one of them is max and on the
other one is min

18
Principal stresses

19
 Principal stresses

•  From trigonometry we know that;

tan  cos  
1
sin   2
2
tan   1 tan   1
• Replacing α with and and considering
produces;

20
Principal stresses

 I   II

Major (max) Minor (min)

principal stress principal stress

• Assignment to solve the missing

trigonometric calculations

21
 Alternate
Method

22
 Normal and shear stress components
• Using the established sign convention, the element in fig.
9.6a is sectioned along the inclined plane defined by +x’
and the segment shown in fig 9.6b is isolated.
From F.B.D shown in fig. 9.6c applying the equations
of force equilibrium we get the normal and shear
stress component relationship along x’ and y’ axes.
Simplifying these two equations using the following
trigonometric relationship we get normal and shear stress
equations in x’ and y’ planes [eq. 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3 below].

9.1

9.2

9.3
Example 1
• An axial force of 600N acts on the steel bar as shown
in fig. 9-3a. Determine the stress components acting
on a plane defined by section a-a.
Solution 1
Solution 2
Example 2

• The state of plane stress at a point on the

surface of the airplane fuselage is represented
on the element oriented as shown in fig. 9-41.
represent the state of stress at the point on
another element that is oriented 30 degrees
clockwise from the position shown.
Solution
The element is sectioned by line a-a. Analyzing
the bottom segment:
The normal and shear stress components acting on
the inclined face along section a-a are:
Stresses on the perpendicular plane b-b (fig.9.4e.)
Summation of forces along x’ and y’ axes
The stress components are
 Mohr’s circle of stress

• The state of stress in a deformable body can be

illustrated by Mohr’s circle
• Previously we established that;

Re-writing
Square it and add it to
the shear term below

39
 Reminder from maths

• Equation of circle;

• Compare the following

with the equation of a
circle;

40
Mohr’s circle
Angles on the
circle become
twice as much

Minor (min) Major (max)

principal stress principal stress

41
 Note (convention for Mohr’s circle)
• When
  the shearing stress exerted on a given face tends to
rotate the element clockwise, the point on Mohr’s circle
corresponding to that face is located above the axis
• When the shearing stress on a given face tends to rotate the
element counter-clockwise, the point corresponding to that
face is located below the axis

42
 Example

• If stress state on two mutually perpendicular planes,

i.e. A and B, at a point in the structure is given,
determine the following;
• Draw Mohr’s circle
• Obtain principal stresses
• Obtain maximum shear stress
• The angle of principal planes with
planes A and B

43
 Solution
( ave , max ) 

A  ( 80,25)

( c ,0) ( t ,0)
 80  50 c 
c   ave   15
2 R
B  (50,25)
R  50  15 2
 252  69.6
 t  c  R  15  69.6  54.6 MPa
 c  c  R  15  69.6  84.6 MPa ( ave , max )
 max  R  69.6 MPa
 Solution
25 25 ( ave , max ) 
sin 2   
R 69.6
2  21.05 deg
A  ( 80,25)
  10.52 deg
(84.6,0) (54.6,0)

c 2 
R
B  (50,25)

( ave , max )

 von-Mises stress
•  von Mises theory of elastic failure suggests that, in ductile
materials (metals such as aluminium, steel, etc), material fails if
the von Mises stress () exceeds the yield stress () of material
• For general 3D stress state;

•For
v
0.5 
 plane 
stress
x y
   y   z    z   x   6 xy2   yz2   zx2 
  state;
2 2 2

 v   x2   x y   y2  3 xy2
• Any point on or outside the ellipse
represents failure of material

46
 Example

•  Stress analysis of a spacecraft structural member

gives the state of stress as shown below. If the part is
made from an alloy with = 500 MPa, check yielding
according to von Mises criterion. -50MPa

-30MPa

100MPa

200MPa -30MPa

47
 Solution


 v  0.5  x   y    y   z     z   x   6 xy2   yz2   zx2 
2 2 2

 x  100MPa  xy  30 MPa
 y  50MPa  yz  0MPa
 z  200MPa  zx  0MPa

 v  224.05MPa  500MPa

48
 Tutorial 1

• Direct stresses of 160N/mm2 (tension) and 120N/mm2

(compression) are applied at a particular point in an
elastic material on two mutually perpendicular planes.
The principal stress in the material is limited to
200N/mm2 (tension). Using Mohr’s circle calculate the
allowable value of shear stress at the point on the
given planes. Determine also the value of the other
principal stress and the maximum value of shear
stress at the point.
(see Example 1.3 of Ref [1] on page 20 for solution)

49
 Tutorial 2

• A structural member supports loads that produce, at

a particular point, a direct tensile stress of 80N/mm 2
and a shear stress of 45N/mm2 on the same plane.
Calculate the values and directions of the principal
stresses at the point and also the maximum shear
stress, stating on which planes this will act.
(see P1.1 of Ref [1] on page 42 for the answer.

50
 Tutorial 3
• Listed here are varying combinations of stresses
acting at a point and referred to axes x and y in an
elastic material. Using Mohr’s circle of stress,
determine the principal stresses at the point and their
directions for each combination.

(see P1.3 of Ref [1] on page 42 for the answer.

51
 Strain

•  stresses described in previous slides bring about

linear and angular strains within the structure
• Direct strains () relate to change in length as the
result of direct stresses
• Shear strains () relate to change in the angle due to
shear stresses

52
Strain

• Direct (normal) strain (+) • Shear strain (+)

y  y  E y
 yx

 x
y
 xy

 yx

y  yx   xy  G xy

53
Strain  
Coordinates of O in unstrained body; ()
Coordinates of A, B and C;
(), () & (), respectively.

Three mutually perpendicular

 
line elements OA, OB & OC with
original length

54
Strain

55
 Compatibility equations

• So far we have defined components of strain in a

deformable body in terms of components of
displacement, i.e.

56
 Compatibility equations

• Continuity or Compatibility equations suggest that

displacements within the body are continuous and
single valued, i.e. no voids in the structure would
form.
• In other words displacement can be defined as;

57
 Compatibility equations

• The result of this is six extra equations relating strain

components to each other. This is because strains
cannot have independent arbitrary values.
• Strain compatibility equations in 3D space are;

58
Physical meaning of compatibility of
strains
• Look at three line elements in a deformable body;
• Material particles need to meet up like pieces of a
jigsaw puzzle, i.e. they stay together after
deformation
Not
compatible
compatible

After
deformation

59
 Example

• Can strains in a deformable elastic body be defined

as the following?

1
 x  xy 3
3
1
 y  yx3
3
 xy  x 2 y 2

60
 Solution

1
 x  xy 3
3
1  2 y    y 
 y  yx3     2 xy
3 x 2 x  x 
 xy  x 2 y 2
 2 x    x 
    2 xy
y 2 y  y 

Yes  2 xy    xy 
    4 xy
xy x  y 
61
 Plane strain

• The state of strain in which it is assumed that particles of

the body suffer displacement in one plane only is known as
plane strain
• Let’s assume that plane is xy, then we end up having the
following equations, i.e. three strains and one compatibility;

0 0

62
 Examples of plane strain problems

• A prismatic structure is
under plane strain if
one of its dimensions
(length) is larger than
the other two and all
the loads are uniformly
distributed along its
length and they act
orthogonally to the
longitudinal axis. The
analysis domain is a
cross section to this
axis.

63
 Strain on inclined planes
An element in 2D body subject Deformed shape of the element
to complex stress after application of stresses

See Ref [1] as how

these are derived

We want strains on the CF

 
We know strains at planes, i.e.
  plane, i.e.

64
 Principal strains

• Comparison of stress terms with strain terms;

65
 Mohr’s circle of strain
• Similar to that of stress with the difference that shear
stress will be replaced by half of shear strain
• We will see this in the tutorial

66
 Stress-strain relationship
• Experiments show that (Hooke’s Law);
E is Young’s modulus
(modulus of elasticity)

• This means application of direct stress in x dir

produces only direct strain without any shear
deformation (change in angles)
• The direct stress also causes strain in other
directions, i.e.
Poisson’s ratio
  for isotropic material

67
 Stress-strain relationship

•  For a body subject to direct 3D stresses and using

the principle of superposition we have the following;

68
 Stress-strain relationship for plane
stress

•  If we put then we have;

0
69
 Example
•  The steel block shown is subjected to a uniform
pressure on all its faces. Knowing that the change in
length of edge AB is -1.2x10-3 inches, determine (a)
the change in length of the other two edges, (b) the
pressure p applied to the faces of the block. Assume
E=29x106 psi and =0.29.

70
Solution
x y z  p

p
x  y  z  1 2 
E
 x  1.2  103
x    300  106
AB 4

71
 Example

•  A rectangular element in a linearly elastic isotropic

material is subjected to tensile stresses of 83 and
65N/mm2 on mutually perpendicular planes.
Determine the strain in the direction of each stress
and in the direction perpendicular to both stresses.
Find also the principal strains, the maximum shear
stress, the maximum shear strain, and their directions
at the point. Take E=200,000N/mm2 and =0.3.

72
Solution

73
 Solution
• There are no 0.5 ( ,0.5 max )
shear stresses
on given planes
hence they are R
principal planes
(2.005  104 ,0) (3.175  104 ,0)
0.5 max  R   max  2 R  c 
 3.175  2.005 
2   10  1.17  10
4 4

 2 

 max  G max  1.17  104  76923  9 N / mm 2

74
 Solution
 ( , max )
• What if I had used
Mohr’s circle for
stress?
R
(65,0) (83,0)
 max  R 
c 
 83  65 
  9 N / mm
2

 2 

75
 Example

•  At a particular point in a structural member, a two-

dimensional stress system exists where σ x=60N/mm2,
σy=−40N/mm2, and xy=50N/mm2. If Young’s modulus
E=200,000N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio =0.3, calculate
the direct strain in the x and y directions and the
shear strain at the point. Also calculate the principal
strains at the point and their inclination to the plane
on which σx acts (use Mohr’s circle)

76
Solution

77
 Solution
c  0.5 360  290106  35  106 0.5  106
0.5  650 (360,0.5  650)
tan 2   
360  OC
  22.5 o

0.5  650
 2  45o
360  35 R
 11 O 2 1
  106
0.5  650 325 c
sin  2   R  459.61
R 0.7
1  c  R
 11  c  R ( 290,0.5  650)
1   35  459.61  106  494.61  106
11   35  459.61  106  424.61  106

78
 Student centred activity

• You are strongly advised to read section 1.16 of Ref.

[1] on “Experimental Measurement of Surface
Strains”.
• Please do so prior to the tutorial session.

1
 I  0.5  a   c    a   b  2   c  b  2
2
1
 II  0.5  a   c    a  b 2   c  b  2
2
2 b   a   c
tan 2 
a  c

79
 Tutorial 4

1
 I  0.5  a   c    a  b  2   c   b  2
2
1
 II  0.5  a   c    a   b  2   c  b  2
2
2   a   c
tan 2  b
a  c

(see P1.10 of Ref [1] on page 43 for the answer. You may also refer to “Stress-
Strain_Tutorial_Solution.pdf” uploaded on BB for detailed solution)

80
 Use of rosette
• To find principal stresses in experimental setting
using strain gauges in rosette pattern

81
 Tutorial 5

• In a material in a state of plane strain, it is known

that the horizontal side of a 10x10 mm square
elongates by 4 µm, while its vertical side remains
unchanged, and that the angle at the lower left
corner increases by 0.4x10-3 rad. Determine;

• The principal axes and

principal strains.
• The maximum shearing
strain and the corresponding
normal strain.

82
Solution of Tutorial 5

83
Solution of Tutorial 5

in figure below (right);

84
 Tutorial 6
• The simply supported rectangular beam shown in Figure is
subjected to two symmetrically placed transverse loads each of
magnitude Q. A rectangular strain gauge rosette located at a
point P on the centroidal axis on one vertical face of the beam
gave strain readings as follows: εa=−222×10−6, εb=−213×10−6,
and εc=+45×10−6. determine principal strains at point P.

(see P1.11 of Ref [1] on page

44 for the answer. You may
also refer to “Stress-
Strain_Tutorial_Solution.pdf”
uploaded on BB for detailed
solution). Next slide shows
how the lecturer would solve
it.

85
 Solution of Tutorial 6
OC  0.5  a   c   OG 
0.5  106
0.5 222  45  45  88.5  10 6

CN  ON  OC   a  OC  a(222,0.5 )
 222  88.5  10 6
 133.5  10 6
R
aN  CQ   b  OC 
 213  88.5  10 6
 124.5  106
 11 N 2 C O  1   106
2 2
Q G
R aN  CN 
2
106  124.52  133.52  182.54  106
1  C  R    88.5  182.54  106  c (45,0.5 )

94.04  10 6

b(213,0.5 ' )
11  C  R    88.5  182.54  106 
 271 106
86