REVIEWER IN SCIENCE

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Crust

- The outermost and thinnest layer of the Earth.

- Made up of mostly soil, clay and fine rocks.

Continental Crust

- The area under the continents.

- About 35 kilometers thick.
 Lithosphere – composed of the crust and uppermost part of the mantle; the solid part of the
mantle.
 Asthenosphere – it is much hotter and malleable portion of the upper mantle; this layer cats as the
lubricating layer below the lithosphere that allows the lithosphere to move over the Earth’s
surface.

Oceanic Crust

- The area underneath the oceans.

- About 10 kilometers thick.
- Has a much dense composition.

Mantle

- The layer that lies below the crust.

- Made up of silicate rocks, rich in iron and magnesium.
- Convection currents by molten rocks are thought to occur.
- Acts similar to plastic, at a very high temperature and pressure the rock is deformable.
Core

- Innermost portion or center of the Earth just below the mantle.

- Mainly consisting of iron and nickel.
 Outer Core – Liquid portion of the core.
 Inner Core – Solid portion of the core.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

- States that the Earth’s crust is slowly drifting atop a liquid core.
- Wegener hypothesized that 200 million years ago, there is a gigantic land mass named Pangaea.

Alfred Wegener

- A German meteorologist and geologist.

- First proposed the Continental Drift Theory.
- In an attempt to further support his theory, he died in 1930 during an expedition in Greenland.

Evidence

- Fossils, the thing that started this theory. The remains of long extinct life on Earth has been
found to be scattered all over the globe, even separated by miles of sea.
- He also proposed that mountains are formed as when these continent moves and collides, it
creates huge folds that create these mountains.

Plate Tectonic Theory

- This theory arose out of two separate geological observations: the continental drift and seafloor
spreading.
- The theory that the lithosphere is divided into a couple of dozen plates that move around across
the earth’s surface.
- These said plates move very slowly, so slow that we won’t even notice. They only move a few
centimeters each year.

Seven Major Plates

1. Pacific Plate
2. North American Plate
3. Eurasian Plate
4. African Plate
5. Antarctic Plate
6. Indo – Australian Plate
7. South American Plate

PLATE BOUNDARIES

- Is the location where two plates meet.

- Usually associated with a geological event.
Divergent Boundaries (Constructive)

- Place where plates slide apart from each other.

- Mainly caused by the molten rocks in from the convection current in the mantle.
- Creates new sea floor on the crust and causes light earthquakes and small volcanoes.

Convergent Boundaries (Destructive)

- Happens when a denser plate slides down another lighter plate forming a subduction zone.
- Causes earthquakes, also creates volcanoes and trenches.

Transform Boundaries (Conservative)

- Occurs where two plates grind each other sideways along transform faults.
- Causes strong earthquakes.

PARTS OF A VOLCANO

An opening in Earth’s surface through which

Vent
volcanic materials escape
Flank The side of a volcano
Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that
Lava
solidifies as it cools
Crater Mouth of a volcano, surrounds a volcanic vent
Conduit An underground passage magma travels through
Summit Highest point; apex
Entrance of a volcano. The part of the conduit
Throat
that ejects lava and volcanic ash
Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2mm in
Ash
size
FREQUENCY OF ERUPTION

Active

- It is considered an active volcano if it has erupted within the last 10 000 years.
- Another timeframe considers a volcano active if it has erupted in recorded history.

Dormant (Inactive)

- A dormant volcano is a volcano that has not erupted in 10,000 years but is expected to
eventually erupt again.

Extinct

- A volcano is considered extinct when they are not likely to erupt again because of their supply of
magma has been depleted.
- has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is not expected to erupt again in a
comparable time scale of the future.

FEATURES OF A VOLCANO

Composite / Stratovolcano

- Most common type of volcano.

- A tall mountain, with a crater on top from which pyroclastic materials, gases, and lava escape.
- Its magma has a high content of silica.

Shield Volcano

- A shield volcano is almost flat and broad.

- Its magma has a lower percentage of silica and is thus less viscous than composite volcano.
- During eruption, its lava flows easily and reaches a great distance from the crater.

Cinder / Pyroclastic Volcano

- Are usually small.

- They are made up of pyro clasts or fragments of volcanic rocks that form steep slopes around
their wide crater.

LOCATION OF A VOLCANO

Continental These are volcanoes which are located on land

These are underwater fissures in the Earth's
Submarine
surface from which magma can erupt
Volcanic form produced by eruptions beneath the
Subglacial / Glaciovolcano surface of glacier or ice sheet which is then
melted into a lake by the rising lava
WORLD CLIMATE

WEATHER CLIMATE
 Weather consists of the short-term (minutes  Climate is the average of weather over time
to months) changes in the atmosphere. and space.
 In most places, weather can change from  The description of the long-term pattern of
minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day, weather in a particular area.
and season-to-season.  It is the average condition of the atmosphere
 The condition of the atmosphere over a short in a region over a period of many years in
period of time. terms of the same elements as those of
 Weather is basically the way the atmosphere weather.
is behaving, mainly with respect to its effects
upon life and human activities.

NATURAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT GLOBAL CLIMATE

1. Solar Activities
2. El Nino Phenomenon
3. Cloud Cover
4. Forest Fires
5. Volcanic Eruptions
6. Oceans

Climate Change

- Climate change is a long range in patterns of temperature, wind and precipitation of a certain
region of the entire planet.
- It is a change in the usual weather found in a place or it could be a change in a place's usual
temperature for a month or season.

Greenhouse Effect

- It is a natural phenomenon where heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere, such as water vapor
and carbon dioxide, absorb the infrared (heat) radiated back by the Earth’s surface.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

- It refers to the increased heat-retaining process in the atmosphere due to an unusually large
amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases resulting from air pollution and other
environmental problems.
STARS AND GALAXIES

Stars

- Are powerful balls of flaming gases that emit electromagnetic waves in all directions.
- A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity.
- Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into galaxies along
with interstellar gas and dust.

According to astronomers, stars differ in

- Temperature
- Color
- Brightness
- Size
- Mass
- Age

LIFECYCLE OF A STAR

Sun

- A yellow star with a surface temperature of 6000 K. The temperature at its core is 15 000 000 K.
- The Sun is a medium-sized star.
- Compared to other stars, our Sun is of average brightness. However, because it is very near Earth,
its apparent magnitude is -26.7.
- Our Sun is a middle-aged star.
Lightyear – A light year is the distance light can travel in vacuum in one year's time.

Galaxy

- A galaxy is a group of billions of stars (together with some gas and dust) that move through space
as a unit.

Three Main Types of Galaxies

It is a type of galaxy having an approximately

Elliptical Galaxy ellipsoidal shape and a smooth, nearly featureless
brightness profile.
The arms of a spiral galaxy have lots of gas and
dust, and they are often areas where new stars are
Spiral Galaxy
constantly forming. The bulge of a spiral galaxy is
composed primarily of old, red stars.
An irregular galaxy is a galaxy that does not have a
Irregular Galaxy distinct regular shape, unlike a spiral or an
elliptical galaxy.

UNIVERSE

- The Universe is all of time and space and its contents. It includes planets, moons, minor planets,
stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, and all matter and energy. The size of the entire
Universe is unknown.

Star Clusters

- Star clusters are groups of stars which are gravitationally bound. Two distinct types of star cluster
can be distinguished. globular clusters and open clusters.

Superclusters

- A Supercluster is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups, which is among the
largest-known structures of the cosmos. The Milky Way is part of the Local Group galaxy cluster
(that contains more than 54 galaxies), which in turn is part of the Laniakea Supercluster.

CONSTELLATIONS

- A group of stars forming a recognizable pattern that is traditionally named after its apparent form
or identified with a mythological figure. Modern astronomers divide the sky into eighty-eight
constellations with defined boundaries.