PLATE TECTONICS NOTES 2024

The Structure of the Earth:

Crust  The outer most layer of the Earth

 Split into sections called plates – oceanic and continental which are cold and
rigid however interlock
 Has a variable thickness between 35-70km thick in the continental and 5-10
in the oceanic
Mantle  Is liquid and approximately 2900km thick
 This is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located – approx
5,000 degrees near the core and -1500 degrees near the crust
 Large convection cells which circulate heat and drive the tectonic plates
Outer  Earth’s magnetic field is controlled here
Core  Mainly composed of a molten iron alloy
 About 2300km thick and liquid
Inner  Is solid and is 1200km thick
Core  Can reach temperatures of 5,500 degrees
 Almost entirely composed of iron

The Crust:

Continental Oceanic
 Average density of 2.6cm3/g  Oceanic crust is heavier with an
 Old, over 1500 million years old average density of 3.0cm3/g
 Granite is the most common formation  Very young, less than 200 million years
old
 Mainly formed from basalt
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Convection Currents in the Mantle:

The core's heat energy is transferred to the mantle, causing it to rise towards the Earth's
surface, which is cooler. As the heated mantle transfers its heat energy to the lithosphere
dragging the plates causing them to move, it becomes denser than the surrounding magma
and sinks back down towards the core to be reheated.

Tectonic Plate:

Plate boundary or Plate margin: where the plates meet

Distribution of Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Fold Mountains:

Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Fold Mountains occur along plate boundaries in long belts

Earthquakes:

The belts encircle the whole of the Pacific

Extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean

Stretch across the southern Europe and Asia, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Volcanoes:

The belts include the Pacific Ring of Fire which encircles the whole of the Pacific Ocean

Extends the entire length of the mid- Atlantic Ocean

Smaller areas in southern Europe, the Caribbean and East Africa

Fold mountains:
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The form where powerful compressions of two tectonic plates squeezes the layers of rock so
that the up folds form the ridges and the down folds form the valleys, This could not happen
close to the Earth’s surface as the rock is too brittle and would snap, however it does occur
where the high temperatures and pressures make the rock behave as a plastic solid ad allow
it to be very slowly folded over long periods of time

Activity at the Plates:

Destructive Plate Margins:

These cause violent volcanoes and earthquakes, as well as deep-ocean trenches and fold mountains.
An oceanic plate and continental plate move towards each other.
The denser oceanic plate sub ducts under the lighter continental one, creating a deep ocean trench.
As the oceanic plate goes deeper into mantle it melts in the Subduction Zone, due to friction and the
increased temperature.
The newly molten rock is lighter than that which surrounds it, so it will rise towards the surface and
cause volcanoes on the earth's surface.
The continental crust is crumpled by the collision of the two plates creating Fold Mountains.
If the magma rises offshore it will form an Island Arc, like the West Indies and Japan.

A good example of a destructive plate boundary is where the Nazca plate dives underneath the South
American plate. This has caused volcanoes, earthquakes and the formation of the Andes Mountain
Range.
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Constructive Plate Margins:

For example the Mid Atlantic Ridge:

Deep in the Earth’s crust there is a concentration of heat, which causes partial melting.
Small pockets of magma slowly collect and rise towards the Earth’s surface where they cool and
solidify to form new oceanic crust
This new rock forms below as well as on the surface
The lava often floes out from long cracks, As a result gently sloping areas are built up, rather than
conical mountains. The oceanic crust diverges and dragged the convection currents in the mantle.
Although often not as violent as those on destructive plate boundaries, volcanoes and earthquakes do
occur on constructive plate boundaries

Conservative Plate Margin:

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Two plates slide past each other
As the sides of the crust are rough they might lock together as they slide past one another
Pressure builds up at the plate boundary. Eventually the pressure level overtakes the tensile strength
of the two crusts. The plates snap loose, often violently, causing the release of shockwaves or seismic
waves which lead to earthquakes at the surface
Such as at the San Andreas Fault, San Francisco

Collision Zones:

Where two plates of continental crust move towards each other

As both plates are of the same density neither can sink therefore both plates are forced towards each
other at the collision zone. Here friction build as the plates rub against each other and the rocks
between them are forced up to form Fold Mountains. Earth quakes can allow occur due to friction.

Constructive Destructive Collision Conservative

1 oceanic 1
2 oceanic plates 2 continental plates Any combination
continental
Move away from Subduction of the Collide together and Move sideways past
each other continental forced upwards each other
Nazca and south Indo-Australian and Pacific and N. American
Mid Atlantic Ridge
American plates Eurasian plates plates
Iceland
Japan Himalayas San Andreas California
Violent
Rare Earthquake Less violent Violent Earthquake
Earthquake
activity Earthquake activity activity
activity
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Rare Volcanic Violent Volcanic

---------- --------------
Activity activity

Volcanoes:

Volcano: A volcano is a hole or crack in the ground through which gases, lava and
pyroclastic material are erupted. The vent is concentrated to a magma chamber beneath the
ground

Types of volcano:

Shield:

 Layers of runny lava and

little ash
 Wider base and gentle
slops (angle of 5-10
degrees)
 Formed at constructive
plate boundaries, rise
deep form the ocean floor
 Basic lava( thin and runny,
1200 degrees) which flows
longer distances
 Low rounded peak
 Frequent and non violent
eruptions

Composite:

 Layers of thick lava and

ash
 Formed at destructive
margins
 Narrow base and steep
slopes (30 degrees near
summit)
 Acid lava (thick and sticky,
800 degrees) which flows
shorter distances before
cooling
 Secondary cones on the
side
 Infrequent violent
eruptions
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Diagram of a Volcano:

Lava Layer

Ash Layer

 The magma chamber is a collection of magma inside the Earth, below the volcano.
 The main vent is the main outlet for the magma to escape.
 Secondary vents are smaller outlets through which magma escapes.
 The crater is created after an eruption blows the top off the volcano.

Eruptions:
Hazard: Phenomenon which can cause a loss of life, injury, disease, economic loss or
environmental damage
Volcanic Eruptions and Climate Change:
Large volcanic eruptions pump huge amounts of aerosols and sulphur into the atmosphere.
This can temporarily reduce the amount of solar radiation received at the Earth’s surface.
This process is natural global warming. It can also be caused by human activity. Very cold
temperatures caused crop failures and famine in North America and Europe for ten years
following the eruption of Tambora in 1815
Evidence for the above:
The process of global dimming led to a period of global cooling in the 1990s
After the Pinatubo eruption in 1991 global cooling corresponded to a sharp increase in
aerosols in the atmosphere
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The Eruption:
An eruption occurs when pressure in the magma chamber forces magma up the main vent,
towards the crater at the top of the volcano. Some magma will also be forced out of the
secondary vent at the side of the volcano.
Active Volcanoes:
These are volcanoes that have erupted in more recent times and could erupt again
Dormant Volcanoes:
These are volcanoes that have not erupted for many centuries but may erupt again
Extinct Volcanoes:
These are not expected to erupt again e.g. Kilimanjaro
Hazards Associated with Volcanic Activity:
Primary Effects: something that initially happens e.g. lava
Secondary Effects: something that happens as a result of the primary effect e.g. fires
Acidic Lava Is produced when
there is Subduction
at the destructive
plate boundary.
The oceanic crust
melts and magma
rises to the surface

Basic Lava Is produced at the

constructive plate
boundary by the
upward movement
of magma from the
mantle. It is hot,
fluid, flows more
rapidly than acidic
lava and for some
distance it flows
before solidifying
Lava Bombs Are chunks of rock
that rain down
when a volcano
erupts
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Ash Cloud Consists of small

pieces of pulverised
rock and glass
created by volcanic
eruptions less than
2mm in diameter.
Volcanic ash can
lead to breathing
problems and
malfunctions in
machinery as well
as threaten
aircrafts and
weather patterns
Tephra Fragments of
volcanic rock
blasted into the air
by an eruption

Lahars Type of mudflow

comprised of rock
and water which
flow at 50km per
hour. The can
easily grow to 10x
their original size
by incorporating
more rock and
water on their
journey
Nuée Ardente When viscous
magma containing
much gas is
erupted under
reasonably low
pressure a glowing
cloud containing
ash and pumice
may be thrown into
the air
Pyroclastic Ground hugging
Flow avalanched of hot
ash, pumice, rock
fragments and gas.
Speeds in excess of
10km/hr and
temperatures
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greater than 500

degrees, they
destroy everything
in their path.

Calderas: A caldera is a huge crater caused when a volcanic cone collapses

Craters: circular depressions usually less than 1km in diameter formed by explosive
ejection of material
Advantages and disadvantages of living near a Volcano:

Advantages:

Although volcanoes have the reputation of being very dangerous, there nevertheless are
advantages of living near a volcano. Volcanoes provide resources for energy extraction, also
called geothermal resources. Heat from the earth's crust is being converted to energy. The
big advantages to this type of energy are that it is very clean and the resources are nearly
inexhaustible. When a volcano erupts it throws out a lot of ash. At short notice this ash can
is very harmful to the environment, but on the long term the ash layer, which contains many
useful minerals, will be converted to a very fertile soil. Nearly everywhere volcanoes are
located people use the rich soil for farming. Even after an eruption people still return
because of the fertile soil around the volcano. Volcanoes can produce very spectacular
scenery like the beautiful sunsets caused by explosive eruptions. Other features include
plant-rich environments, stunning eruptions, beautiful lava fountains etc. A big economical
advantage of volcanoes is that they generate tourism. Volcanoes form precious stones.
Therefore mining is carried out which also gives locals a jobs.

Disadvantages:

On the downside you are likely to experience earthquakes near volcanoes, due to magma
rising and disturbing the ground. These earthquakes can occasionally trigger tsunamis.
Volcanoes affect people in many ways, some are good, and some are not. Some of the bad
ways are that houses, buildings, roads, and fields can get covered with ash. As long as you
can get the ash off (especially if it is wet), your house may not collapse, but often the
people leave because of the ash and are not around to continually clean off their roofs. If
the ash fall is really heavy it can make it impossible to breathe. Erupting volcanoes are
dangerous to people that live on their flanks. They produce lava, ash, lahars, and mudflows.
Sometimes a large part of the volcano can collapse. Gases released by volcanoes can
damage nearby plants and lower the quality of air people breath. Homes, businesses and
livestock can all be destroyed by an eruption, and acid can pollute the local water supply.

Case Study of Volcanoes Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland:

(See Case study notes)

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Earthquake Hazards:

Earthquake: an earthquake is the shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking
and movement of tectonic plates

Focus: The point inside the crust where the pressure is released.
Epicentre: The point on the Earth's surface above the focus
Earthquake energy is released in seismic waves. These waves spread out from the focus.
The waves are felt most strongly at the epicentre, becoming less strong as they travel
further away. The most severe damage caused by an earthquake will happen close to
the epicentre.

Earthquakes are measured using a seismograph, pen moves due to waves in the crust to
produce a pattern on a revolving drum

P-waves: fastest and can move through solids and liquids, backwards and forwards

S-waves: move with a sideways motion and are unable to move through liquids

They are measured on the Richter scale which quantifies the amount of seismic energy
released by an earthquake.

It is a Logarithmic Scale, 10x bigger with every number

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Aftershocks: An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that occurs after a previous large

earthquake in the same area of the main shock. After shocks are formed as the crust around
the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock and the pattern of
aftershocks helps confirm the size of an area that slipped during the main shock.

(For impacts and management see photocopied sheets)

Tsunami: A series of large waves generated by an impulsive disturbance that displaces

water.

How it occurs:

1. Tsunami forms when energy from an earthquake vertically jolts the sea bed by
several metres, displacing hundreds of cubic km of water
2. Large waves begin moving through the ocean, away from the Earthquakes’ epicentre
3. In deep water, the tsunami moves at great spreads, up to 500mph. When it reaches
shallow water near the coast the tsunami slows but increase in height
4. Just before a tsunami the water line retreats at the coast exposing the sea bed

Impacts of a tsunami:

 Wavelengths up to and in excess of 60miles

 Surges assault coastlines
 Carry rocks weighing as much as 20 tonnes, 180m inland
 Demolish houses
 Flip large vehicles
 More heavy boulders
 Threaten everything living near the coast line
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Case Study of Earthquakes and Tsunami, Sendai 2011, Japan:

Causes:

Earthquake Tsunami
 Boundary of 3 different plates  6km below sea level the Earth was
 Destructive plate boundary distorting
 Pacific plate sub ducts the Eurasian plate  P-waves – 6km/sec
for 200 years to the east of Japan  S-waves – 8km/sec
 Process of Subduction is not smooth  Sendai was the first to be hit
 Shock waves faced out over 100k from
 Friction causes the Pacific Plate to stick. to back and 1m high
In the case of Japan pressure built up  500 aftershocks along the fault
and on 11th March 2011 this pressure
released as an intensely strong
earthquake (9.0 on the Richter Scale)
and a tsunami with waves of 30m
travelling at a colossal speed of
800km/hr which is equivalent to the
ground speed of a jumbo jet

 Nearest city to epicentre was Sendai

(130km east of Sendai) and 373km
north of Tokyo

Impacts:

Primary Secondary
 15,400 people killed  500,000 people forced to live in
 2mil people homeless from the 10m high shelters
tsunami which passed over the  The disruption caused to rail and road
defensive sea wall- only 9m high links meant that it was hard for rescue
 4 trains swept away from their tracks teams to reach places where it was
 A cruise ship carrying 100people was needed
washed away by the force of the wave  The damage to the underground gas
 1800 homes in the town of Minimosa pipes led to fires which spread quickly
destroyed and 1/3 of the city of and ignited wood carried by wave
Kensennuma was under water  As clean water was scarce, water borne
 A dam in the north of Fukishima burst its diseases spread quickly such as Chloera
banks, which caused homes to be swept  The earthquake caused a power cut at
away Fukishima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
 Power lines, gas and water services which caused a failure in its cooling
were severely disrupt red as the systems and subsequently caused
earthquake ruptured underground cables radioactive materials to escape causing
 Public telephone systems knocked out local radioactivity level to increase but
with no signal for mobile phones and up to 40,000 x more than normal
internet  Japan lost £90 billion in its shares
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 28mil tonnes of debris  Total cost to rebuild affected areas was

£185 billion
 4million homes in and around Tokyo
suffered. power cuts

Response:

Short Term Long Term

 Within minutes of the Tsunami, Japan  In March, Japan’s meteorological
altered its energy response teams – agency issued on earthquake warning,
300planes and 40 ships from the military followed by a tsunami warnings
 An estimated 100,000 people began the  This meant that many people were able
disaster relief mission to escape to higher ground, but the
 The Japanese Red Cross mobilised 230 short (20minutes) meant that
emergency teams to the worst affected thousands could not escape
areas to provide medical and moral  The Japanese government responded
support to this disaster by questioning their
 On the 2nd April, Japan and USA joined huge walls and Tsunami flood gates as
forces to search for the bodies along the they were not efficient
east coast  March 2012 year after 330,00 living in
 Shelters were set up in schools for those temporary accommodation
who lived in close proximity to the  The government also responded to this
power plant disaster by reviewing their methods on
 Many NGO’s responded for example predicting earthquakes and tsunamis
Shelter box sent 1,500 boxes of aid and cutting response times
within the first month of the disaster  Improving communications and sirens
 The PM visited each disaster zone by
helicopter