Course Updated PDF

Contents
Earth Origin, Composition, and Structure ................................................................................. 20

Essential Questions: ................................................................................................................... 20
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 20
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Formation of Earth and the Solar System ................................................................................. 21
The Nebula ................................................................................................................................. 21
Formation of Earth's Atmosphere ............................................................................................... 22
Formation of Earth's Oceans ........................................................................................................ 23
What is in the Water? Discussion............................................................................................ 23
Earth's Composition and Layers ................................................................................................. 23
Earth's Internal Heat Source ......................................................................................................... 25
Plate Tectonics ................................................................................................................................. 25
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 25
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 26
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 26
Supercontinent ................................................................................................................................. 26
Theory of Plate Tectonics Activity .......................................................................................... 27
Mantle Convection ........................................................................................................................... 28
Convergent Boundaries ................................................................................................................. 28
Divergent Boundaries ..................................................................................................................... 29
Plate Tectonics Further Evidence Discussion ..................................................................... 30
Transform Boundaries .................................................................................................................... 30
Rock Cycle ......................................................................................................................................... 31
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 31
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 31
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 32
Minerals .............................................................................................................................................. 32
Minerals in Our Environment Discussion.............................................................................. 33
Igneous Rock .................................................................................................................................... 33
Sedimentary Rocks ......................................................................................................................... 34
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Metamorphic Rocks......................................................................................................................... 36
Rock Cycle ......................................................................................................................................... 37
Landscape Evolution ...................................................................................................................... 38
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 38
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 39
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 39
Weathering ......................................................................................................................................... 39
The Temperature and Chemical Weathering Lab ................................................................ 40
Erosion and Soil ............................................................................................................................... 41
Mass Wasting .................................................................................................................................... 42
Surface and Ground Water ............................................................................................................ 42
Glaciers ............................................................................................................................................... 43
Geologic Time and Correlation .................................................................................................... 44
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 44
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 44
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 45
Relative Age Dating ......................................................................................................................... 46
Absolute Age Dating ....................................................................................................................... 47
Radon .......................................................................................................................................... 49
Radon Discussion........................................................................................................................ 49
Fossils ................................................................................................................................................. 49
Geologic Time ................................................................................................................................... 51
Earth and Life History ..................................................................................................................... 52
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 52
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 52
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 53
Precambrian Time ............................................................................................................................ 53
Paleozoic Era..................................................................................................................................... 54
History of Life I Quiz .................................................................................................................... 56
Mesozoic Era ..................................................................................................................................... 56
Mass Extinction Discussion ...................................................................................................... 57
Georgia's Geologic History ........................................................................................................... 57
Life and Environment Relationships .......................................................................................... 58
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Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 58
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 58
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 59
Biomes ................................................................................................................................................ 59
Aquatic Biomes ................................................................................................................................ 60
Georgia's Biome ............................................................................................................................... 61
Weather and Climate ....................................................................................................................... 61
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 61
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 62
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 62
Climate ................................................................................................................................................ 63
Match the climate region with the correct description. ................................................. 64
Atmosphere ....................................................................................................................................... 64
Factors that Affect Climate ............................................................................................................ 64
Angle of Incidence and Solar Insolation Lab........................................................................ 65
Ocean Currents................................................................................................................................. 65
Air Currents ....................................................................................................................................... 66
Severe Weather................................................................................................................................. 67
Matter and Energy Cycles .............................................................................................................. 68
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 68
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 68
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 69
Carbon Cycle and Oxygen Cycle ................................................................................................. 69
Nitrogen Cycle .................................................................................................................................. 71
Phosphorus Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 71
Human Impact ................................................................................................................................... 71
Module Minute............................................................................................................................... 72
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 72
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 72
Fossil Fuels ....................................................................................................................................... 72
Greenhouse Gases .......................................................................................................................... 73
Global Warming ................................................................................................................................ 74
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Energy Demands Discussion.................................................................................................... 75

Alternate Energy............................................................................................................................... 75
Ecology ............................................................................................................................................... 76
Essential Questions .................................................................................................................... 76
Module Minute Humans are the most widespread agents of disturbance in ecosystems
and understanding our environment is critical to sustaining life on this planet. This
understanding must include the study of populations, communities, and the nonliving
factors of ecosystems. Many of the factors that regulate populations and communities
within an ecosystem are density dependent. Food, shelter, and other resources limit the
number of organisms that will survive in an environment. Populations are also linked by
interspecific interactions that affect the survival and reproduction of the species that
engage in them. These interactions include competition, predation, herbivory, and
symbiosis. Communities are also dependent upon abiotic, or nonliving factors, to support
the ecosystem. The laws of conservation of energy and conservation of mass govern how
energy flows and how chemicals are cycled throughout the environment. As biological and
geochemical process cycle nutrients between biotic and abiotic factors in an environment,
interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species....... 76
What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 77
Ecology ............................................................................................................................................... 77
Assignment: Ecology Review ................................................................................................... 79
Population Ecology ......................................................................................................................... 80
Geographic distribution ......................................................................................................... 80
Population Density .................................................................................................................. 80
Population Growth Rate ......................................................................................................... 81
Assignment: Population Ecology ............................................................................................ 83
Community Ecology ........................................................................................................................ 84
Food Webs ..................................................................................................................................... 86
Ecological Succession ............................................................................................................... 86
Case Study: Keystone Species ................................................................................................ 87
Project: Succession .................................................................................................................... 87
Ecosystems ....................................................................................................................................... 88
Primary Productivity ................................................................................................................... 89
Ecological Pyramids ................................................................................................................... 89
Biogeochemical Cycles .............................................................................................................. 91
Conservation ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Biodiversity................................................................................................................................ 94
Human Influence .......................................................................................................................... 94
Introduction to Environmental Science ................................................................................................. 96
Essential Questions .................................................................................................................... 96
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What to Expect.............................................................................................................................. 96
Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 97
Social Progress Tied to Environmental Quality ....................................................................... 97
Current Environmental Problems ................................................................................................ 97
Risk and Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................ 98
Environmental Racism ............................................................................................................... 99
Environmental Justice ................................................................................................................ 99
Clean Water ....................................................................................................................................... 99
Assignment: Atrazine ............................................................................................................... 100
Food Supplies ................................................................................................................................. 100
Project: What Is CSA? .............................................................................................................. 100
Discussion: Food Production ................................................................................................. 101
Energy ............................................................................................................................................... 101
Tapped Out .................................................................................................................................. 101
Peaking of World Oil Production ........................................................................................... 101
Assignment: Europe Returns to Coal ................................................................................... 102
Climate Change .............................................................................................................................. 102
Air Pollution ..................................................................................................................................... 103
Biodiversity Loss ........................................................................................................................... 103
Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems ................................................................................................ 105
Terrestrial Biomes and Land Use ........................................................................................................ 141
Aquatic Biomes and Ecology ............................................................................................................... 149
Energy Use and Energy Sources .......................................................................................................... 159
Plate Tectonics, Natural Resources & Management .......................................................................... 191
Geology, Soil, and Land Management...................................................................................... 202
Essential Questions .................................................................................................................. 202
Module Minute............................................................................................................................. 202
What to Expecct ......................................................................................................................... 202
Key Terms .................................................................................................................................... 202
The Rock Cycle or the Geologic Cycle ..................................................................................... 203
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 203
What Are Rocks? ....................................................................................................................... 204
Three Main Categories of Rocks ............................................................................................ 204
Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 205
Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................................................... 205
Metamorphic Rocks................................................................................................................... 205
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The Rock Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 205

Processes of the Rock Cycle .................................................................................................. 206
Crystallization ......................................................................................................................... 206
Erosion and Sedimentation ................................................................................................. 206
Metamorphism ........................................................................................................................ 206
Rock Cycle Summary ............................................................................................................ 207
What's up with Weathering? ................................................................................................... 207
Physical Weathering ............................................................................................................. 207
Chemical Weathering ................................................................................................................ 207
Biological Weathering............................................................................................................... 207
Self Assessment: Rock Cycle Summary ............................................................................. 207
Soil ..................................................................................................................................................... 207
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 208
Characteristics of Soil .............................................................................................................. 208
Climate .......................................................................................................................................... 208
Rock Type .................................................................................................................................... 209
Slope.............................................................................................................................................. 209
Mass Wasting .............................................................................................................................. 209
Time ............................................................................................................................................... 209
Biological Activity ...................................................................................................................... 209
Soil Texture and Composition ................................................................................................ 210
Soil Texture Triangle ................................................................................................................. 210
Soil Horizons and Profiles ....................................................................................................... 211
Humus ....................................................................................................................................... 211
Topsoil ...................................................................................................................................... 212
Subsoil ...................................................................................................................................... 212
C horizon .................................................................................................................................. 212
Types of Soils ............................................................................................................................. 212
How Does You Garden Grow? ................................................................................................ 212
Self-Assessment: Soil Texture and Horizon Summary .................................................... 212
Threats to Soil ................................................................................................................................. 213
Why do we study soil? ............................................................................................................. 213
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 213
Erosion.......................................................................................................................................... 214
Desertification ............................................................................................................................. 214
Overgrazing and Soil Compaction ........................................................................................ 214
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Waterlogging ............................................................................................................................... 214

Deforestation ............................................................................................................................... 215
Soil Pollution ............................................................................................................................... 215
Soil Management............................................................................................................................ 216
Soil Conservation....................................................................................................................... 216
Deforestation ............................................................................................................................... 216
Food Production and Pesticides................................................................................................ 217
Module Minute............................................................................................................................. 217
What to Expect............................................................................................................................ 217
Key Terms .................................................................................................................................... 218
Food Production and Nutrition Deficiencies .......................................................................... 219
Agriculture to Feed the World ................................................................................................ 219
Commercial Food Production................................................................................................. 220
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations .......................................................................... 220
The Green Revolution ............................................................................................................... 220
Improved Irrigation .................................................................................................................... 221
Use of Fertilizers ........................................................................................................................ 221
What We Eat ................................................................................................................................ 221
New Crops.................................................................................................................................... 221
Food Insecurity ........................................................................................................................... 222
Self Assessment: Flash Cards ............................................................................................... 223
Sustainable Agriculture and Pesticides ................................................................................... 224
Aquatic Dead Zones .................................................................................................................. 224
Sustainable Agricultural Methods ......................................................................................... 224
Organic Agriculture ................................................................................................................... 225
Why Pesticides? ......................................................................................................................... 226
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ....................................................................................... 227
What you need to know about DDT ....................................................................................... 227
The Blue Revolution and Alternative Agriculture .................................................................. 228
Hydroponics ................................................................................................................................ 228
Greenhouse Agriculture ........................................................................................................... 229
The Blue Revolution or Aquaculture .................................................................................... 229
Discussion: Using Biotechnology to Identify Seafood .................................................... 232
Genetically Modified Food ........................................................................................................... 233
Biotechnology in Agriculture .................................................................................................. 233
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Lab: Virtual Transgenic Fly Lab ............................................................................................. 234

Biotechnology and Crop Science .......................................................................................... 235
Self Review & Practice: ............................................................................................................ 235
Assignment: Biotechnology Summary ................................................................................ 236
Module Wrap-Up ............................................................................................................................. 236
Review ........................................................................................................................................... 236
Final Assessment........................................................................................................................... 236
FRQ: Food Production and Pesticides ................................................................................. 236
Toxicology and Human Health ................................................................................................... 238
Module Minute............................................................................................................................. 238
What to Expect............................................................................................................................ 238
Key Terms .................................................................................................................................... 238
Human Health and the Environment ......................................................................................... 239
Self-Assessment: Toxicology Problem Set ........................................................................ 241
Lab: Toxicology LD-50 .............................................................................................................. 241
Types of Environmental Risks ................................................................................................... 241
Infectious Disease ..................................................................................................................... 241
Viruses and Human Disease ................................................................................................... 241
The Flu .......................................................................................................................................... 242
Emerging Viral Diseases .......................................................................................................... 242
Noninfectious Diseases ........................................................................................................... 243
Environmental Toxins ............................................................................................................... 243
Assignment: Toxin Types Graphic Organizer .................................................................... 243
Effects of Environmental Toxins................................................................................................ 244
Smog Effects on Human Health ............................................................................................. 244
Pollutants and their Effects ..................................................................................................... 244
Human Illnesses from Air Pollution ...................................................................................... 244
Virtual Lab: Tobacco Smoke and Lung Development ...................................................... 245
Pollutants - Our Toxic Environment.......................................................................................... 246
General Effects of Pollutants .................................................................................................. 247
NIMBY............................................................................................................................................ 247
NIMBY Self-Assessment .......................................................................................................... 247
Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................... 248
Discussion: Environmental Health Issues .......................................................................... 249
FRQ: Food Toxins ...................................................................................................................... 249
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Air Pollution and Climate Change ............................................................................................. 250

Module Minute............................................................................................................................. 251
What to Expect............................................................................................................................ 251
Key Terms .................................................................................................................................... 251
Characteristics of the Atmosphere ........................................................................................... 252
Energy from the Sun ................................................................................................................. 252
Ultraviolet ..................................................................................................................................... 252
Infrared.......................................................................................................................................... 252
Composition of Air..................................................................................................................... 253
Nitrogen and Oxygen ............................................................................................................ 253
Water Vapor ............................................................................................................................. 254
Greenhouse Gases ................................................................................................................ 254
Particulates .............................................................................................................................. 255
What Is the Atmosphere? ........................................................................................................ 255
1. Gases Indispensable for Life on Earth......................................................................... 255
2. Photosynthesis .................................................................................................................. 255
3. Respiration .......................................................................................................................... 255
4. Crucial Part of the Water Cycle ...................................................................................... 256
5. Ozone Makes Life on Earth Possible............................................................................ 256
6. Keeps Earth's Temperature Moderate.......................................................................... 256
7. Provides the Substance for Waves to Travel Through ............................................ 256
The Greenhouse Effect ............................................................................................................. 257
Greenhouse Gases ................................................................................................................ 258
Human Activity and Greenhouse Gas Levels ................................................................. 259
The Layers of Earth's Atmosphere ........................................................................................ 259
Assignment: Layers of the Atmosphere .............................................................................. 259
Types of Air Pollution and their Sources ................................................................................ 260
Air Quality .................................................................................................................................... 260
Problems with Air Quality .................................................................................................... 260
Smog ......................................................................................................................................... 260
Photochemical Smog ............................................................................................................ 260
The Clean Air Act ....................................................................................................................... 261
Regional Air Quality .............................................................................................................. 261
Types of Air Pollution ............................................................................................................... 262
1. Primary Pollutants ............................................................................................................. 262
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2. Secondary Pollutants ....................................................................................................... 263

Causes of Air Pollution............................................................................................................. 263
1. Fossil Fuels ......................................................................................................................... 264
2. Biomass Burning ............................................................................................................... 264
3. Evaporation ......................................................................................................................... 265
4. Mercury Pollution .............................................................................................................. 265
Acid Rain ...................................................................................................................................... 266
pH and Acid Rain ................................................................................................................... 266
Indoor Air Pollution ................................................................................................................... 267
Lab: Air Quality ........................................................................................................................... 267
Consequences of Air Pollution .................................................................................................. 268
Smog Effects on the Environment .................................................................................... 268
Particulates .............................................................................................................................. 268
Ozone ........................................................................................................................................ 268
Reducing Ozone Destruction .............................................................................................. 269
The Montreal Protocol .......................................................................................................... 269
Oxides ....................................................................................................................................... 270
Pollutants and their Effects ................................................................................................. 270
Ozone Depletion ..................................................................................................................... 271
How Ozone is Destroyed ...................................................................................................... 271
The Ozone Hole ...................................................................................................................... 272
Ozone Loss in the North ...................................................................................................... 272
Effects of Ozone Loss........................................................................................................... 273
Effects of Acid Rain ............................................................................................................... 273
Discussion: Mobile vs. Point vs. Nonpoint source and Primary vs. Secondary Air
Pollutants ..................................................................................................................................... 274
Climate Change .............................................................................................................................. 274
What's the weather like? .......................................................................................................... 274
What is Weather? ................................................................................................................... 275
What is Climate? .................................................................................................................... 275
What is the human cost of warmer temperatures? ....................................................... 275
Causes of Global Warming ...................................................................................................... 275
Effects of Global Warming................................................................................................... 276
Increasing Temperatures ..................................................................................................... 277
Greenhouse Gas Emissions................................................................................................ 278
Global Warming .......................................................................................................................... 279
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Changes Due to Warming Temperatures......................................................................... 279

Module Wrap-Up ............................................................................................................................. 280
Review ........................................................................................................................................... 281
FRQ: Air Pollution and Climate Change .............................................................................. 281
Water Pollution and Water Treatment ...................................................................................... 282
Module Minute............................................................................................................................. 282
What to Expect............................................................................................................................ 283
Key Terms .................................................................................................................................... 283
Our Water World ............................................................................................................................. 284
Distribution of Water ................................................................................................................. 284
Water Distribution ...................................................................................................................... 285
Water Shortages ..................................................................................................................... 286
Droughts ................................................................................................................................... 287
Effect of Changing Climate.................................................................................................. 287
Water Scarcity ......................................................................................................................... 288
Conflicts Over Water ............................................................................................................. 288
Lab: Surf Your Watershed ....................................................................................................... 289
Types of Water Pollution and their Sources ........................................................................... 289
Scarcity of Safe Drinking Water ............................................................................................. 289
Pollution ....................................................................................................................................... 289
Waterborne Disease .................................................................................................................. 289
Is polluted water like this only seen in developing nations? ......................................... 290
Sources of Water Pollution...................................................................................................... 290
Municipal Pollution .................................................................................................................... 290
Industrial Pollution .................................................................................................................... 290
Agricultural Pollution ................................................................................................................ 291
Fertilizer makes things grow. How could it cause a dead zone? .................................. 291
Ocean Pollution .......................................................................................................................... 291
Dead Zones .................................................................................................................................. 292
How Pollutants Enter Groundwater ...................................................................................... 292
Filtered Water .............................................................................................................................. 293
Pollutant Plume .......................................................................................................................... 293
VLab: How can water pollution be detected? ..................................................................... 293
Consequences of Water Pollution ............................................................................................. 293
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Eutrophication ............................................................................................................................ 294

Reducing Water Pollution ........................................................................................................ 294
Clean Water Act .......................................................................................................................... 294
What Can You Do?..................................................................................................................... 294
How Society Can Conserve Water ......................................................................................... 295
How You Can Conserve Water ............................................................................................... 295
Marine Trash.................................................................................................................................... 295
Sources of Trash ........................................................................................................................ 295
Makeup of Trash ......................................................................................................................... 296
Toxic Chemicals ......................................................................................................................... 296
Effect on Organisms ................................................................................................................. 296
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch........................................................................................... 296
Effect on Organisms ................................................................................................................. 296
Discussion: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch ................................................................... 297
Waste Water Treatment ................................................................................................................ 297
Water Treatment ......................................................................................................................... 297
Lab Activity: The Poop on the Poop - Wastewater Treatment ....................................... 298
Module Wrap-Up ............................................................................................................................. 298
Review ........................................................................................................................................... 298
Final Assessments ........................................................................................................................ 298
Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability ....................................................... 299
Module Minute............................................................................................................................. 300
What to Expect............................................................................................................................ 300
Key Terms .................................................................................................................................... 300
Natural Capital, Ecosystem Services, and Environmental Worldviews .......................... 301
Public Service Functions of Nature ...................................................................................... 301
Environmental Worldviews...................................................................................................... 301
Global Issues: Bearing the Costs and Living Sustainably ................................................. 301
Who Pays? ................................................................................................................................... 301
The Cradle-to-Cradle Approach of Sustainability ............................................................. 302
Living More Sustainably........................................................................................................... 302
How do we Acheive a Goal? Environmental Policy .............................................................. 303
Project: Environmental Statutes and Treaties Project ..................................................... 303
The Economic Importance of the Environment ..................................................................... 303
Discussion: Environmental Legislature-what works and what do we need? ............ 304
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Module Wrap-Up ............................................................................................................................. 304

Review ........................................................................................................................................... 304
FRQ: Enironmental Worldview, Ethics, and Sustainability............................................. 305
Essential Questions and Introduction ...................................................................................... 305
Essential Questions: ................................................................................................................. 305
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................ 306
Instruction: Concept 1 .................................................................................................................. 306
Air Pollution ................................................................................................................................. 306
What Causes Air Pollution? ................................................................................................ 306
Types of Air Pollution ........................................................................................................... 306
Major Sources of Air Pollution ........................................................................................... 307
The Effects of Air Pollution on Humans and the Environment ...................................... 310
Effects on Human Health ..................................................................................................... 310
Indoor Air Pollution ............................................................................................................... 310
Acid Precipitation................................................................................................................... 311
Government Actions to Reduce Acid Precipitation ...................................................... 312
Question for Thought: .............................................................................................................. 312
The Atmosphere and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ..................................................... 313
The Atmosphere ..................................................................................................................... 313
Layers of the Atmosphere ................................................................................................... 313
The Ozone Shield ................................................................................................................... 313
Weather and Climate ................................................................................................................. 315
The Difference Between Weather and Climate ............................................................... 315
Factors that Influence Climate............................................................................................ 315
Latitude and Climate ............................................................................................................. 315
Large Bodies of Water and Climate .................................................................................. 316
Air Circulation Patterns and Climate ................................................................................ 317
Altitude and Climate .............................................................................................................. 317
Topography and Climate ...................................................................................................... 317
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming ..................................................................... 318
Natural Processes that Change Climate .......................................................................... 318
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Maintenance of Global Climate .......................................................................................... 318

Human Impacts on Global Climate: Global Warming ................................................... 319
Essential Questions and Introduction ...................................................................................... 319
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 320
Mineral Resources ..................................................................................................................... 320
Mineral Resources on Earth ................................................................................................ 320
Formation of Mineral Deposits ........................................................................................... 321
Extraction of Mineral Deposits ........................................................................................... 321
Questions for Thought: ............................................................................................................ 322
Nonrenewable Energy............................................................................................................... 322
Types of Energy Resources ................................................................................................ 322
Energy From Fossil Fuels .................................................................................................... 323
Renewable and Alternative Energy ....................................................................................... 326
Types of Renewable Energy Resources .......................................................................... 326
Solar Energy ............................................................................................................................ 327
Energy from Water ................................................................................................................. 327
Geothermal Energy ................................................................................................................ 327
Biomass .................................................................................................................................... 328
Energy from Wind .................................................................................................................. 328
Solid and Hazardous Waste .................................................................................................... 328
Types of Waste ....................................................................................................................... 328
Solid Waste .............................................................................................................................. 329
Hazardous Waste ................................................................................................................... 330
Essential Questions/Introduction: ............................................................................................. 332
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................ 332
Ecosystems: Major Components........................................................................................... 333
What is an Ecosystem? ........................................................................................................ 333
Major Components of Ecosystems ................................................................................... 333
Biological Components of Ecosystems ........................................................................... 333
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Structure of Ecosystems...................................................................................................... 333

The Range of Tolerance of Ecosystems .......................................................................... 334
Niche and Habitat ................................................................................................................... 334
Species Interactions.................................................................................................................. 335
Types of Species Interactions ............................................................................................ 335
Predation .................................................................................................................................. 335
Competition ............................................................................................................................. 335
Parasitism ................................................................................................................................ 335
Mutualism ................................................................................................................................. 335
Commensalism ....................................................................................................................... 336
The Theory of Evolution By Natural Selection ................................................................... 336
Evolution .................................................................................................................................. 336
Microevolution ........................................................................................................................ 336
Evolution by Natural Selection ........................................................................................... 337
Adaptations ............................................................................................................................. 337
Coevolution ............................................................................................................................. 337
Extinction ................................................................................................................................. 338
Flow of Energy in Ecosystems ............................................................................................... 338
The Ultimate Source of Energy .......................................................................................... 338
What Eats What? .................................................................................................................... 338
Producers Photosynthesize...What Do Consumers Do?............................................. 338
Energy Transfer ...................................................................................................................... 339
Matter Cycling in Ecosystems ................................................................................................ 340
Biogeochemical Cycles ........................................................................................................ 340
The Water Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 340
The Carbon Cycle................................................................................................................... 341
The Nitrogen Cycle ................................................................................................................ 342
The Sulfur Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 342
The Phosphorus Cycle ......................................................................................................... 343
Questions For Thought: ........................................................................................................... 344
Ecosystems and Change ......................................................................................................... 345
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Ecological Succession ......................................................................................................... 345

Primary Ecological Succession ......................................................................................... 345
Secondary Ecological Succession .................................................................................... 345
The Process of Ecological Succession............................................................................ 345
Factors that Affect Ecological Succession ..................................................................... 345
Essential Questions and Introduction: .................................................................................... 346
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................ 346
What is a biome?........................................................................................................................ 346
Forests .......................................................................................................................................... 348
Tropical Rainforests .............................................................................................................. 348
Temperate Rainforests ......................................................................................................... 349
Temperate Deciduous Forests ........................................................................................... 349
Taiga .......................................................................................................................................... 349
Grasslands ....................................................................................................................................... 350
Savannas .................................................................................................................................. 350
Temperate Grasslands: Prairies, Steppes, and Pampas ............................................. 350
Chaparral, Desert, and Tundra Biomes ................................................................................ 351
Chaparral .................................................................................................................................. 351
Deserts ...................................................................................................................................... 352
Tundra ....................................................................................................................................... 352
Mountain Biomes ....................................................................................................................... 353
Freshwater Biomes.................................................................................................................... 354
Lakes and Ponds .................................................................................................................... 354
Wetlands ................................................................................................................................... 356
Rivers ........................................................................................................................................ 356
Marine Biomes ............................................................................................................................ 357
Coral Reefs .............................................................................................................................. 357
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Oceans ...................................................................................................................................... 358

Polar Ecosystems .................................................................................................................. 359
Essential Questions/Introduction .............................................................................................. 359
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 359
The Impact of Technology ................................................................................................... 360
Human Demography ............................................................................................................. 361
Population Dynamics ................................................................................................................ 361
Human Population Growth Rate ........................................................................................ 361
Population Dynamics ............................................................................................................ 362
Population Age Structure .................................................................................................... 362
Carrying Capacity and Environmental Resistance ....................................................... 363
Exponential Population Growth ......................................................................................... 364
Projecting Future Population Growth ............................................................................... 364
Limiting Factors ..................................................................................................................... 364
How Can We Stop Population Growth? ........................................................................... 365
What is Biodiversity and Why is it Important? ................................................................... 365
How are humans causing extinctions? ............................................................................ 366
What is the value of biodiversity? ..................................................................................... 366
Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach vs. the Species Approach ....... 367
Extinction: The Future of Biodiversity ............................................................................. 367
The Species Approach.......................................................................................................... 367
The Ecosystem Approach.................................................................................................... 368
Government Regulations to Save Species and Preserve Biodiversity.................... 369
Environmental Public Policy ................................................................................................... 370
Public Policy in the United States ..................................................................................... 370
Environmental Laws, Acts, and Policies Throughout History ................................... 370
Essential Questions and Introduction: .................................................................................... 371
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................ 372
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Water as a Resource ................................................................................................................. 372
Sources of Water .................................................................................................................... 372
Supplies of Fresh Water ....................................................................................................... 373
Water Pollution ........................................................................................................................... 374
What is Water Pollution?...................................................................................................... 374
Categories of Pollutants ....................................................................................................... 374
Sources of Pollution .............................................................................................................. 374
Affects of Water Pollution on Ecosystems ..................................................................... 375
Cleaning Up/Preventing Water Pollution ......................................................................... 376
Formation of Soil and Soil Types .......................................................................................... 377
Formation of Soil .................................................................................................................... 377
Soil Profile................................................................................................................................ 377
Types of Soil ............................................................................................................................ 378
Soil as a Resource ..................................................................................................................... 378
Soil and Human Health: What People Eat ....................................................................... 378
Why People Go Hungry ........................................................................................................ 379
Agriculture ................................................................................................................................... 380
Food Production Then .......................................................................................................... 380
Food Production Now ........................................................................................................... 380
Environmental Impact of Modern Agriculture ................................................................ 380
The Challenge ......................................................................................................................... 381
Pest Management....................................................................................................................... 381
Pesticides ................................................................................................................................. 381
Benefits of Pesticide Use ..................................................................................................... 382
Drawbacks of Pesticide Use................................................................................................ 382
Government Regulations ..................................................................................................... 383
Biological Pest Control......................................................................................................... 383
The Green Revolution and Genetically Modified Foods .................................................. 384
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The Green Revolution ........................................................................................................... 384

Benefits of the Green Revolution ...................................................................................... 384
Drawbacks of the Green Revolution ................................................................................. 384
Genetic Engineering .............................................................................................................. 385
Benefits of Genetic Engineering ........................................................................................ 385
Drawbacks of Genetic Engineering ................................................................................... 385
19
Earth Origin,
Composition, and
Structure
Earth was created billions of years ago.
In this lesson, you will learn about how
the Earth formed as well as the
composition and structural layers of the
Earth's interior.
Essential Questions:
How did the Earth and solar system form?

How did the Earth develop its present - day atmosphere and oceans?
What lies below the Earth's crust?
Module Minute
The Nebula Hypothesis explains how the Earth and other planets in our solar system
developed from gases and dust. There was not only an abundance of hydrogen and helium
in a rotating disk that developed into our solar system but these gases were also the
foundation of Earth's early atmosphere. The accumulation of these rotating particles led to
the formation of planetesimals. Scientists believe that the Earth originated from the collisions
between the planetesimals. The different layers of the Earth developed based on the
interactions of gases, dust, and minerals during the formation of the Earth. The four layers of
the Earth are the crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core. Each layer has its own distinct
characteristics such as thickness, density, and composition.
Key Terms
Cosmologist - A scientist that studies the general structure and evolution of the universe.
Big Bang Theory - A theory that the universe was created billions of years ago as a result
of a giant explosion.
Solar system - The system containing the sun and planets including other terrestrial bodies
that revolve around the sun.
Planetesimals - A small body of matter from which a planet originated from during the early
formation of the solar system.
Nebula - A rotating cloud of gas and dust in outer space.
Nebular Hypothesis - The theory that the planets and sun evolved from a mass of matter.
Atmosphere - The gaseous envelope of air surrounding the Earth.
Stratosphere - The second layer of the Earth's atmosphere that contains the ozone layer.
20
Hydrosphere - The water portion of the Earth including the water in the oceans and the
water in the atmosphere.
Biosphere - All the living things that inhabit the Earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere.
Geosphere - The solid part of the Earth.
Crust - The thin rocky outer layer of the Earth.
Mantle - The portion of the Earth that is located between the crust and the core.
Inner Core - The solid innermost part of the core.
Outer Core - The layer above the inner core that contains liquid iron and nickel.
Formation of Earth and the Solar System

Many cosmologists believe that the universe
originated from a single location that consisted of all
the matter and energy of space. About 15 billion years
ago an explosive event expanded the matter and
energy to form our universe. This rapid expansion is
called the Big Bang. Hydrogen and helium gases
formed as a result of the Big Bang. The sun and the
planets originated from a cloud of dust and gas called
the nebula. This cloud of gas and dust began to swirl,
rotate, and expand into a flatten disk shape structure.
Watch the disk formation below.
The Nebula
Source
The inner planets were formed near the center of the
rotating flatten disk. These planets are called the
terrestrial planets. They are rocky and denser than
the outer planets. They consist of rocks made from
silicate minerals and the metal iron. Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars are the terrestrial planets.
The outer planets are called the gas giants. They are
less dense than the terrestrial planets because they
consist of mostly gases and ice. The ice is made up of
methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water. These
larger planets are also known as the Jovian
planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are the
four Jovian planets. Pluto is no longer consider a
planet. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union
(IAU) has classified Pluto as a dwarf planet based on
their new scientific definition of the word planet.
Scientists believe that the inner planets are smaller than the outer planets because of
heat. The higher temperatures near the center of the nebula may have led to the lack of the
21
formation of ice on the inner planets. The outer planets form further away from the center of
the nebula. It was cold enough to allow ice, gases, solid metals, and minerals to accumulate
into a greater size compared to the terrestrial planets.
The mass, temperature, and gravity of the planets affects their atmospheres. The Jovian
planets have a thick atmosphere made up of mostly hydrogen and helium. Their large size
contributes to the strong amount of gravitational force between a planet and its atmosphere.
The gases that make up their atmosphere were not able to escape. The terrestrial planets
may have a thin atmosphere or no atmosphere at all. Their surface gravity is not strong
enough to retain a lot of gases in their atmosphere.
Although Earth and Venus are referred to as the "sister" or "twin" planets, they have very
different atmospheres. Venus atmospheric pressure is about 92 atm. The atmospheric
pressure on Earth is 1 atm. Venus also has sulfur dioxide and a higher concentration of
carbon dioxide in its atmosphere. The surface on Venus is extremely hot. It is about
464C. That is hot enough to melt lead. The two planets are very similar because they have
almost the same size, density, and mass.
The sun formed at the center of this structure. Gravity caused clumps of matter to collide and
join together during a process called accretion. This process led to the formation of
planetesimals which would eventually form the stars and planets of our solar system. This
plausible explanation for the formation of the solar system is known as the nebular
hypothesis.
Click on the Space Exploration: Our Solar System video in the sidebar to learn more about
the planets that make up our solar system. As you watch the video answer the questions
from the Solar System handout in the sidebar as a study tool. The answer key is also in the
sidebar to use to check your answers.
Formation of Earth's Atmosphere

The original atmosphere of Earth consisted of hydrogen and helium gases. During the
formation of the Earth, the lighter and less dense gasses rose to the surface. Hydrogen and
helium did not remain in the atmosphere for very long. During the formation of Earth's
surface, powerful solar winds accompanied with a weak magnetic field allowed these gases
to escape into outer space. On the surface of Earth, frequent volcanic eruptions released
large amounts of gases such as nitrogen, water vapor, ammonia, methane, argon, sulfur
dioxide, and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This process is called outgassing.
Electromagnetic waves from the sun broke down the molecules that make up water vapor
and ammonia. Most of the hydrogen atoms that make up these gases exited our atmosphere
while some of the oxygen atoms remain to form the ozone. The ozone helps protect the
Earth's surface from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. The ozone is located in the
stratosphere. The Earth's atmosphere consists of five layers. Click on the layers below to
view and learn about the characteristics of each layer of the atmosphere.
Many of the first green plants and cyanobacteria help change the composition of Earth's
atmosphere. These primitive organisms used carbon dioxide and sunlight in a process
called photosynthesis. Did you remember that oxygen is produced and released into the
atmosphere during photosynthesis? Over time the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
22
gradually increased. Earth's present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21%

oxygen, and 1% other gases.
Formation of Earth's Oceans

About 71% of the surface of the Earth is covered by the oceans. All oceans are
interconnected. The same water circulates within all of them. Initially Earth had no oceans
because the surface temperature was too hot. Volcanic eruptions placed large volumes of
steam in the atmosphere. These gases remained in the atmosphere for a very long time. As
the Earth cooled, the steam from the volcanoes condensed and fell to the Earth as rain. The
rain lasted for thousands of years and formed the first oceans.
Rainwater not only filled low lying areas but it also flowed over the land, into rivers and the
oceans. As the rainwater moved across the land, it dissolved the minerals from within rocks.
The process is called weathering. The dissolved minerals and solids from rocks were
transported into Earth's primitive ocean. During evaporation, the water from the ocean
combined with the gases in the atmosphere to form salts. The water from the atmosphere
returned back to the ocean during the water cycle. The ocean became very acidic and salty.
There were great amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during the formation of the
ocean. Carbon dioxide dissolves readily in water. Carbonic acid is produced when carbon
dioxide reacts with water. As the levels of carbon dioxide increased in the atmosphere, the
acidity of the ocean also increased. Photosynthesizing organisms helped remove some of
the carbon dioxide from our ocean. The present day oceans are slightly basic and have a pH
of about eight.
About 200 million years ago the Earth looked very different. There was one land mass
called Pangaea and one very large ocean called Panthalassa. There are presently three
major oceans. The largest ocean is the Pacific Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean is the second
largest ocean followed by the Indian Ocean. Click on the videos in the sidebar to learn more
about how the oceans developed on our planet.
Click on the image below to view an animation of the world seen over 600 million years.
Source
What is in the Water? Discussion

Water is essential for life on Earth. We probably could not survive for more
than a week without water. Fluoride is a compound made up of salt that is
being added to our drinking water. Adding fluoride to our drinking water may
have some beneficial as well as harmful side effects. Click on the "Fluoride in
our Drinking Water" link in the sidebar to read the information about fluoride in
our drinking water. Expressing your opinion on whether or not fluoride should be added to
our drinking water. Once you have completed your responses, follow your teacher's
instructions for submitting your work.
Earth's Composition and Layers

23
Earth is divided into four major systems. They are the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
geosphere, and biosphere. The biosphere consists of all the organisms on Earth and the
environments in which they live whether it is in the ocean or on land. All of Earth's systems
are interdependent of each other. For example, you have learned that the volcanic activity in
the geosphere helped formed Earth's present atmosphere. The geosphere is the area from
the surface of the Earth down to its center.
The geosphere consists of four different layers. The crust is outermost layer. It is the
thinnest of the layers. The crust consists of many different pieces called plates. The crust
ranges from 45 miles thick on land to 7 miles thick under the oceans.
The mantle lies below the crust. It is the largest layer of the Earth. The mantle makes up
80% of the Earth's total volume and almost two thirds of the Earth's mass. The mantle is
about 1800 miles thick. The core is located in the center of the Earth, just below the
mantle. The core can be divided into two sections which are the outer core and inner
core. The outer core is very hot and temperatures can reach 9000oF. The outer core
consists of the metals iron and nickel that remain in liquid form due to the heat. The outer
core is about 1400 miles thick.
The inner core is about 780 miles thick. It consists of mostly solid nickel and iron. The inner
core is hotter than the outer core.
24
Earth's Internal Heat Source

The formation of the Earth 4.5 billion years ago was a very dynamic process. When the
Earth was very young, it was an extremely hot and volatile place. The processes that helped
form the Earth so long ago continue to affect the Earth today. These processes include
gravity and radioactivity. Recall that the Earth formed in part due to accretion. The energy
from these high velocity impacts was converted to heat energy. This heat is trapped inside
the Earth and is one part of the Earth's internal heat supply. Gravity causes internal
compaction of the Earth therefore causing it to heat up internally. The heat trapped in the
Earth is slowly released to the surface. Radioactive decay occurs as radioactive elements
break down over time. Elements trapped during the early formation of the Earth are
undergoing radioactive decay. Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from a
warmer place to a cooler place. The three mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction,
convection, and radiation. Please click on the links in the sidebar to learn more about
thermal energy and the types of thermal energy transfer.
Plate Tectonics
Shifting and sliding plus a moving and shaking may make you think of a popular hot dance
move. These movements are also a great way to describe how landforms are formed due to
plate tectonics. Heat from inside the Earth drives the motion of the plates that make up the
lithosphere. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and the formation of mountains
occur at the boundaries of these plates. In this lesson you will learn about the theory of plate
tectonics and the three types of plate boundaries that are responsible for Earth's geologic
features.
What evidence led to the theory of plate tectonics?

How does convection in the mantle cause tectonic plate movement?
What are the three types of plate boundaries?
What types of landforms are produced by the different plate boundaries?
Module Minute
Radioactive decay inside the core produces extreme heat. Many scientists believe that this
heat is responsible for the convection currents within the mantle which move tectonic plates.
The Earth's surface can be shaped by the movement of tectonic plates. This phenomenon is
called the theory of plate tectonics. It explains how different landforms are created due to the
motion of the plates which make up the outer layer of the Earth. Similar fossils on different
continents and the sea floor spreading are just a few types of evidence that support the
existence of a supercontinent. The eight major plates that make up the lithosphere interact at
their boundaries. The three types of plate boundaries are convergent, divergent, and
transform. Earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains can form between these plate
boundaries.
25
Key Terms
Convergent boundary - the location where two tectonic plates collide or are moving towards
each other.
Divergent boundary - the location where two tectonic plates move apart or away from each
other.
Transform fault boundary - the location where two tectonic plates grind past each other in
opposite directions.
Lithosphere - the rocky outer layer of the Earth that consists of the crust and upper mantle.
Asthenosphere - the weak, highly viscous, and deformed section of the mantle located below
the lithosphere.
Tectonic plate - a segment of Earth's crust that is able to move.
Theory of plate tectonics - a branch of geology that studies how the Earth has moved and
changed over time.
Oceanic crust - the outermost layer of the Earth's lithosphere that is found in the ocean.
Continental crust - the section of the Earth's lithosphere that underlying the continents.
Convection current - the transfer of heat energy in liquids and gases from a warmer region to
a cooler region.
What to Expect
In this unit you will be responsible for completing the following assignments.
Theory of Plate Tectonics Activity

Mantle Convection Lab
Plate Tectonics Further Evidence Discussion
Plate Tectonics Review Quiz
Plate Tectonics Test
Supercontinent
About 300 million years ago all of the continents were combined together to form a large
supercontinent called Pangaea. Over time, Pangaea eventually separated to form two large
landmasses called Gondwanaland and Laurasia. These landforms slowly drifted apart to
form the continents that exist today. The theory of plate tectonics explains how our presentday continents arrived at their current location. It also explains the formation of mountains,
volcanoes, and earthquakes.
Click below to view the video. To view the video in full screen mode, click the full screen
button in the bottom right of the screen after you select the play arrow. To exit full screen
mode, press the Esc key.
26
Source
The outermost layer of the Earth involved in plate tectonics is called the lithosphere. The
name is derived from the Greek word "lithos" meaning rock. The lithosphere consists of two
compositional layers, the crust and upper mantle. The crust and mantle are composed of the
elements silicon and oxygen. The mantle is also made up of the elements iron and
magnesium as well as peridotite.
The lithosphere is about 80 km deep and it consists of tectonic plates that fit together like a
giant puzzle. There are at least eight major tectonic plates and several smaller ones that
surround the Earth. These tectonic plates are slowly moving. This may be one reason why
the lithosphere and asthenosphere are described as Earth's mechanical layers. The
asthenosphere is a hotter, softer layer of solid rocks underneath the lithosphere. The lower
mantle is located in the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere deforms slowly under
tremendous pressure and heat. The asthenosphere assists in the movement of the tectonic
plates. The lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere. Please view the presentation
below to learn more about Plate Tectonics. Click on the image below to begin watching the
video.
Source
The eight major tectonic plates are the North American plate, South American plate, Nazca
plate, Pacific plate, Australian plate, Antarctic plate, African plate, and Eurasian plate. The
boundaries among these plates interact to form geologic features on Earth such as
mountains, volcanoes, and deep sea trenches in the oceans.
Evidence to support the Theory of Plate Tectonics
Rock formation
Fossils
Climate
In the early 1900s, a German scientist Alfred Wegener proposed his idea called continental
drift to explain how the continents were once join together and drifted apart. Wegener was
able to observe the same similarities in the layers of sedimentary rocks found in the
Appalachian Mountains in the United States and in some similar mountains in Greenland
and Europe. These layers of rocks were about 200 million years old. Therefore the same
age and type of rocks were found in mountains that are separated by the Atlantic Ocean.
These rocks may have originated at the same location when the continents were joined
together.
The fossil remains of plants that live in warm, tropical climates were found in
Antarctica. This also suggests that the continents were once joined together as a
supercontinent. View the sidebar resources about the following topics to learn more about
how fossils provide evidence of plate tectonics.
Pangaea: The History of the Continents

Namib Desert, Namibia: The World's Most Ancient Desert
Discovering Plate Tectonics: Changes in the Earth's Surface
Theory of Plate Tectonics Activity

27
It is now time to answer the questions to the Theory of Plate Tectonics activity. Click on the
sidebar to open the Theory of Plate Tectonic Activity. Submit your completed assignment
when finished.
Mantle Convection
The hypothesis of continental drift was not able to explain how the tectonic plates move
above the asthenosphere. Many scientists believe there are convection currents within the
mantle and they are the driving force for plate tectonics movement. Recall that the mantle is
located within the Earth between the crust and core. The core is extremely hot and it
supplies a lot of heat to the mantle. Radioactive decay from within the mantle and the core
also helps produce this heat.
The heat from the core produces convection currents within the mantle. Convection is the
transfer of heat energy from a warmer region to a cooler region. Convection currents are
the ongoing movement of fluids caused by differences in density of fluids at different
temperatures. The molten rocks and matter in the mantle moves in a circular pattern. As
the matter closer to the core is heated up, it becomes less dense and rises toward the crust.
The cooler matter near the crust is denser and will sink towards the center of the Earth. The
rise and fall of molten material in the mantle is due to convection currents. This phenomenon
is the mechanism that moves the tectonic plates a few centimeters per year. Plate tectonics
is a theory that explains why and how the continents' locations change over time. It is also
the study of the formation of the Earth's crust. Plate motion causes earthquakes, volcanoes,
and mountain ranges.
Click on the video links for the following topics in the sidebar resources to learn more about
the movement of tectonic plates.
Continents Adrift: An Introduction to Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

How the Inner Structure of Planet Earth Affects Plate Tectonics
What Is It Like Below the Surface of the Earth?
Watch the animation below to learn more about convection currents within the Earth's
mantle.
Source
Scientists believe that there are two other processes involved in plate movement. They are
ridge push and slab pull. Magma from the asthenosphere rises to the surface of the ocean
when plates pull away from one another at mid-ocean ridges. When the lithosphere moves
away from the ocean ridge, the lithosphere cools and becomes denser. The lithosphere
eventually becomes too dense and begins to sink into the asthenosphere. This downward
force is called slab pull. Ridge push is the force that is exerted when the asthenosphere puts
pressure on the plate. Ridge push is thought to have some effect on plate motion.
Convergent Boundaries
Click on the image below to view the video about convergent plate boundaries.
28
Source
Convergent Boundaries are boundaries where two plates collide. The type of convergent
boundary depends on the types of lithospheric plates involved when the plates collide.
Examples of convergent boundaries are the Andes Mountain range, Mount St. Helens, and
the Himalayas. Watch the animation below and take notes as you learn about the different
types of convergent plate boundaries.
Divergent Boundaries
Divergent boundaries are boundaries where two plates move away from one another. As the
plates move apart, magma from the asthenosphere moves to Earth's surface. Eventually
the magma cools to form new oceanic lithosphere. The newly formed oceanic lithosphere is
denser, lighter, and taller than the surrounding rocks on the ocean floor. The formation of the
additional lithospheric rock is called mid-ocean ridges. Mid-ocean ridges look like undersea
mountain ranges. Rift valleys occur at the center of a mid-ocean ridge. An example of a
divergent boundary is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Although most divergent boundaries are found along a spreading ocean seafloor; some
divergent boundaries create rift valleys when continents move apart. The separation of the
African plate and the Arabian plate creates a large rift valley in the Red Sea. These two
plates have separated so much that the rift valley has dropped below sea level. The Red
Sea covers this rift valley.
The East Africa Rift valley is above sea level and it was also formed when two continental
plates were moving away from each other. It contains only a few lakes in certain areas and
one day it may be filled completely with water. Rift valleys formed above land can range from
30 -50 km wide. Rift valleys that develop along the ocean floor are less than a kilometer
wide. Volcanic and earthquake activities can occur along divergent plate boundaries. Click
the image below to watch a video about divergent plate boundaries.
29
Plate Tectonics Further Evidence Discussion

A large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have taken place in a region of the
Pacific Ocean called the Ring of Fire. Do you think the Ring of Fire provides evidence to
support the Theory of Plate Tectonics? Once you have completed your responses, follow
your teacher's instructions for submitting your work.
Transform Boundaries
Transform boundaries occur where two plates slide horizontally past one another. This
motion is often felt as earthquakes. The plates grind across each other without producing
magma. Most of them occur along the ocean floor to produce ocean ridges. Transform
boundaries are also known as transform faults. The Sans Andreas Fault in California is an
example of a transform fault that can take place over continents instead of in the ocean. It
occurs between the North American plate and the Pacific plate. The Sans Andreas Fault is
about 1300 km long. Movement of tectonic plates along transform plate boundaries are
responsible for the majority of earthquakes that occur in California. Another example of a
transform boundary is the Alpine Fault in New Zealand.
30
Rock Cycle
Is the Earth just one giant rock? As soon as we step onto the ground, we are most likely
pressing our feet upon some type of rock. The gravel or concrete in our driveways are made
from sedimentary rocks. Coal is another type of sedimentary rock that we heavily depend
upon for fuel and to produce electricity. There are different types of sedimentary rocks.
There are also two more types of rocks, metamorphic and igneous. They each have their
own special characteristics and properties. The very hot molten magma within the Earth
originated from metamorphic rock. Pumice is a type of igneous rock that is used for
smoothing the bottom of rough, scaly feet. Geologists have classified igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks based on their composition, physical properties, and formation.
What are rocks made of?

How do rocks change from one form to another?
How are igneous rocks formed?
How are sedimentary rocks formed and classified?
How are metamorphic rocks formed?
Module Minute
Rocks can be made up of one or more minerals. Rocks can also consist of organic matter.
The process that explains how a rock can change from one form to another is called the rock
cycle. The three major categories of rocks involved in this process are igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks. Weathering and erosion can change metamorphic rock into
sedimentary rock. Igneous rocks that form on the Earth's surface can be broken down into
sediments which can be transformed into sedimentary rocks. Heat and pressure can change
igneous and sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rock. Melting, cooling, and crystallizing can
change metamorphic rock into igneous rock. This continuous rock cycle explains the
formation of the three different types of rocks.
Key Terms
Mineral - A naturally occurring, inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical
composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and hardness.
Rock - A solid mass of minerals that naturally occurs as a result of the processes on Earth.
Igneous rock - Rocks that form when magma cools and hardens.
Sedimentary rock - A rock that is formed by the processes of compaction and cementation.
Metamorphic rock - A rock altered or change into another rock by pressure and heat.
Compaction - The process in which sediments are packed together and buried beneath
other sediments.
31
Cementation - Minerals fill the pore spaces between the individual sediment particles, which
causes them to stick together.
Dewatering - Water between the sediment particles is squeezed out due to the compaction
process.
Sediments - The weathered or broken down fragments of rocks, minerals, and organic
materials.
Magma - Molten rock or material that form beneaths the surface of the Earth.
Lava - Magma that reaches the surface of the Earth.
What to Expect
Minerals in Our Environment Discussion

Classification of Rocks Quiz
Simulating the Rock Cycle Lab
The Rock Cycle Test
Minerals
Rocks are made from one or more mineral. A mineral is a natural, usually inorganic solid
with an orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition. A mineral is not
man made. It is formed by natural geologic processes. Therefore manufactured and
synthetic substances are not minerals. An inorganic substance is not made from a living
thing. Coal is made from the buried remains of plants that lived millions of years ago in a
swampy environment. Therefore coal is not a mineral. A mineral is made from a substance
that was never alive such as table salt.
If you look closely at table salt, it looks like it consists of tiny, shiny crystals. A crystal is a
solid with a repetitive internal structure of atoms, ions, or molecules. They are geometrically
arranged to form a pattern. The internal arrangement of atoms inside a mineral help form its
particular shape.
Fluorite is also a type of mineral that has an orderly crystalline structure because its atoms
or ions are arranged in a repetitive and orderly manner. It contains a unique combination of
one calcium ion for every two fluoride ions. The one to two ratios of ions also gives fluorite its
definite chemical composition and like most minerals, it is a compound. Some minerals do
consist of only one element. They are called native elements. Some examples of native
elements are gold, silver, and copper. Minerals can be classified into groups based on their
specific characteristics, physical properties, and chemical nature. The major mineral groups
are silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, and native elements. Please
watch the videos, How to Identify Minerals and Classifying Minerals, located in the sidebar.
As you watch the videos, please take notes on how to identify and classify minerals.
You can also click on the Rocks for Kids link located in the sidebar to learn more about the
characteristics used to study and identify minerals. One of the most useful properties used to
32
identify a mineral is hardness. The Mohs Scale of Hardness consists of the known hardness
of ten minerals. The minerals are arranged on the Mohs scale from 10 (the hardest) to 1
(softest). An unknown mineral's hardness can be determined by its ability to scratch one of
the minerals on the Mohs scale. For example, a fingernail has a hardness of 2.5. Any
mineral that has hardness less than 2.5 can be scratched by a fingernail. Click on the
Geomysteries link in the sidebar to learn more about the Moh's scale. You can also learn
more about the other properties of minerals such as density, cleavage, fracture, crystal
shapes, color, and streak.
Scientists have identified over 4,000 minerals in Earth's crust. Only about 30 of those
minerals are responsible for forming Earth's rocks. A few of the most common rock forming
minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite, and halite. They make up about 90% of the mass
of Earth's crust. These minerals are made up of a combination of elements. The most
abundant elements in the Earth's crust from greatest to least amount are oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, and iron.
The majority of minerals form in shallow ocean waters. Minerals can also form deep within
the crust or mantle where the temperatures are very hot. In both situations, the minerals are
rearranged into crystalize structures.
Minerals in Our Environment Discussion

Many of the items we use everyday are made from minerals. Our toothbrushes are made
from limestone, mica, talc, clays, and petroleum products. Find one item from five different
locations in your environment (home, school, work, mall, park, etc.). For each of the items,
answer the following questions in complete sentences.
1. What type of minerals were found in each item?
2. Did the answer to question one surprise you?
3. What types of characteristics or properties does the mineral have that would make it
useful for the item?
Then contemplate the amount of mining and drilling that is required in order to provide all of
these minerals that are commonly found in our environment? What does this tell you about
the mining industry?
Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies beneath or above Earth's
surface. The term igneous is derived from a Latin word, ignis, which means fire. The type of
igneous rock that forms is based on the composition of the magma. Magma is a mixture of
molten rock, dissolved gases, and mineral crystals. The minerals found in magma are also
present in the Earth's crust. Magma is usually formed deep within the mantle. Temperature
and pressure increase with depth. Water also affects the composition of magma because its
presence can lower the melting point of specific minerals in rocks. Therefore the three
factors that affect the formation of magma are heat, temperature, and water. Igneous rocks
can be classified into two categories: intrusive igneous rocks and extrusive igneous rocks.
33
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when magma cools, crystallizes, and solidifies below
Earth's surface. Granite and Gabbro are two types of intrusive igneous rocks that have
different mineral compositions. Gabbro is a darker colored rock compared to granite. Gabbro
also has a lower silica concentration than granite. Granite makes up the majority of the
Earth's continental crust. Most intrusive igneous rocks have a coarse grained texture. When
the magma cools slowly below the Earth's surface, large mineral crystals form inside the
rock. Granite and gabbro can have crystal sizes larger than 1 cm. Igneous rocks that have
coarse grained texture consist of large mineral grains or crystals. Granite and gabbro are
used in kitchen countertops, cemetery markers, and tiles. After they are polished, they have
a very appealing appearance. Both rocks also have the ability to resist weathering and
abrasion.
Magma is referred to as lava once it reaches the Earth's surface. After the lava cools and
hardens it becomes extrusive igneous rock. Obsidian and pumice are examples of extrusive
igneous rocks with different textures. When the lava escapes from a volcanic opening, the
gases that were once in the magma are released. If the lava cools very rapidly and contains
a small amount of dissolved gases, the rock will have a glassy texture such as obsidian. If
the lava cools very rapidly and contains a large amount of dissolved gases, the rock will
have holes called vesicles. The dense lava prevents the gases from escaping and they are
trapped as bubbles as the rock forms. Pumice is an example of a rock with a vesicular
texture. Many extrusive igneous rocks have a fine grained texture because they consist of
small mineral grains when the lava cools very rapidly. Please watch "The Rock Cycle:
Igneous Rocks" video located on the sidebar to learn more about formation of igneous rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form when rocks and minerals are broken down into sediments. The term
sedimentary is derived from the Latin word, sedimentum, which means
settling. Sedimentary rocks can be classified based on how they are formed and their
composition. The three main classes of sedimentary rocks are clastic, chemical, and
organic.
34
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the most common type of

sedimentary rocks. They are made up of minerals such
as clay, sand, or gravel that has been broken down into
smaller sizes due to a process called weathering. The
sediments are also compacted and cemented
together. Clastic sedimentary rocks are also classified
by the size of the sediments in the rocks, coarse-grained,
medium-grained, or fine-grained. Breccia is common
type of coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock. It has
angular, large gravel sized particles. Sandstone is made
from sand size grains or medium-grained sediments that have been cemented together. It
also consists of pores which allow water, oil, and other fluids to move freely between
individual grains of sand.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when dissolved

minerals are removed from a water solution. The
formation of chemical sedimentary rocks involves the
processes called precipitation and evaporation.
Evaporation removes water and exposes the dissolved
minerals. The high concentration of dissolved minerals is
able to precipitate out of the water. The remaining
minerals were left to build up on the bottom of the basin
floor in places such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah. The
accumulation of these minerals form chemical
sedimentary rocks called evaporites. Rock salt and gypsum are examples of chemical
sedimentary rocks.
Organic sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation

of organic matter. Coal and limestone are examples of
organic sedimentary rocks. Coal is made from the buried
and compacted remains of plants that existed millions of
years ago. Plants contain carbon. Limestone is made
from the shells of organisms such as coral, clams, and
oysters. These organisms use the mineral calcite found
in lakes and oceans to make calcium carbonate. The
calcium carbonate is used to build up their shells and
skeletons. When the organisms die, the remains of their
shells accumulate on the ocean floor. They form layers of a carbonate sediments and
eventually limestone rocks. Tufa is a type of limestone rock formed in hot springs saturated
with calcium carbonate.
35
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are changed due to high heat and
pressure. After metamorphism, the parent or original rock does not resemble the newly
formed rock. The three factors that can lead to metamorphism are heat, pressure, and
hydrothermal solutions.
Heat
o
o
Heat provides the energy that is needed for metamorphism to occur.

The source of heat comes from two sources: magma, and depth (geothermal
heat).
Pressure
o As depth increases, so does pressure.
o Pressures present on rocks cause them to be more compacted and have
more density.
Hydrothermal solutions
o These are hot solutions that escape from magma.
o They promote a faster rate of metamorphism as well as recrystallization.
Metamorphic rocks can be classified by their mineral composition and texture. The two types
of texture are foliated and nonfoliated. Foliated rocks have a layer-like appearance. The
rocks have alternating layers of dark and light bands that are parallel to each other. The
common foliated metamorphic rocks are schist, slate, and gneiss. Gneiss consists of bands
of light and dark minerals from quartz or feldspar.
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do not have layers or
alternating bands of different colors. These rocks are
usually made from one type of mineral. Limestone is
metamorphosed into marble. Marble is used to build
monuments and statues. Sandstone is metamorphosed
into quartzite. Quartzite rocks may form hills and
mountains because of its ability to resist weathering.
36
There are two major types of metamorphism. Contact metamorphism occurs when hot
magma moves into the rocks. The magma can change the mineral composition of the rocks
that are in direct contact with the hot magma. Therefore the effect of contact metamorphism
is strongest near the magma. Contact metamorphism is associated with low pressure and
high temperatures.
Regional metamorphism occurs when rocks are exposed and changed due to high
temperatures and pressures. Geologic structures created by regional metamorphism are
The Rocky Mountains and the Cascades. Regional metamorphism takes place over large
areas of Earth's crust.
Types of regional metamorphism:

o Burial metamorphism: happens when rocks are covered by greater than 10
kilometers (6 miles) of rock or sediment. Pressure and geothermal heat at
these depths begins and causes the minerals in the rocks to recrystallize
which, in turn, changes them.
o Dynamothermal metamorphism: happens during the process of mountain
building, when rocks are at a very high temperature and pressure - between
converging plates and deep beneath rising mountains.
o Hydrothermal Metamorphism: caused by hydrothermal solutions that can
come directly from magma, can be pulled from the molecular structure of
nearby rocks during metamorphosis, or it can be superheated groundwater.
Yellowstone National Park is located above a hydrothermal hot spot.
o Fault Metamorphism: near an active fault the pressure and temperature can
be high enough to produce metamorphic recrystallization. This has been
noted near the San Andreas Fault in California during large earthquakes.
Please watch "The Rock Cycle: Metamorphic Rock" video located on the sidebar to learn
more about the formation of metamorphic rocks.
Rock Cycle
Although a few rocks are made up of one mineral, most rocks are made up of a solid mixture
of minerals. Therefore the basic definition of a rock is any solid mass of mineral or mineral
like material that occurs naturally on Earth. There are three types of rocks: igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. The rock cycle consists of the processes that
cause rocks to change forms. Interactions between water, air, and land cause the rock cycle
to take place.
Rock Transformations:
o Igneous rock:
Can be transformed into metamorphic rock under extreme pressure
and high temperature
May be transformed into sediment (weathered pieces of Earth
materials) as a result of weathering (the process of rocks being broken
down by water, air, and living things) and erosion. Sediment may later
undergo compaction, dewatering, and lithification to form sedimentary
rock.
Can melt to form magma (molten rock that forms underneath the
Earth's surface) under high temperature conditions.
37
Magma hardens and cools beneath the Earth's surface to form

igneous rocks.
Metamorphic rock:
May be transformed into sediment as a result of weathering and
erosion. Sediment may later undergo compaction, dewatering, and
lithification to form sedimentary rock.
Can melt to form magma under high temperature conditions
Sedimentary rock:
Can be transformed into metamorphic rock under extreme pressure
and temperature
May be transformed into sediment as a result of weathering and
erosion. Sediment may later undergo compaction, dewatering, and
lithification to again form sedimentary rock.
Any of the three types of rock can be transformed into any of the other three types of
rock. The series of changes that take place to change one rock into another type of rock is
called the rock cycle. It is a continuous process. Please watch and take notes on "The
Rock Cycle" and "The Rock Cycle: Three Types of Rocks" videos located in the sidebar.
Landscape Evolution
"For purple mountain majesties above
the fruited plains" are the famous
lyrics in the America The Beautiful
song heard and sung by millions of
people. Are these words describing
the beautiful landscapes that make up
the San Francisco Peak and the
Colorado Mountains? You have
learned that the movements of
tectonic plates help produce
mountains and rift valleys. Water and
wind also have an effect on the
outward appearance of the Earth. In
this lesson, you will learn about how water, mass wasting, weathering, and erosion have
help shape the landforms on Earth.
What are the two main types of weathering that can occur?
What are the physical processes that cause weathering?
How does physical weathering occur?
What are the chemical processes that cause weathering?
How does chemical weathering occur?
What role does water play in both physical and chemical weathering?
How does soil form?
How does mass wasting affect people?
How do ice, water, and wind contribute to a landform features?
Module Minute
38
The process in which rocks and minerals are broken down or change
their chemical composition is called weathering. Rocks that are broken
down into smaller pieces have undergone the process of physical
weathering. The physical and chemical composition of rocks are
changed due to natural occurrences in their environment. This process
is known as chemical weathering. Soil is a product of these weathered
rocks and minerals. Over time many layers of soil have formed on the
Earth. Rocks and soil can move from one location to another by processes called mass
wasting and erosion. The downward force of gravity can reshape the appearance of
mountains, hills, and slopes on land. The effects of wind, water, and glacial erosion have
also helped shape the surface of the Earth by producing various landforms.
Key Terms
Weathering - The transformation or breaking down of rocks.
Chemical Weathering - A process that results in rocks being changed into one or more new
compounds.
Mechanical weathering - The physical forces that cause rocks to break into smaller pieces
without changing the mineral composition of the rocks.
Erosion - The process in which weathered rocks and materials are transported by wind,
water, or ice.
Soil - A mixture of weathered rocks, organic matter, water, and gases.
Soil Horizon - A horizontal layer of soil.
Water Cycle - The continuous movement or circulation of the Earth's water supply.
Glacier - A large moving mass of ice.
What to Expect
Temperature and Chemical Weathering Lab

Landscape Evolution Quiz I
Hydrologic Cycle Discussion
Glacier Assignment
Landscape Evolution Quiz II
Landscape Evolution Test
Weathering
The picture to the left demonstrates how wind and water can reshape a landform due to
weathering. Weathering is defined as the transformation or breaking down of rocks. This is a
major part of the rock cycle. There are two types of weathering that occur simultaneously:
mechanical (or physical) weathering and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering
39
involves physical forces that cause rocks to break into smaller pieces without changing the
mineral composition of the rocks. Physical processes that cause weathering are frost
wedging, movement of surface water, unloading, and biological activity.
Frost wedging occurs when water runs into cracks on the earth's surface and freezes. Since
water expands when it freezes the cracks are forced to expand. Over many freeze/thaw
cycles the rocks may break into small pieces and form piles called talus.
The movement of surface water depends on stream flow. Stream flow is the act of a stream
carrying water to the ocean. The ability of a stream to erode and transport materials relies
heavily on its velocity, which is the distance water travels in a period of time. The steeper the
gradient the more energy the stream possesses as it flows. A stream channel is the pathway
the stream follows as it flows. As the water flows down the stream channel it experiences
friction, which slows the movement of the water while simultaneously widening the channel
through erosion and weathering.
Unloading occurs as a result of reduction in pressure on igneous rock as overlying rock is
removed via erosion and uplifting. When pressure decreases, sheets of the outer rock
surface, separate, and break into smaller rock pieces. This process is called exfoliation.
Stone Mountain in Georgia is an example of a geologic feature formed through uploading
and exfoliation.
Biological activity occurs any time a living organism causes a change in the earth's surface
which has the potential to accelerate the process of weathering. Some examples include a
plant's roots causing cracks to form in the earth's surface and deforestation by humans.
Take notes on erosion and weathering as you watch the interactive below.
Source
Chemical Weathering is a process that results in rocks being changed into one or more new
compounds. Water is the most important means of chemical weathering. It absorbs gases
from the ground and atmosphere, which then react with other minerals. Carbon dioxide is
absorbed by rain when it passes through the atmosphere. It also can be absorbed from
decaying organic minerals. The reaction of water with carbon dioxide can form carbonic acid.
When granite, which is composed primarily of feldspar and quartz, is exposed to water that
contains carbonic acid the feldspar is converted to clay minerals. Water present in the
atmosphere also absorbs sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, which are produced by the
burning of coal and petroleum. The reaction of water vapor with these compounds results in
sulfuric acid and nitric acid respectively. Both of these acids contribute to acid precipitation.
Silicate Minerals undergo chemical weathering when groundwater removes the sodium,
calcium, potassium, and magnesium contained in silicate minerals and carries these
elements away. Spheroidal weathering occurs when the edges of rocks weather at a faster
rate causing the physical shape of a rock to take on a spherical appearance because of
chemical weathering.
Watch the videos located in the sidebar to learn more about how weathering has affected
the Earth's landscape.
The Temperature and Chemical Weathering Lab

The two main factors that affect the rate of weathering are climate and rock characteristics.
Rock characteristics are important because they determine the ability of water to penetrate
40
rock. Climate is significant in the rate of weathering because it influences frost wedging, and
the amount of vegetation.
It is time to complete the Temperature and Chemical Weathering Lab located in the sidebar.
Submit your completed assignment when finished.
Erosion and Soil

Erosion involves the transportation of weathered pieces of rocks and materials. Therefore
the weathered rocks, soil, and materials are moved from their original location to another
location. Gravity, running water, wind, glaciers, and ocean currents are some of the major
agents of erosion. The development of soil usually begins when weathered rocks are broken
down into sediments and mix with water, air, and humus. Watch the following videos to learn
more about the properties and characteristics of soil. Click on each image below to begin the
video.
Source
Soil formation occurs as the result of the interactions of several important factors: parent
material, time, climate, organisms, and slope. Parent material is the geologic material and
mineral matter on which soil forms. Soil that forms on bedrock is referred to as residual soil.
Soil that forms on unconsolidated deposits is referred to as transported soil. Various factors
such as the rate of weathering, the rate of soil formation, and soil fertility are affected by the
parent material. Over the course of time the depth of the soil above the parent material
increases. Therefore, the longer soil has been forming the deeper the soil will be. Climate
influences the type of weathering, the rate of the weathering, and therefore the depth of the
soil. The amount of precipitation has an impact on soil fertility because if influences how
quickly nutrients are removed from the soil. Organisms have a tremendous impact on the
properties of soil. Most of the organic matter in soil comes directly from plants. Minerals and
organic matter in the soil are mixed and redistributed by burrowing organisms. Organisms
also play a large role in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil helps convert
nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammonia. This is important because plants need nitrogen,
which is very necessary for plant growth.
Soils have variations in the following key properties: composition, texture, structure, and
color. The variations in these factors result in soil being divided into horizontal zones known
as soil horizons. The A Horizon is the uppermost layer of the soil and is most commonly
referred to as topsoil. It is composed primarily of organic matter with the lower portion of this
horizon being mostly mineral matter and organic matter. The B Horizon is most commonly
referred to as subsoil. It consists of fine particles of clay that have washed down from the A
horizon. The C Horizon consists primarily of parent material that has been partially
weathered. In mature soil, there is also an O horizon. It located above the A horizon and it
consists of organic material.
41
The three common types of soil are pedalfer, pedocal, and laterite. Pedalfer is normally
found in temperate areas with high annual precipitation. Pedocal is normally found in areas
with dry climates - often grasslands and savannahs. Laterite forms in tropical climates with
high temperature and precipitation. Read the article located on the sidebar to learn more
about soil erosion.
Mass Wasting
Mass Wasting involves the movement of rock and soil down a slope due to the force of
gravity. Mass wasting can also be referred to as mass movement. There are multiple factors
that contribute to mass wasting events. They are water, oversteepened slopes, removal of
vegetation, and earthquakes.
Water can interact with gravity to produce mass wasting events. After heavy rains, saturated
slopes or hills are heavier and are therefore subject to slope failure. Water can act as a
lubricant along the base of the mass movement, filling pores which cause the particles to
slide past one another more easily.
If the steepness of a slope exceeds the stable angle, then mass movements become more
likely. The steepest slope angle that can be maintained without the potential for downward
slipping is called the angle of repose. Depending upon the material, this is 33-37 from the
horizontal plane. Slopes that exceed the angle of repose are unstable and are therefore
subject to mass wasting. These slopes can be the result of human activity or because of a
stream undercutting a valley wall.
Plants' roots cause slopes to be more stable because of their root system. Therefore once
plants are removed the area is more susceptible to mass movements. Earthquakes can
move large amounts of rocks and minerals in a short amount of time.
Mass wasting events are generalized according to the kind of material moved, how the
material moves, and the speed of movement. The two primary categories of mass wasting
events are gradual mass wasting and sudden mass wasting. Gradual mass wasting
processes happen very slowly and are often associated with freeze and thaw cycles. They
generally do not pose much of a threat to humans since they occur so slowly. Types of
gradual mass wasting processes are soil creep and solifluction. Solifluction is the gradual
downward sliding of muddy soil over the top of permanently frozen soil below. In soil creep,
the force of gravity causes a gradual downward movement of soil particles.
Sudden mass wasting processes occur over a short amount of time. They can be associated
with human activities, tectonic activity, or unusually heavy rainfall. Sudden mass wasting
processes can occur without warning and can cause a very high loss of life when they occur.
The different types of sudden mass wasting processes are often categorized by the amount
of water that is present. Read and answer the questions in Mass Wasting and Landslides
article located on the sidebar.
Surface and Ground Water
42
Water is one of the major agents involved in erosion. Sediments are carried, transported,
and deposited by rivers and streams. About 70% of the Earth's surface is water. About 97%
of Earth's water is saltwater and 3% of Earth's water is fresh water. About 77% of our fresh
water is frozen in the polar ice caps. Only about 0.7% of the total water on Earth is readily
available for use by humans and other species that rely on fresh water as a resource.
The water cycle is a cycle through which there is constant movement of water between
oceans, bodies of fresh water, the atmosphere, and the solid portion of the Earth. The
overall amount of water on Earth stays roughly the same. Sun provides the energy that fuels
the water cycle. Heat from the sun evaporates water from lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, moist
soil surfaces, and plants. Transpiration is a process by which plants add water vapor to the
atmosphere. Plants take up water from the soil. Any unused water then passes out of small
holes in the plant's leaves, evaporates, and becomes water vapor in the atmosphere.
Water vapor cools in the atmosphere and condenses to form water droplets in clouds. When
clouds meet cold air the water returns to the Earth again in the form of precipitation. The
precipitation may then evaporate, collect in bodies of water on the Earth's surface or soak
into the soil. Surface Water is the water that is above ground in lakes, ponds, rivers, and
streams. Groundwater is a layer of underground water that has seeped so far into the
surface of the Earth that is has reached a layer of rock or clay and cannot go any farther.
Groundwater is often stored in aquifers. They contain large amounts of ground water in
underground rock formations. Aquifers are usually porous rocks but they are sometimes
large caves. It takes a very long time for them to form. The recharge zone is the area of land
where groundwater originates. Watch the video below to learn more about the water cycle
and complete the Groundwater Use and Overuse Activity. Click on the image to start the
video.
Source
Take notes as you watch the Hydrologic Cycle Interactive and Water Cycle Animation below.
Glaciers
A glacier is an accumulation of snow and ice into a large mass that moves. The term used to
describe the movement of glaciers is flow. Glacial flow can occur in two different ways, basal
slip or plastic flow. In basal slip, gravity causes an entire glacier to slip downhill along the
ground. In plastic flow, large amounts of pressure from overlying ice causes the underlying
ice of a glacier to change shape and become distorted. This glacial flow usually begins
approximately 50 meters below the surface of the ice. Unlike erosion that is caused by
streams, when glaciers erode they carry all of the matter that they accumulate until the
movement of the glaciers is halted and the glaciers melt.
Glaciers can cause two types of erosion, abrasion and plucking. In abrasion, the glacier and
all of the matter that it contains migrates over the surface of bedrock. This scouring
movement changes the appearance of the bedrock by leaving it smooth and polished. If the
eroding glacier contains large boulders, these boulders may leave grooves in the bedrock as
the glacier erodes. In plucking, melted water from the eroding glacier soaks into cracks in the
rock that lies under the glacier. When the water refreezes it expands causing the
43
surrounding rock to fracture. These pieces of rock are then picked up by the eroding glacier
and carried downward.
There are many landforms that can result from eroding glaciers. A cirque is a depression
that forms at the head of a glacial valley. It is surrounded on three sides by walls of rock and
is formed when glaciers pluck rocks from the sides and bottom of a valley. When the glacier
melts it may leave a lake in the cirque depression. A glacial trough is a U-shaped trough that
is created when a large glacier moves down a valley that was once occupied by a flowing
stream. The movement of the glacier causes the valley to rapidly widen and deepen. A
hanging valley is a smaller valley that remains above the large glacial trough formed from
the movement of smaller glaciers. These occur because the movement of smaller glaciers
causes significantly less widening and deepening of the valley than does the movement of
larger glaciers. Hanging valleys often result in waterfalls after the glaciers have melted and
stream flow resumes. Artes are sharp mountain ridges that are carved by the erosion of
glaciers through valleys. Take notes as you watch the Glaciers Interactive below. Click on
the image below to begin the interactive.
Geologic Time and Correlation

Over time an infant develops and changes into an adult. Photographs and growth charts
from pediatrician visits can provide evidence that document the transformations of an infant
into an adult. Photo albums or baby books are also a great way to show the sequence of
events in a person's life. The Earth has been through some major changes too. The
landscape, atmosphere, types of animals and plants are different from those that existed
millions of years ago. Geologists study the history and structure of the Earth. What methods
are used by geologists to learn about the history of the Earth? What is a geologic time
scale? In this lesson, you will learn about how scientists have developed and organized a
record of Earth's history.
What is radioactive decay and how can it be measured?

How do we know how old the Earth is?
How do fossils help determine the age of rocks?
What is geologic time?
How do fossils help us understand our world today?
What is a geologic map and how does it differ from other maps?
Module Minute
About 300 million years ago a massive landmass of all the continents called Pangaea
existed. The fossil remains of the same plants and animals in Africa and South America
suggest that these two continents were once joined together. This suggests that these
animals lived during different time periods. Scientists use the principles of relative-age dating
to determine the relative age of rocks. These principles are original horizontality,
superposition, cross cutting relationships, and inclusions. The principle of superposition
states that older rocks are located beneath the layers of younger rocks. Radioactive isotopes
are used to determine the numerical age of rocks. Using the information of relative-age
dating, absolute-age dating, and fossil records, geologists were able to develop a geologic
time scale to divide Earth's history into time intervals.
Key Terms
44
Uniformitarianism - a principle that states that geologic processes that are occurred in the
past can be explained by current geologic processes.
Relative-age dating - A method that uses geological principles to put rocks in chronological
order.
Law of superposition - A method used in relative-age dating stating that in any sequence
of sediments or rocks that has not been overturned, the youngest sediments or rocks are at
the top of the sequence and the oldest are at the bottom.
Principle of Original Horizontally - The principle states that layers of sediment are
originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity.
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships - In a series of horizontal sedimentary layers of
rocks, there is an igneous rock which is younger than the sedimentary rock it cuts vertically
through.
Unconformity - A buried erosion surface separating two rock masses or strata of different
ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous.
Absolute-age dating - The process of determining an approximate age or numerical age of
an artifact or rocks.
Radiometric dating - A technique used to date materials such as rocks, usually based on a
comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope
and its decay products
Radioactivity - The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy.
Half-life - The amount of time it takes for one half of the mass of a radioactive isotope to
decay to its stable isotope
Fossil - A remains or traces of an organism from the geologic past that is embedded and
preserved in the earth's crust.
Paleontologists - A scientist who studies fossils and the history of life on Earth.
Geologic Map - A map that shows geologic features.
Geologic time scale - A timeline that divides the history of the Earth into time intervals
which includes both geologic events and major developments in the evolution of life.
What to Expect
Grand Canyon Virtual Field Trip

Modeling Half-Life Lab
Radon Discussion
Georgia's Geology Maps Assignment
Geologic Time Quiz
Geologic Time and Correlation Test
45
Relative Age Dating

Geologists believe the Earth is about 4.6 billion years old based on evidence observed in
rocks. In 1869, geologist John Wesley Powell led his expedition down the Colorado River.
He noticed the different colors of the sedimentary rocks that lined the Grand Canyon. The
different layers of sedimentary rocks provided a rock record of Earth's past. A rock record
provides evidence of geologic events and processes. The same processes that are affecting
the Earth now have also occurred in the past. Geologists hypothesized that the Colorado
River began to flow through the Grand Canyon millions of years ago. The same movement
of water that takes place now along the Colorado River also happened millions of years ago.
Please watch the Extreme Erosion video to learn more about John Wesley Powell's
expedition into the Grand Canyon and the geologic processes that created the Grand
Canyon. The link to the Extreme Erosion video is located on the sidebar
Before Powell made his observations in the Grand Canyon, a Scottish physician, James
Hutton, was recording the geological transformations taking place on his farm in the 1700s.
Hutton's principle of uniformitarianism states that the geologic processes that are happening
now also occurred in the past. Hutton believed that the same forces and processes that were
changing the landscape on his farm had also changed the surface of the Earth in the
past. Geologists modified Hutton's principle of uniformitarianism by emphasizing that the
geological processes occurred at various rates over time. Therefore the geological
processes in the past and present may be the same but the rate at which they occur may be
different. With the exception to Mt. Kilauea in Hawaii, many present day volcanic eruptions
are sporadic or infrequent compared to the constant volcanic activity during the formation of
the Earth billions of years ago.
Scientists can determine the order in which geologic events occurred by using a method
called relative-age dating. It involves studying and examining the layers of rocks. Relative
age dating is sequential. Geologists use relative age dating to identify when rocks formed
based on the location of their layers. Therefore they can put when the rocks formed in
chronological order. Geologists can determine the sequential order of geologic events; but
not exactly when the events happened. There are several principles used for relative dating.
They are the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, the principle of crosscutting relationships, and the principle of inclusion.
The law of superposition states that the oldest layers of sedimentary rock are found at the
bottom or below the layers of successive younger layers of rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
used to study relative age dating because they form boundaries between each rock layer.
The picture to the left is an example of the law of superposition. According to the picture, the
darkest rock layer is older than the rocks above it.
The principle of original horizontality states that sedimentary rocks are deposited in
horizontal layers. The layers of the rocks will appear flat in their original horizontal position if
they are undisturbed. Movement due to plate tectonics can deform or alter these horizontal
layers. The age of the rocks can be difficult to determine because the layers have been
disturbed by faults or intrusions. A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth's
crust, usually along transform plate boundaries. Earthquakes that occur along the San
Andreas Fault in southern California are examples of how rocks can change their original
position because of their location along a fault. An intrusion forms when magma cools and
solidifies into igneous rocks. During the process, new igneous rock cuts through layers of
46
existing rocks. The principle of cross-cutting relationships occurs when faults or igneous
rocks from magma cut through other rocks that are younger.
The principle of inclusion states that fragments of a rock are older than the rock layer that
contains the fragments. Inclusions are fragments of rocks that are located in another type of
rock. For example, pieces of igneous rock can be found in sedimentary rock. The
sedimentary rock would be younger than the igneous rock. Weathering and erosion
contributed to the formation of sedimentary rock layers with inclusions of igneous rock.
Gaps in the geologic record can occur when time is missing or out of sequence. A
discrepancy in the geologic rock record is called an unconformity. Unconformities are
caused by changes in the Earth's surface due to factors such as weathering, erosion,
earthquakes, and volcanoes. The changes can not only remove layers of rock but also
disrupt the sequential order of the layers of rocks. The three major types of unconformities
are nonconformity, angular unconformity, and disconformity.
The picture above is an example of angular unconformity. This type of unconformity is

associated with mountain building. Angular unconformity occurs when a layer of horizontal
sedimentary rock develops over a layer of eroded and tilted sedimentary rock. The eroded
and tilted layer between the two horizontal rock layers is called an angular unconformity.
Disconformity is very similar to angular unconformity in the manner in which layers of
sedimentary rocks form above each other. Unlike angular unconformity, the eroded layer of
rock does not tilt. The very difficult to identify erosional layer between the two horizontal
layers of sedimentary rocks is called a disconformity. Nonconformity is the eroded surface
that separates younger sedimentary rock from either metamorphic or igneous rock. The
eroded surface is easy to identify.
The Grand Canyon is a great place to learn about how unconformities have affected Earth's
geologic record. Please watch the America's Early Geologic History video to watch how the
Grand Canyon developed over millions of years ago. The link to the video is located on the
sidebar.
The Grand Canyon: Its Youngest Rocks video also explains how geologic processes created
the younger layers of rocks in the Grand Canyon. Click below to view the video. To view the
video in full screen mode, click the full screen button in the bottom right of the screen after
you select the play arrow. To exit full screen mode, press the Esc key.
Also, please view The Grand Canyon: The Top Two Rock Layers video below.
Source
Absolute Age Dating

Scientists can use more than one method to determine the age of the Earth. Recall that
relative age simply states that an object is older or younger than another object. Another
method used to learn more about Earth's history is called absolute-age dating. Absolute-age
dating is numerical. It is specific regarding the number of years old an object is before the
present. Methods used to determine absolute-age dating includes radiometric dating, tree
rings, varves, and ice cores.
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The circles inside a tree trunk are called growth rings. A growth ring is one new layer of
alternating light and dark colored wood around the trunk of a tree each year. The light
colored growth rings of wood are made during the spring and summer months. The dark
colored growth rings are made during the autumn and winter months. When the tree is cut
down, these layers of wood in its trunk look like concentric circles. The appearance of the
annual rings inside the tree can provide scientists with information about the environment
when they were formed. The width of the growth rings can indicate if the tree receives too
much or too little water due to changes in climate. The absolute-age of a tree can be
estimated by counting the number of growth rings inside its trunk.
The annual layer of sediment or sedimentary rock is called a varve, alternating light and dark
bands of particles. Just like tree rings, varves are deposited each year. The varves form in
glacial lakes. The light-colored band of coarse sediments forms in the bottom of the lake in
the summer months. The dark-colored bands of fine sediments form a thin layer above the
coarse sediments during the winter months. One varve consists of a coarse and fine layer of
sediment. Counting the varves can help scientists estimate the absolute-age of the
sediments. Scientists drill holes that are over a hundred meters deep inside glaciers to
retrieve ice cores. They can study the ice cores to learn about how climate has changed
over time and to also measure the concentration of atmospheric gases. Although ice cores,
varves, and tree rings are useful for finding numerical-age; but they are not useful for
establishing the absolute age for geologic events that occurred a really long time ago.
The rocks and soil that make up the Earth are naturally radioactive. Radioactivity is the
release of energy or mass from an unstable atomic nucleus. Scientists use the method
called radiometric dating to determine the absolute-age of some minerals and rocks.
Radiometric dating uses radioactive decay to compare the current ratio of a radioactive
isotope to a stable isotope of the same element. To get a better understanding of
radioactivity; let's review the basic building block of all matter, the atom.
An element consists of one type of atom. The periodic table lists all the known elements. The
atomic number is the number of protons in an element. The number of neutrons is usually
equal to the number of protons. Both the protons and the neutrons are found in the nucleus
of an atom. The electrons of an atom orbit the nucleus. An isotope is an atom of an element
that has the same number of protons as another atom of the element but a different number
of neutrons. For example, carbon-12, the most common form of carbon, has six protons and
six neutrons, whereas carbon-14 has six protons and eight neutrons.
Isotopes can be stable or unstable. Stable isotopes do not undergo radioactive decay.
Unstable isotopes do undergo radioactive decay. Radioactive decay occurs when one
element changes into a different element by losing protons as a result of radioactivity. The
process of radioactive decay is irreversible, the atom is changed forever. For example, once
a popcorn kernel pops into a fluffy white piece of popcorn, there is no going back!
Half-life is the amount of time it takes for one half of the mass of a radioactive isotope to
decay to its stable isotope. The half-life of a radioactive isotope can range from hundreds of
years to billions of years. The table below shows the half-life of some common radioactive
isotopes used in radiometric dating. The ratio of parent radioisotope to daughter isotope can
help scientists determine the age of rocks. An older rock sample would contain a greater
amount of daughter isotopes compared to the parent radioisotope. Radiometric dating is
used to date mostly igneous and metamorphic. The method is rarely used to find the age of
sedimentary rocks because they undergo weathering and erosion. The sediments may be
weathered particles of older rocks.
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Radioactive isotopes used in Radiometric Dating

Radioactive parent
isotope
Stable Daughter
isotope
Half-life
Potassium-40
Argon-40
1.25 billion years
Uranium-238
Lead-206
4.5 billion years
Rubidium-87
Strontium-87
47 billion years
Another method for dating rocks is called radiocarbon dating. It uses carbon-14 to date
organic materials. This method is used to date the organic materials found in younger rocks.
Carbon-14 is the radioisotope of carbon-12. Both are present in the atmosphere, plants, and
animals. The ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 remains constant in all living organisms. When
an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 in its body steadily decreases as carbon-14
decays. The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5,730 years. Scientists can use the ratio of
carbon-12 to carbon-14 to find the absolute age of organic materials that formed up to about
Radon
Radon is a radioactive element. The symbol for radon is Rn and the atomic number is 86.
Radon is an extremely toxic, colorless gas. Radon comes from the radioactive decay of
radium and is used in cancer treatment; however, radon is also the second leading cause of
lung cancer in the United States.
Radon Discussion
As you know, healthcare is a major political issue. You have been appointed to the
Presidential Advisory Board on Residential Housing. It is your job to determine if the threat of
radon poses a significant enough health risk to require all houses in the U.S. be tested and
treated if necessary. Provide a rationale for your opinion. Once you have completed your
responses, follow your teacher's instructions for submitting your work.
Fossils
Recall that the principle of superposition simply states that the oldest layers of rock are
found on the bottom of the strata and the youngest rocks are found on the top. Using the
same principle of superposition, the relative age of fossils can be determined. This method
also helps determine the relative age of rocks. When the same kinds of fossils are found in
rocks from different places, geologists can determine that the rocks are the same age. The
fossils in the picture above are index fossils. Each index fossil existed during a specific age
of time and they can help date the age of rocks. The youngest fossil in the picture is called a
bivalve and it existed only during the Tertiary period. Since the bivalve was alive during the
Tertiary period, its fossils are found in certain layers of rock. The bivalve fossil is an index
fossil and its location can help determine the age of rocks. An index fossil is a type of fossil
that is always found in a specific layer of rock all over the world. Fossils have helped piece
together the positions of the different continents at different times in the past. Correlating
fossils from rock layers can help geologists match the age of similar rocks in different and
distant locations. The fossils in the rocks indicate that although the rocks are made of
different material, they formed at the same time because they contain the same types of
fossils. Click on and complete each of the following webquests to learn more about how
fossils are important in determining the age of rocks: Geologic Time and Getting into the
Fossil Record.
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Paleontologists are scientists who study fossils and life in the past. Fossils are the preserved
remains or traces of organisms from the geologic past. Several types of fossils form after an
organism has been buried. Fossils can also form without being buried if the organism
becomes frozen or stuck in amber or tar. The different types of fossils are petrified fossils,
molds and casts, carbon films, preserved fossils, and trace fossils.
Petrified fossils form when the remains of organic organisms turn into stone. The process
involves replacing the cell walls or other solid parts of the dead organisms with minerals. The
minerals in groundwater can soak into the cavities or spaces of the organism. When the
minerals precipitate from the water or when the water evaporates, the minerals become a
substitute for the organic matter. Petrified wood is an example of a petrified fossil.
Many dinosaur bones are examples of molds and cast fossils. A mold fossil is formed when
the remains of an animal or plant is buried under layers of sediments which is later dissolved
by underground water. The mold is a hollow impression, the shape and surface markings, of
the organism left inside a rock. If the hollow spaces are filled with mineral material, it will
form a cast fossil.
All living things contain carbon. The formation of carbon film fossils begins when an
organism dies and is buried under a layer of fine sediments, mud or clay. A thin carbon rich
film or imprint of the surface features of the organism remains after gases and liquids are
removed from the decay organism. The carbonized imprints of fish, leaves, and flowers
have been found in sedimentary rock.
Preserved fossils are the remains of organisms found in tar, amber, and even permafrost.
Sometimes all or part of the organism looks exactly the same as it did when it was alive. A
mammoth was found frozen in permafrost. Most bacteria can not survive very freezing
temperatures; therefore the mammoth buried in frozen soil or ice did not decay. If an insect
is trapped in amber, its remains can become preserved when the sticky sap hardens. The
remains of animals can also stay well-preserved if they get stuck in tar. Scientists
hypothesize that animals drinking water in a tar seep will inevitable become unable to
move. The tar seep is inescapable and over time the animal is covered by the tar.
Trace fossils are different from the previous fossils mention above because they are not the
remains of an organism; but evidence of their activities found in sedimentary rocks. Their
fossilized movements such as tracks, footprints, borings, and burrows provide evidence of
prehistoric life. For example, trace fossils can provide us with information on where the
organism lived, rummaged, and also their diet. Two more types of trace fossils are coprolites
and gastroliths. Coprolites are fossils of dung and stomach contents. Gastroliths are
stomach stones found in the digestive system of prehistoric reptiles. They were used in
grinding their food. Paleontologists use trace fossils to not only learn how animals from the
past lived but to also compare their daily activities with modern animals. Therefore the
existence of trace fossils in rock strata can help determine the type of environment and local
conditions that occurred in the place and time that the impressions were created. There are
records of trace fossils from different rock strata from locations all around the world. Trace
fossils and other types of fossils are important in helping geologists understand the rock
record. They provide information about the formation of the geologic features on the surface
of the Earth. To access the video for this lesson, please click on the Discovery Education
link located on the sidebar. Take notes as you watch the video that lasts approximately 20
minutes.
50
Geologic Time
There are several types of maps,
one of which is called a
geological map. Geological maps
include the distribution and age of
rocks. The United States
Geological Survey constructs the
base map for geological maps.
Different colors on the map
represent different rock
formations. Geological maps
always include a scale to
measure distance and a legend
detailing what each graphic on
the map represents. In the legend
you will typically see letters that
symbolize the age of the rock on
the relative time scale. A key
contains the type of rock or the
formation name. The color coded rock legend will also be arranged with the oldest rocks at
the bottom and the youngest at the top just like the principle of superposition. Watch the
Landform Maps video located on the sidebar to learn about the major landforms in the
United States.
Time is a system of measuring the sequence of events. The combination of absolute-age
records, relative-age records, and fossil records has helped scientists develop a geologic
time scale. It is a record of events that have occurred during Earth's history such as changes
in Earth's surface, climate change, and the evolutionary development of organisms. It is the
sequence of geologic events that have taken place in the past and that are taking place now.
The geological time scale is a timeline that is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
Eon is the largest out of the four units of time. It is divided into four eons: Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Precambrian time consists of the first three eons. The
Earth, atmosphere, and oceans formed during the Precambrian time. The rocks and fossils
formed during these billions of years are very scarce or rare. They have been destroyed
because of natural geologic processes and most of the organisms were unicellular.
The Phanerozoic eon began about 540 million years ago and is divided into three eras:
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Many of the multicellular organisms, vertebrates and
plants, that exist on Earth now evolved during the Paleozoic era. Early forms of birds,
mammals, and reptiles developed during the Mesozoic era. Forests also emerged during
this era. Many different types of mammalian and bird fossils are found from the Cenozoic
era. A lot of flowering plants developed during the Cenozoic era.
Eras are subdivided into shorter units of time called periods. The Jurassic period is named
after the location where specific fossils and rocks were found, the Jura Mountains of
France. The Jurassic period occurred during the Mesozoic era. Although the Tertiary and
Quaternary periods are a part of the Cenozoic era; most geologists have recently described
the two periods of the Cenozoic era as the Paleogene and Neogene. Periods can be further
divided into even smaller units of time called epochs. Ages are the shorter time units within
a period. We live in the Holocene epoch of the Quaternary (Neogene) period.
51
Earth and Life History

How long could you survive in the desert without water? About 71% of the Earth's surface is
covered with water. Almost all living things need water. Cacti are a type of desert plants that
can survive in such a hot and dry place. They have adapted to their environment. Natural
selection is a process used to explain how some organisms are able to survive and
reproduce better than others. Fossils provide evidence of how some organisms may have
evolved while others became extinct. In this lesson you will learn about the geological and
environmental changes that occurred during the geologic time scale.
How does the availability of fresh water affect life on Earth?

Why do some species go extinct while others survive?
How did today's atmosphere evolve from Earth's original atmosphere?
What types of environmental changes affected the evolution of life throughout Earth's
history?
What were the major developments during the Precambrian Time?
What were the major developments during the Paleozoic Era?
What were the major developments during the Mesozoic Era?
What were the major developments during the Cenozoic Era?
Module Minute
Fossils provide evidence of evolution. The skeletal remains of present organisms are very
similar to the fossils of organisms that existed millions of years ago. Scientists believe that
the organisms evolved because they were capable of adapting to the changes in their
environment. Geologists believe that the atmosphere and oceans formed during the
Precambrian time. Our planet's earliest atmosphere did not contain oxygen. Organisms that
used carbon dioxide helped produce the oxygen in the atmosphere. Water is essential for
life. The first organisms probably developed in Earth's oceans. The fossil remains of
stromatolites were found near water. These organisms look like modern cyanobacteria.
Amphibians and plants evolved during the Paleozoic Era. Mammals and reptiles appeared
during the Mesozoic Era. Their existence increased the diversity of organisms on Earth
Key Terms
Prokaryote - A unicellular organism having cells lacking membrane-bound nuclei and
organelles.
Eukaryotes - Organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures enclosed within
membranes.
Invertebrate - An animal that does not have a backbone or spinal column.
Vertebrate - An animal with a backbone or spinal column.
Reptile - A cold-blooded, dry-skinned vertebrate that usually has scaly skin and typically
lays shelled eggs on land.
Amphibian - A cold-blooded, smooth skinned vertebrate typically living on land but breeding
in water; aquatic larvae undergo metamorphosis into adult form.
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Dinosaur - An extinct mainly terrestrial reptile that lived in the Mesozoic Era.
Mammal - A warm-blooded vertebrate characterized by a covering of hair on the skin and
the females have mammary glands that produce milk for nourishment for their young.
Herbivore - Any animal that eats only grass and other plants.
Stromatolites - A fossil made from colonies of blue-green cyanobacteria.
Gondwana - A large landmass that consisted of the continents of Africa, South America,
Antarctica, and Australia.
Laurentia - The large landmass that would become the continent of North America during
the Paleozoic era.
Laurasia - North America landmass joined with present-day Europe and parts of Asia to
form the supercontinent.
Extinction - The existence of a species is no longer active, terminated, or has ended.
Iridium - A silver-white metallic element found in rocks and meteorites.
Gymnosperm - A seed-bearing vascular plant that does not produce flowers.
Limestone - A type of sedimentary rock that forms in warm shallow waters many years ago
from the skeletal remains and shells of ocean organisms.
What to Expect
History of Life I Quiz

Mass Extinction Discussion
Geologic Events of Earth's History Lab
History of Life II Quiz
History of Life on Earth Test
Precambrian Time
Although the Precambrian time makes up almost 90% of Earth's history on the geologic time
scale, it contains the least amount of evidence of past life from fossils or rocks. Many rocks
and fossils were destroyed because of erosion, heat, and pressure. Scientists have been
able to use radiometric dating to estimate that the oldest sedimentary rock layer on Earth
contained minerals that are about 4.3 billion years old. The environment was hostile when
the Earth formed about 4.56 billion years ago. The atmosphere, oceans, and continents
were changing and evolving.
The Precambrian consist of three eras: Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic. The Earth was
developing from a cloud of gas and dust during the Hadean Era. The force of gravity pulled
ice, dust, and rock materials from outer space together towards the center of a large
53
massive object which eventually formed the planet Earth. The surface of the Earth consisted
of erupting volcanoes, craters from the bombardment of meteorites, and extremely hot pools
of lava. The atmosphere lacked oxygen. It was rich in the gases released from the
volcanoes: carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, and sulfur.
The Earth began to cool down during the Archaean era. The oceans formed as water
evaporated in the atmosphere to form clouds and eventually fell down to the Earth. The
continuous rainfall filled low lying areas that slowly became the oceans. A lot of the carbon
dioxide in the air was removed during this process and dissolved in the oceans to form
limestone. The atmosphere was mostly made up of nitrogen. During this time large islands
were forming due to erupting volcanoes. They began colliding with each to form microcontinents because of the convection currents within the mantle. Since the interior of the
Earth was very hot, scientists believe that Precambrian rocks would consist of
metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks. These rocks are also known as
Precambrian shields, large areas of exposed rocks. Erosion, volcanic activity, mountain
building from millions of years ago has exposed the Precambrian shield on Earth's
surface. They can be found on every continent. Precambrian rocks are the oldest rocks in
Earth's history. They contain many valuable minerals. Life most likely evolved in the oceans.
The prokaryotic organisms were probably blue-green algae known as cyanobacteria. The
fossil remains of cyanobacteria have been found in Archaean rocks that are about 3.5 billion
years old.
The longest era during the Precambrian Time is the Proterozoic Era. Large islands
frequently collided to form small continents. Eukaryotic organisms evolved from single celled
eukaryotes. The oldest eukaryotic fossil was found about 1.8 billion years ago. Based on
the fossil remains, geologists believe that these organisms had soft bodies similar to jellyfish,
worms, and corals. The atmosphere was gaining oxygen. Cyanobacteria used a process
called photosynthesis to release oxygen into the air. Colonies of coral reef-like
cyanobacteria are called stromatolites. They live in warm and shallow waters which covered
most of Earth's landmass during the Precambrian time. Scientists believe that the
photosynthesizing stromatolites help produced enough oxygen to make a major impact on
the atmosphere. The oldest and most common fossils found in Precambrian rocks are of
stromatolites. Watch and take notes from the "What is the Precambrian" video. You can
access the video from the sidebar.
Paleozoic Era
The Paleozoic Era is known as "Ancient Life". The Paleozoic Era is divided into six different
periods. During this time, many major events that occurred led to the development of new
organisms. Changes in the environment, climate, and the surface of the Earth led to the
evolution of new organisms.
A lot of new complex organism evolved during the Cambrian period. It is known as the
"Cambrian Explosion". Recall that the majority of the Earth was covered by warm and
shallow oceans. A diversity of marine animals began to evolve and thrive in the
oceans. The trilobite is the most common invertebrate fossil found in sedimentary
rocks. Trilobites are also used as index fossils to determine the age of Cambrian
rocks. Brachiopods were also abundant during the Paleozoic era. They were a type of
marine invertebrates that look like clams or oysters. Worms, jellyfish, sponges, and snails
are invertebrates that existed during the Cambrian period.
54
As the population of brachiopods increased, the population of trilobites decreased during the
Ordovician period. Primitive vertebrates also emerged. Bony plated fish without teeth or
jaws were the oldest type of Ordovician vertebrates. Changes in the Earth's geological
appearance were also taking place during the Ordovician period. Tectonic activity or the
movement of landmasses led to formation of two micro-continents, Gondwana and
Laurentia. Geologists believe that Africa portion of Gondwana was covered with glacial ice
because of its location near the South Pole. Scientists believe an ice age led to a mass
extinction at the end of the Ordovician period.
The first plants and animals appeared on land during the Silurian period. Mosses and ferns
were the first types of plants to evolve. Scorpion-like creatures called eurypterids lived in
shallow waters and could grow up to 3 meters long. They were developing jaws which
helped improve their feeding options. The types of creatures that dwell on land were
primitive arthropods. Changes were occurring amongst the primitive fish.
The Devonian period is known as the "Age of Fishes" because fossils of a variety of fishes
were found in rocks. Scientist believed one type of fish had bony fins that allowed it to crawl
on land. Another kind of fish had lungs so it was probably able to breathe air. Adaptations
such as roots and vascular tissue allow plants to move onto land. Land plants probably
evolved from algae. Photosynthetic land plants removed carbon dioxide from atmosphere
and when combined with water and sunlight produce oxygen and glucose. By products of
land plants provide oxygen and food (glucose) for animal to move onto the land. Ancestors
of amphibians such as frogs, toads, and salamanders evolved and were able to flourish on
land. A mass extinction also occurred at the end of the Devonian period. Jawless fish and
the fish with bony plates did not survive this period. The continents were continuing to move
and collide. This led to the formation of mountains and climate changes. The North America
landmass joined with present-day Europe and parts of Asia to form the supercontinent
Laurasia. Although Gondwana was most likely still positioned near the South Pole; Laurasia
was located near the equator and its inhabitants experienced tropical climate conditions.
The Carboniferous period is named for the "coal bearing" swamps and forests that covered
most of the land. Large amounts of coal deposits developed in wet and tropical climate. The
Carboniferous period is divided into the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods. The
movement along plate boundaries led to the formation of the Appalachian
Mountains. Insects and the earliest reptiles resembling lizards also evolved.
The last period in the Paleozoic Era is called the Permian period. Plate tectonic activity
pushed all of Earth's landmasses together to form the supercontinent Pangaea.
Changes in the environment and climate when the continents joined together affected
animals so much that over 90% of all the species became extinct. This was the largest
mass extinction in Earth's history. One theory states that the majority of organisms were not
able to adapt to the rapid changes in temperature. The summers were very hot and the
winters were very cold. Coastal boundaries that were once bordering the ocean were now
next to another landmass. This led to the development of deserts and many marine animals
died because their coastline did not exist anymore. Another theory suggests that volcanic
eruptions released debris and gases into the atmosphere to block out the sun. This affected
the food chain because photosynthesizing plants were not able to provide nourishment for
other animals. Watch and take notes from the "What is the Paleozoic Era" video. You can
access the video from the sidebar. Read the article "Cambrian Explosion" located on the
sidebar to learn more about this era.
Click on the Timeline below to review some of the major events that happen during the
Paleozoic Era. Millions of years ago = mya
55
History of Life I Quiz
Mesozoic Era
The Mesozoic Era is known as the "Age of Reptiles". Many reptiles were able to survive in
the environment created at the end of the Permian era. Crocodiles, snakes, lizards, turtles,
and the dinosaurs emerged during the Mesozoic era. The climate was so warm and tropical
that glaciers did not form during this era. The Mesozoic Era is divided into three periods:
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.
The first mammals evolved during the Triassic period. These warm blooded animals
resemble small rodents. Dinosaurs evolved from reptiles. They were most likely the fiercest
and dominant animals to roam the Earth. Their ability to lay amniotic eggs on dry land
instead of in water like amphibians was a great advantage for dinosaurs. Amniotic eggs
contain food and water which allow dinosaurs to leave their eggs as they roam forests full of
conifers and cycads. Fossil records indicate that these gymnosperms, woody cone-bearing
plants, were very common during the Triassic period. Invertebrates called ammonites, a type
of shellfish, are Mesozoic index fossils.
Dinosaurs continued to evolve during the Jurassic period. "Lizard-hipped" and "bird-hipped"
dinosaurs emerged. The Brontosaurus was a type of "lizard-hipped" dinosaur. The
Stegosaurus was a type of "bird-hipped" dinosaur. Both dinosaurs were herbivores. Reptiles
that could fly also evolved during the Jurassic period. The pterosaurs had skin covered
wings whereas some dinosaurs had feathers. The Archaeopteryx was one of the early
ancestors of birds that exist today. The fossil remains of the small feathered dinosaur
indicated that it had reptilian teeth, claws on its wings, and a tail.
The Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the major dinosaurs to dominate the Cretaceous period.
It had huge jaws, sharp teeth, and stood up to 6 meters tall. The horned Triceratops, the
enormous Apatosaurus, and the duck-billed Hadrosaurs were some other common
Cretaceous dinosaurs. The earliest flowering plants, angiosperms, evolved during the
Cretaceous period. Maples, oaks, magnolias, and willows were some of the most common
types of trees during this period.
A mass extinction occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period. All of the dinosaurs,
ammonites, and many large land animals became extinct. The impact hypothesis suggests
that a large meteorite struck the Earth. The impact of the collision created enough dust to
block out the sun's rays for many years. Dinosaurs starve and perish when plants die.
Scientists have found traces of iridium within the Earth's crust. The concentration of iridium
is much greater in meteorites compared to Earth's rocks. Another hypothesis for the
extinction of dinosaurs is volcanic activity. The movement of tectonic plates may have led to
the drastic change in the climate and environment. Watch and take notes from the "What is
the Mesozoic Era" video. You can access the video from the sidebar
There have been several mass extinctions throughout the history of the Earth. One occurred
at the end of the Paleozoic Era when nearly 95% of plant and animal life in the seas
disappeared. The most famous mass extinction probably happened 65 million years ago
when the dinosaurs disappeared. Many other plants and animals became extinct at the
same time. Whatever triggered the extinction of the dinosaurs also caused the death of
nearly 70% of all the other species on Earth. Read the article on "How did mammals survive
the extinction of dinosaurs?" located on the sidebar.
56
Mass Extinction Discussion

It is now time to complete the "Mass Extinction" discussion. Please cite at least one
reference to support your answer to the following questions:
Why were some animals able to survive a mass extinction?

What type of advantageous characteristic did they have to enable them to survive a
mass extinction?
Once you have completed your responses, follow your teacher's instructions for submitting
your work.
We live in the Cenozoic Era. It is known as the "Age of Mammals". Warm blooded mammals
began to evolve after the Cretaceous mass extinction. Body hair as well as complex lungs
and hearts allowed them to adapt and thrive in their new environment. Mammals could
survive in very cold and hot climates. Mammals were the dominant life-forms during the
Cenozoic era. The Cenozoic era consists of two periods: Tertiary and Quaternary.
During the Tertiary period, Pangaea began to break apart and form the continents that exist
today. Tectonic plates collide to form the Alps, the Rockies, and Himalayas mountains. The
global climate became cooler and drier. Grasslands, cone-bearing trees, and hardwood
trees flourish in these new conditions. Glaciers began to form in Antarctica as the
temperatures across the world began to decrease and because of its new location.
Many new species of animals evolved in the oceans and on land. Fossil records provide
evidence of the first whale, flying squirrels, bats, pigs, and camels. Grass grazing mammals
such as the ancestors of horses and cattle, deer, and giant sloths developed flat molars that
very useful for chewing. The earliest saber-toothed cat, wolves, and foxes evolved sharp
teeth for tearing and cutting their prey.
Fossil evidence indicates that the earliest modern humans, Homo sapiens, emerged during
the Quaternary period. Scientists believe modern humans evolved from ancestors in Africa
more than 150,000 years ago. Humans and animals are present worldwide because the last
ice age produced a land bridge. The land bridge connected North America with Asia. It
enabled humans to migrate from one landmass to another. The Quaternary period consists
of several epochs. We are living in the Holocene Epoch. Watch and take notes from the
"What is the Cenozoic Era" video. You can access the video from the sidebar.
Georgia's Geologic History

The Blue Ridge Mountains in North Georgia are made up of rocks that are approximately
one billion years old. This region consists of metamorphic and igneous rocks. The highest
natural point among the Blue Ridge mountain region is Brasstown Bald. The summit on
Brasstown Bald has been worn away by erosion to expose very old rocks. The metamorphic
rocks that make up the summit began as sedimentary rocks during the Precambrian. The
Brasstown Bald summit consists of metamorphic rocks that are among the oldest rocks in
Georgia. The Blue Ridge mountains are also a section of the southern Appalachians
mountains that formed almost 500 million years ago. Mountains developed from the collision
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between the tectonic plates that made up Africa and North Amercia during the formation of
Pangaea.
Recall that the majority of fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. Shale and limestone are
sedimentary rocks that can be found in Georgia. Many plant fossils from the late
Carboniferous period, have been found in "black" shale located in northwest Georgia. This
region is also known as the "sedimentary region" because the rocks and minerals that
developed in that area. During the Paleozoic era sand, mud, plants, and marine life were
deposited in the shallow seas that are now the rocky beds of sandstone, shale, coal and
limestone. While some fossils formed in mud which became shale, other fossils formed in
limestone.
Many different types of fossils have been found in limestone along the Coastal Plain region
of Georgia. Scientists have found the fossil remains of corals, clams, oysters, and reptiles.
Ancient whales and shark fossil from about 40 million years ago have also been found in the
Coastal Plain. Fossils are more likely to be found in Northwest Georgia because they were
not destroyed by heat and pressure.
Life and Environment Relationships

Stone Mountain, azaleas, and box turtles have something in common. They all share the
humid sub-tropical climate in Georgia. They are also a part of the same biome. What is a
biome? Do you know what type of biome you live in? How does climate affect a biome? In
this module you will learn about the characteristics and features of the different biomes on
our planet.
What is meant by the term biome?

What are the primary factors that influence biome distribution?
What are the major biomes on our planet?
Module Minute
If you live in Georgia then you live in the temperate forest biome. It consists of dogwood
trees, green tree frogs, and the Blue Ridge Mountains. These living and nonliving things are
a part of the ecosystems that make up a biome. A biome is a combination of ecosystems
that share a similar climate, plants, and animals. The two types of aquatic biomes are
freshwater and marine. The main types of terrestrial biomes are grassland, tundra, desert,
tropical rainforest, and forest. Climate helps determine what types of plants and animals can
survive in a biome. Climate also affects the formation of landmass in different regions. Polar
bears are found in the cold, icy, and treeless Arctic tundra. Brown bears snack on berries in
the temperate deciduous forest.
Key Terms
Biome - A major ecological community characterized by the plants, animals and climate in
that area.
Climate - The average weather or the regular variations in weather in a region over a period
of years.
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Longitude - The angular distance east or west of the prime meridian that stretches from the
North Pole to the South Pole
Latitude - An imaginary line joining points on Earth's surface that are all of equal distance
north or south of the equator
Littoral zone - A nutrient rich area around the shore where aquatic life is diverse and
abundant.
Open water zone - The area away from the shore that gets enough sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Benthic zone - The lowest level of a body of water.
Ecosystem - A community of living organisms and along with the nonliving components of
their environment.
What to Expect
Biomes Discussion
Biomes from Around the World Lab
Biomes Quiz
Life and Environmental Relationships Test
Biomes
Climate regions on earth are divided into what we refer to as biomes. A biome is a region
with distinctive climactic conditions. It is also characterized by the particular organisms that
live within that region. Our planet contains several distinct biomes. Forests are areas that are
predominated by large trees. There are four distinct types of forest biomes: tropical rain
forests, temperate rain forests, temperate deciduous forests, and taigas. Tropical rain forests
occur in a belt around the Earth near the equator. The defining characteristics of this biome
are the large diversity of organisms, high humidity, heavy rainfall, and the fact that there is
little seasonal variation in climate and temperature due to proximity to the equator.
Temperate rain forests are found in North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand.
The key characteristics of this biome are cool temperatures and heavy rainfall. In North
America almost 2/3 of the temperate rain forests are located in the Pacific Northwest. It
contains mostly conifer trees and has a very large biomass (total amount of living things).
Temperate deciduous forests generally occur between 30 and 50 north latitude. Temperate
deciduous forests used to cover a large portion of North America, Europe, and Asia. The
defining characteristics of this biome are that most trees lose their leaves in the fall. There
are also extreme seasonal variations in climate and temperature such as moderate to heavy
rainfall. In North America, it contains mostly broadleaf trees such as oaks and maples. It is
located primarily in the eastern half of North America. The color of the leaves change as the
season changes. It serves as the habitat for the American black bear, bald eagle, and
Eastern cottontail.
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The taiga is the last type of forest biome. This biome, which can also be called the northern
coniferous forest, stretches in a band across the northern hemisphere and just below the
Arctic Circle. Important characteristics of the taiga include long, very cold winters, a short
growing season, constant daylight during the summer, and most precipitation that falls is in
the form of snow.
Grasslands are areas that are defined by an abundance of perennial grasses. There are two
distinct types of grassland biomes: tropical grasslands and temperate grasslands. Tropical
grasslands, or savannas, are found in the West African plains in areas around the equator
that get too little rain for many trees to grow. The key characteristic of this biome is that the
vast majority of precipitation that this biome receives falls during one certain time of the year.
Temperate grassland biomes include prairies, steppes, and pampas and are found in the
interiors of continents where there is not enough rain for trees to grow. Temperate
grasslands have the most fertile soil of all the biomes.
The chaparral is a biome that is found in mid-latitudes, primarily in coastal areas with
Mediterranean climates. Characteristics of the chaparral include hot - dry summers, mild wet winters, and little variation in seasonal temperatures. Desert biomes are defined as
areas that receive less than 25 cm of precipitation per year. Contrary to what many people
think, deserts can be hot or cold.
The tundra is a biome devoid of tall trees that is located north of the Arctic Circle. Defining
characteristics of the tundra include short summers which results in a short growing season,
a layer of permafrost, permanently frozen soil, and very little rainfall.
Aquatic Biomes
Aquatic Biomes are biomes that exist within or directly around bodies of water and can be
divided into freshwater and marine biomes. Freshwater biomes include lakes and ponds,
wetlands, and rivers. Marine biomes include estuaries, coral reefs, oceans, and polar. Lakes
and ponds can be divided into three zones. The littoral zone is a nutrient rich area around
the shore where aquatic life is diverse and abundant. The open water zone is the area away
from the shore that gets enough sunlight for photosynthesis. The benthic zone is at the
bottom of a body of water.
Wetlands are areas of land that are covered with water for at least part of the year. There
are two main types: marshes which contain non-woody plants, and swamps which contain
woody plants or shrubs.
The most important aspect of rivers is that the characteristics of the water in rivers changes
greatly from one area of the river to another. Plants and animals found in rivers are all
uniquely adapted to the particular part of a river that they inhabit
Estuaries are areas where fresh water from rivers mixes with salt water from the ocean.
Estuaries are one of the most productive ecosystems because they contain plenty of light
and nutrients.
Coral Reefs are limestone islands in the sea that are built by coral animals called polyps.
Coral reefs have high species diversity, are found in shallow, tropical areas, and their outer
layer is made up of living corals.
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Oceans cover almost 75% of the surface of the Earth. Almost 90% of the plant and animal
life in oceans is concentrated in the shallower water around the continents. The open ocean
is one of the least productive of all of the ecosystems in the world. Polar biomes are
considered marine because almost all food is provided by the ocean. The Arctic and
Antarctic are polar biomes.
Georgia's Biome
Georgia is made up of several ecosystems. The bottomland forest and the Longleaf pine are
two types of ecosystems in Georgia. Both are located in the Coastal Plain region. The
bottomland forest is an example of a swamp like forest ecosystem. It consists of many types
of birds, amphibians, and reptiles. The ecosystem also consists of cypress and blackgum
trees along the edge of Ebenezer Creek. It is also classified as a wetland ecosystem
because it is an area of land that is saturated with water. Wetlands can include swamps,
salt marshes, and bogs.
The Longleaf pine ecosystem is the home of a variety of animals and plants. The black
bear, gopher tortoise, and orchids are a few of the inhabitants in this ecosystem.
The trees in Georgia's forest ecosystems provide a lot of lumber for industries throughout
the country. Georgia's ecosystems are a part of the mid-latitude mixed forest biome. The
ecosystems within these biomes experience a humid subtropical climate. The mid-latitude
mixed forest biome covers most of the eastern United States.
Weather and Climate

Have you ever watched the Weather Channel? It is great for individuals who are traveling
from one city to another. It may be raining in Atlanta but sunny in Philadelphia. Therefore the
weather where you live may be totally different than the place you are traveling to. Your local
weather news station lets you know if you should expect rain or sunny skies each day of the
week. In this module, you will learn how factors such as ocean currents, topography, and air
currents affect weather patterns. You will also learn the similarities and differences between
weather and climate.
What impact does latitude have on solar insolation?

What is the difference between weather and climate?
What impact does latitude have on atmospheric and ocean currents which
redistribute heat globally?
How does topography impact atmospheric and ocean currents?
How do air currents influence weather patterns?
How does topography influence weather patterns?
How do ocean currents influence weather patterns?
What are the primary reservoirs of water on earth?
How is water on Earth recycled via the water cycle?
Module Minute
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The climate of a region is determined by the history of its weather patterns. A region's
climate is based on its average weather. Climate is the long term weather that we expect in
a certain region. Weather is the short term condition of the atmosphere in an area at a
particular time. Water, pressure, and temperature have a great impact on weather. Ocean
currents and air currents are created by convection. Bodies of water that have a much
warmer temperature can provide heat and moisture into the air. As warm wind travels across
an ocean it can gather moisture. The water vapor that is collected condenses over land and
descends from a cloud in a form of precipitation. The movement of water within the
hydrosphere is called the water cycle.
Key Terms
Atmosphere - The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth.
Climate - The long-term prevalent weather conditions of an area determined by
meteorological conditions including latitude, temperature, precipitation, and wind in a
particular region.
Coriolis Effect - The observed effect of the Coriolis force, especially the deflection of an
object moving above the earth, rightward in the northern hemisphere and leftward in the
southern hemisphere.
Elevation - The height of something above a given or implied place, especially above sea
level.
Latitude - The location on the Earth that is the angular distance of that location north or
south of the equator
Ozone - A trace gas located in the atmosphere.
Precipitation - Rain, sleet, hail, snow and other forms of water falling from the sky.
Solar Radiation - The radiant energy emitted by a sun as a result of its nuclear fusion
reactions.
Temperature - A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of
matter.
Topography - The surface features of a place or region.
Trade winds - The flow of air back to the equator.
Weather - The state of the atmosphere at a particular time and place.
What to Expect
In this module you will be responsible for completing the following assignments.
Angle of Incidence and Solar Insolation Lab

Factors that Affect Climate Quiz
Analysis of Hurricane Katrina Discussion
Weather and Climate Test
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Climate
Please be patient while video loads.
Source
Climate is the general weather conditions in a region. Climate describes the long-term
physical characteristics of the troposphere in a given place or region. Climate is influenced
by the temperature, air pressure, humidity, precipitation, and air currents in a certain place or
area. Many systems have been used to classify climate around the globe but probably the
most well know and widely used is the Kppen Climate Classification System. This system
uses monthly and annual temperatures and precipitation to distinguish each climate region.
The Kppen Climate Classification Systems divides all of the land masses on earth into five
climate classifications.
Humid tropical climates

Dry climates
Humid mid-latitude climates (temperate)
Polar climates
Highland
Most of the above classifications are defined primarily by their temperature. Dry climates are
also defined by amount of precipitation. Humid tropical climates are regions that are warm all
year long with very little or no seasonal variation. There are two types of humid tropical
climates. Wet tropical regions have high temperatures and rainfall year round. Tropical wet
and dry regions have high temperatures year round and rainy seasons followed by dry
seasons.
Dry climates are regions in which the amount of water lost to evaporation exceeds the
amount of water gained by precipitation. There are two types of dry climates. Arid dry
climates receive very little or no precipitation. Semi-arid dry climates receive little
precipitation.
Humid mid-latitude climates are regions in which there are clear seasonal variations in
temperature. There are two types of humid mid-latitude climates: humid mid-latitude with
mild winters and humid mid-latitude with severe winters. Humid mid-latitude with mild winters
is further subdivided into three categories. Humid subtropical climates have high daytime
temperatures and mild winters. Marine west coast climates have mild summers and winters
with relatively high rainfall. Dry-summer subtropical climates have relatively mild summers
and winters with little precipitation in the summer and heavy precipitation in the winter.
Humid mid-latitude with severe winters is further subdivided into two categories. Humid
continental climates have severe winters and warm summers. Subarctic climates have long,
severe winters and short, warm summers.
Polar Climates are regions in which the average temperature of the warmest months is
below 10 Celsius. There are two main types of polar climates. Tundra climate regions have
few to no trees due largely to a layer of permafrost. Ice cap climate regions are covered by
ice and snow and the monthly temperature average is never above 0 Celsius.
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Highland climates are areas of high elevation that are cooler and wetter than nearby areas of
lower elevation.
Match the climate region with the correct description.
Atmosphere
Climate is determined by analyzing weather patterns over a long period of time. Weather is
constantly changing and it describes the short-term changes in various factors in the
troposphere. Weather is the state of the atmosphere with regard to temperature, cloudiness,
rainfall, wind, and other meteorological conditions. The atmosphere is made up of mostly
nitrogen, and oxygen. The atmosphere also contains a very small percentage of carbon
dioxide, water vapor, and ozone. Although they are present in small amounts in the air,
these substances have an important effect on weather and climate. Water vapor and carbon
dioxide can absorb heat that radiates from the Earth into the atmosphere. This also helps
heat up the surface of the Earth. Water vapor is also responsible for the formation of clouds
and precipitation. The ozone layer regulates the amount of UV radiation that reaches the
surface of the Earth. The depletion of the ozone layer would allow more harmful UV rays
from the sun to heat up the surface of the Earth.
Factors that Affect Climate

There are five primary factors that affect climate:
Latitude (distance from the equator)
Large Bodies of Water (oceans and large lakes)
Air Circulation Patterns
Altitude (elevation above sea level)
Topography (features of the surface of land)
Latitude is one of the primary factors that affect the temperature of a region, and therefore
the climate. The two primary factors that determine climate are precipitation and
temperature. Solar insolation is a measure of the quantity of solar radiation received on the
surface of the earth in a particular region or space at a particular time. Solar insolation is
often measured in kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/m/d). Latitude impacts
solar insolation because as latitude increases the angle of incidence or the angle at which
the sun's rays strike the surface of the earth decreases. The planet is categorized into three
climate zones according to latitude.
Tropical zone occurs between 23.5 south latitude and 23.5 north latitude forming a belt
around the earth just above and below the equator. On the equator the angle of incidence is
90 as the sun is perpendicular to the surface of the earth. Therefore, the tropical zone
remains warm year round with very little seasonal variation.
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Temperate zone occurs between 23.5 and 66.5 north and south latitude forming two belts,
one north of the equator and one south of the equator. In this zone the average angle of
incidence is approximately 45. Although temperature remains relatively moderate in this
zone there are definite seasonal variations between summer and winter.
Polar zone occurs from 66.5north to the North Pole and from 66.5south to the South Pole.
In this zone the average angle of incidence is approximately 15.
Due to the tilt of the Earth's axis the angle at which the sun's rays hit the surface of the Earth
changes as the Earth orbits the sun. The Northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun
during the winter thereby receiving less solar energy and tilted towards the sun during the
summer months thereby receiving more solar energy. The Southern hemisphere is tilted
toward the sun during the winter thereby receiving more solar energy and tilted away from
the sun during the summer months thereby receiving less solar energy.
Altitude has an impact on climate as a result of the three distinct properties of air. Air cools
as it rises and warms as it sinks. Areas at higher altitudes are colder than areas at lower
altitudes. Warm air holds more water vapor than cold air. The air at high altitudes is normally
very dry and there is little to no precipitation.
Topographical features such as mountain ranges can have an impact on climate by
influencing how air masses travel and the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed or
reflected. When an air mass encounters a mountain range, the air mass is forced to rise up
and over the mountain range. As the air rises it cools and the water vapor in the air
condenses into precipitation. By the time the air mass reaches the top of the mountain, most
or all of the water vapor in the air has been lost to precipitation. Therefore the air that flows
down the other side of the mountain is very dry and the "shadowed" side of the mountain
receives very little or no precipitation. This phenomenon is called the Rain Shadow Effect.
Please watch the video in the sidebar to learn more about the Rain Shadow Effect and the
other five factors that affect climate. Follow along and take notes as necessary. Directions
on how to access the video are located on the sidebar.
Angle of Incidence and Solar Insolation Lab
Ocean Currents
Large bodies of water help to moderate the climate of the Earth for a number of reasons.
Water has a higher specific heat than land. Therefore, the temperature of water changes
much more slowly than the temperature of land. Specific heat is the amount of energy
required to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 Celsius. Large bodies of
water continuously circulate replacing warm water near the surface with cooler water from
greater depths. Ocean current temperatures have an impact on heat being absorbed and
released by the air. For example, the warm Gulf Stream current that travels north from the
equator causes northwestern Europe to have a high average temperature relative to the
latitude of the region. The circulation of ocean currents carries warm water from the equator
to higher latitudes; thus warming the air as they move north and south toward the poles. The
colder water from higher latitudes then circulates back toward the equator and cools the air.
Wind is the primary mover of ocean waters.
Ocean currents are similar to air circulation patterns because they are greatly impacted by
latitude. The continuous circulation of ocean currents is a key factor in the maintenance of
the Earth's climate by helping to redistribute heat energy from the sun around the globe.
Warm ocean currents move from areas of lower latitude to areas of higher latitude. As these
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currents move north or south toward the poles they release solar energy into the atmosphere
thus warming the air.
The Gulf Stream is one prominent example of a warm ocean current. The Gulf Stream
current begins in the Caribbean where direct sunlight warms the air and oceans. The current
flows into the Gulf of Mexico, exits the Gulf through the Strait of Florida, and then flows up
the eastern coast of the United States towards Newfoundland. South of Newfoundland the
current crosses the Atlantic Ocean and becomes the North Atlantic Current. It then splits into
a northern current which travels to Europe and a southern current which travels to West
Africa. The Gulf Stream current is largely responsible for the mild climate of Western
Europe.
Cold ocean currents move from areas of higher latitude to areas of lower latitude. As these
currents move toward the equator they absorb solar energy from the atmosphere thus
cooling the air. The Coriolis Effect causes water to be deflected in a clockwise direction in
the northern hemisphere and a counterclockwise direction the southern hemisphere.
Source
Air Currents
There are three basic properties of air. Warm air rises and cools as it rises. Cool air sinks
and warms as it sinks. Warm air holds more water vapor than cold air. Differences in solar
insolation at different latitudes result in areas of high and low pressure in the troposphere.
These variations in air pressure create wind currents that circulate solar energy around the
globe. The air is cool and cold at higher latitudes. The air near the poles has areas of higher
pressure because the air is denser. The air is warm and less dense at lower latitudes. There
are areas of low pressure near the equator because the air is less dense. Click on the
animation below to watch how air moves in the troposphere.
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In areas of low pressure near the equator, the air rises and cools causing water vapor in the
air to condense. Therefore these regions receive a lot of precipitation. In the region between
about 20 and 30 degrees latitude, dry air sinks and warms. Therefore these regions receive
little precipitation. In regions between about 45 and 60 degrees latitude, cold air from the
poles meets warm air from the equator. This causes water vapor in the warm air to
condense resulting in belts of precipitation in these regions. In areas of high pressure, the
air remains cold and dry. Therefore, these regions receive little precipitation.
Within the earth's troposphere there are six large air masses called convection cells that
continuously circulate air around the globe. Three of these convection cells are located in the
southern hemisphere and three are located in the northern hemisphere. The constant
circulation of convection cell currents results from the Coriolis Effect. Due to the fact that the
earth is spherical, as it rotates on its axis lower latitude areas spin more quickly than higher
latitude areas. This causes warm air masses that have risen above the lower latitude areas
and begun moving north and south toward the poles to be deflected east or west causing
horizontal as well as vertical circulation.
Click on the Coriolis Effect interactive to observe the Coriolis Effect on an object moving
across the Earth.
Severe Weather
Thunderstorms are caused by the vertical movements of warm air. The development of a
thunderstorm occurs in three stages:
Cumulus stage- upward movement of air provides moist wind

Mature stage- heavy precipitation is released from a cumulonimbus cloud; blustery
winds, heavy rainfall, and hail can be produced
Dissipating stage- downward movement of air causes the thunderstorm to end
In the United States the western half of the country has the littlest thunderstorm activity
because warm, moist tropical air seldom hits this area.
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Tornadoes are much more common between the months of April and June when the air is
warmer. Tornadoes normally form with harsh thunderstorms. Strong thunderstorm updrafts
cause a vertical cylinder of rotating air, a mesocyclone, to form. Even if a mesocyclone
occurs, a tornado will not always follow.
Hurricanes develop during late summers when water reaches a warm enough temperature
and the air is full of moisture. Hurricanes are formed over the ocean by an inward rush of
warm, moist surface air that moves towards the center of a thunderstorm.
The air then rises upward to form a ring of cumulonimbus clouds. The wall that is created
from the air rising is called an eye wall. The eye is the center of the hurricane. This is where
winds and precipitations cease. It is the only calm spot in the storm. The intensity of
hurricanes tends to weaken when they move over cool water and land.
Please watch the video to learn more about the properties and characteristics of hurricanes.
After you watch the video, view and answer the questions to the interactive video simulations
that are located to the right of the video titled Hurricane Katrina - Environmental
Consequences and Hurricane Katrina - Recipe for Disaster.
Matter and Energy Cycles

Have you ever driven down a highway and saw cows grazing in a pasture? The cows were
doing more than just enjoying a good meal as they swat flies with their tails. They were also
contributing to the carbon dioxide-oxygen cycle. You may already know that cows breathe in
oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. When cows eat grass they are also allowing carbon into
their bodies. In this module, you will learn more about the carbon cycle. You will also learn
about how matter and energy flows through the nitrogen cycle and phosphorus cycle.
How does matter cycle in an ecosystem?

What does the greenhouse effect have to do with the Carbon Cycle and the Oxygen
Cycle
Module Minute
Earth's major spheres are the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. These
spheres all work together to support life on Earth. Nutrients such as carbon, phosphorus,
and nitrogen move throughout Earth's spheres. Carbon is transferred among all four spheres
in a process called the carbon cycle. Animals can obtain carbon in their diet by eating plants.
When these animals die they are releasing carbon back into the atmosphere or their remains
stay inside the ground. Over a long period of time, the remains can become fossil fuels.
Animals can also obtain nitrogen and phosphorus by consuming plants. Phosphorus enters
plants through their roots. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria help legumes attain nitrogen through their
roots. The cycling of nutrients helps transport matter and energy between the four spheres of
the Earth.
Key Terms
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Photosynthesis - The process green plants use to convert carbon dioxide, water, and light
energy into oxygen and carbohydrates.
Respiration - A series of metabolic processes in which the cell produces energy in the form
of ATP.
Nitrogen fixation - The process that involves converting nitrogen gas into useful nitrogen
compounds for plants and animals.
Nitrification - The process of converting ammonia into nitrites and then into nitrates, which
can be absorbed and used by plants.
Denitrification - The process of converting nitrates back into nitrogen gas in the
atmosphere.
Assimilation - Living organisms take up nitrogen.
Ammonification - Ammonium ions bind to soil particles.
Nitrifying bacteria - A bacteria that converts ammonium ions into nitrite ions.
What to Expect
In this module, you will be responsible for completing the following assignments.
Cookie Coal Mining Lab

Down on the Farm Assignment
Crop Rotation Discussion
Biochemical Cycles Quiz
Matter and Energy Cycles Test
Carbon Cycle and Oxygen Cycle

There are several elements necessary for the survival of life on Earth. The elements occur
naturally and are constantly recycled through Earth's major spheres: the hydrosphere,
atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. There are four major biochemical cycles. The
oxygen cycle is continuously moving oxygen among the atmosphere, water, plants, animals,
and the Earth's crust. Therefore oxygen is not only present in the atmosphere; but it also
available as dissolved oxygen in water to support aquatic organisms. Aquatic animals need
oxygen to survive as much as humans need oxygen to breathe. Photosynthesis is the major
process that releases oxygen into the environment. Green plants take in carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and water from the environment along with energy from the sun. Then the
green plants release oxygen into the atmosphere. Click on the video icon below to learn
more about Photosynthesis.
Oxygen can exist alone in the atmosphere as a diatomic molecule or it can combine with
another element such as hydrogen to make H2O, a water molecule. About 70% of the Earth
is covered with water. Compounds such as nuclei acids, proteins, cellulose, and
carbohydrates also contain the element oxygen. With the exception of cellulose, these
compounds can be found in both plants and animals. Over half of Earth's lithosphere
contains minerals combined with oxygen. Recall that the mantle makes up about 70% of the
Earth's mass. Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron can be found within the mantle. Almost
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all of our planet's rocks contain compounds that consist of oxygen. Hematite is a metallic
mineral from the iron oxides mineral group. It is used to make steel and jewelry. Hematite
can be found in all three types of rocks. Sedimentary rocks such as limestone, sandstone,
and shale also contain oxygen.
The carbon cycle and the oxygen cycle are interconnected. Nearly all living things need
oxygen. Just about all living and non-living things are made up of carbon. The most
common reservoirs that transport carbon and oxygen as they cycle are the atmosphere,
marine, terrestrial, and lithosphere. The greatest amount of carbon is stored in the
lithosphere. The shells or skeletons of marine animals are made of calcite. When marine
animals die, their shells or skeletons settle to the ocean floor and over time become a
sedimentary rock called limestone. If this rock reaches the Earth's surface and undergoes
chemical weathering, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Respiration, also called cellular respiration, is one of two major processes that also release
carbon into the environment. Animals, which include humans, take in the glucose and
oxygen produced by photosynthesis. Through cellular respiration, animals then release
carbon dioxide and water.
Combustion is the other major process by which carbon is released into the
environment. Natural combustion includes volcanic eruptions. Humans are responsible for
pollution problems due to combustion from cars, factories, and the burning of fossil fuels. A
fossil fuel is any combustible organic matter derived from the decomposed remains of plants
and animals that was created by the extremely high amounts of heat and pressure within the
Earth. Petroleum, oil, natural gas, peat, and coal are examples of fossil fuels. They are
used to produce energy.
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Decomposition is another process by which carbon dioxide is returned to the

atmosphere. Fungi and bacteria are called decomposers. Decomposers break down,
remove, and recycle carbon from the rotting remains of dead plants and animals. Therefore
carbon can be found in the atmosphere, oceans, alive as well as deceased organisms, and
rocks. Click on the video icon below to learn more about the steps in the carbon
cycle.
Nitrogen Cycle
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids contain one of the most
abundant elements on our planet; nitrogen. It is an essential nutrient for humans. The human
body needs proteins to build, maintain, and repair tissues or cells. Protein is found in our
hair, skin, nails, muscles, blood and DNA. The nitrogen cycle has several
components. Click on the video icon to view the steps in the nitrogen cycle.
One of the components of the nitrogen cycle is the atmosphere. Nitrogen exists as a gas in
the atmosphere. Nitrogen enters the atmosphere due to the combustion of fossil fuels and
forest fires. Plants are another component of the nitrogen cycle. They absorb nitrogen as a
nitrate. The nitrogen becomes a part of the plant tissue. Animals consume plants to obtain
nitrogen. Animals can obtain nitrogen directly by eating plants or indirectly by eating another
animal that ate the plant. Decomposers are a major component of the nitrogen cycle. Fungi
and bacteria return phosphorus to soil when plants and animals die. It is important to note
that certain nitrogen fixing bacteria are essential to the nitrogen cycle because they "fix" the
bacteria so it can be used by other organisms. Water also plays a role in the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen enters lakes and rivers via runoff. Human activities help return nitrogen to the
atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Click on the Nitrogen Cycle interactive below to learn
more about the steps of the nitrogen cycle.
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorous is also an essential element for living organisms. It is critical for cellular
energy. It makes up part of the DNA and RNA molecules. There are several components of
the phosphorus cycle. Plants absorb phosphorous from water and soil. Phosphorous then
becomes part of the plant's tissue. Animals consume phosphorous directly from plants or
indirectly when they eat other animals that have eaten plants. Fungi and bacteria are
decomposers. Fungi & bacteria return phosphorus to soil when plants and animals
die. Water moves phosphorous from one ecosystem to another. Phosphorus often settles
at the bottom of lakes to become sedimentary rocks such as limestone. Rocks rich in
phosphorous erode releasing the nutrient into the soil. Phosphoric rocks are mined by
humans. Humans also use phosphorous as a fertilizer for crops.
Human Impact
What are carbon footprints? It is not the same footprints you leave behind on a wet floor or
along a beach. Your carbon footprint is the amount of all the greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide, which were produced by your actions in a given time frame. These greenhouse
gases can have a negative impact on our planet. In this module, you will learn how we can
reduce our carbon footprint by using alternate energy sources.
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How do organisms that lived millions of years ago become the fossil fuels of today?
What is the greenhouse effect?
What is global warming?
How do the greenhouse effect and global warming differ from one another?
What are some alternate energy sources instead of fossil fuels?
Module Minute
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are greenhouse gases. Water
vapor occurs naturally whereas nitrous oxide is produced by burning fossil fuels.
Automobiles, factories, and forest fires are a few ways greenhouse gases are emitted into
the atmosphere. When these gases accumulate in the atmosphere, radiation is unable to
escape from the Earth's surface. Sunlight is able to enter but its heat is trapped in Earth's
atmosphere. This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect. This causes the Earth's
surface and atmosphere to become much warmer. This increase in temperature is called
global warming. We can use less fossil fuel by depending more on alternative energy
sources. Solar energy is the most abundant type of renewable resource. Alternate energy
sources can help reduce our carbon footprint.
Key Terms
Fossil fuels - They are made of hydrocarbons that have been formed from the organic
remains of prehistoric plants and animals.
Renewable resource - A resource that can be renewed as quickly as it is used up.
Nonrenewable resource - Any natural resource from the Earth that exists in limited supply
and cannot be replenished by natural means at the same rates that it is consumed.
Global Warming - The increase in the average global temperatures as a result of an
increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Effect - A natural process in which solar radiation is absorbed by greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere thereby warming the Earth's atmosphere and surface.
La Nina - The cool water phase of ENSO.
El Nino- The warm water phase of ENSO.
What to Expect
In this module, you will be responsible for completing the following assignments.
Greenhouse Effect Assignment

Energy Demands Discussion
Solar Oven Lab
Human Impact Test
Fossil Fuels
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Our main sources for energy are largely dependent upon fossil fuels. They are used to heat
and/or cool homes, produce electricity, and provide fuel for transportation. Fossil fuels are
hydrocarbons that have been formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and
animals. The three types of fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas.
Coal is a solid fossil fuel that forms when heat and pressure change a plant material. This
process usually takes millions of years to form in sedimentary rocks. Coal is mostly carbon
with small amounts of sulfur and mercury. The formation of coal goes through four stages:
peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. Anthracite is the most desirable because it
produces the most heat with the least amount of smoke compared to the other types of
coal. Anthracite has the greatest amount of carbon content and the lowest sulfur content.
Bituminous is the most commonly used type of coal for electric power in the United States.
Coal is extracted from underground mines which is detrimental to the environment and is
very dangerous for the miners. Burning coal pollutes the air with sulfur oxide, which in turn
causes sulfuric acid to eventually fall to the ground in the form of acid precipitation. Coal
produced about 42% of the electricity in the U.S. in 2011. The burning of coal supplies the
energy to operate steam turbines that produce electricity. Coal is the world's most abundant
fossil fuel; but it is not as versatile as oil and natural gas.
Oil is a highly viscous liquid that can be used for heating, gasoline, and asphalt.
There are three geological processes that ultimately led to the existence of oil. Organic
materials were buried by sediments faster than they were able to decay. Sea floors
containing these sediments were subjected to the right amount of pressure and heat to turn
the organic material into oil. Over time, oil collected in porous limestone or sandstone was
capped off by shale or silt which kept it from escaping. Oil can be used to make a variety of
products such as gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and plastics. When oil is burned, CO2 is
released into the atmosphere which contributes to global warming.
Natural gas is often found above crude oil reservoirs and is composed primarily of methane.
It is a gaseous fossil fuel. Although natural gas is a valuable energy resource, it is often
wasted when it is burned off as a by-product of oil drilling. Natural gas is a versatile fossil
fuel which could be used in fuel powered vehicles in place of gasoline with some engine
modifications. When burned, natural gas produces less CO2 per unit of energy than either
oil or coal. Since natural gas is still relatively abundant it is likely that the use of natural gas
will increase.
Watch and take notes from the Formation of Fossil Fuels video in the sidebar to learn more
about how fossil fuels are made.
Greenhouse Gases
The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which solar radiation is absorbed by
greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere thereby warming the Earth's atmosphere and
surface. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons,
and methane. Absorption of small quantities of radiation is good, because it provides the
warmth needed on Earth for living organisms to survive. Without the greenhouse effect the
average temperature of the earth would be between -15 C and -20 C. If greenhouse gases
absorb too much radiation the result is an acceleration or enhancement of the greenhouse
effect which could cause an increase in the average temperature of the Earth.
The destruction of wetlands, forests, and grasslands releases nitrogen dioxide into the
atmosphere. Any process that requires the burning of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides
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into the atmosphere. When nitrogen oxides react with oxygen in the atmosphere nitrous
oxide, a greenhouse gas is formed. Nitrogen oxides can also react with water vapor in the
atmosphere to form nitric acid which contributes to acid precipitation. Since some nitrogen
compounds act as greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the release of excess nitrogen
contributes to global warming.
Much of the sulfur on earth is stored in rocks and under deep ocean sediments. Sulfur is
produced naturally in areas where anaerobic decomposition occurs such as in tidal flats,
swamps, and bogs. Additionally, sulfur is released from volcanoes. Dimethyl sulfide, which
helps to facilitate condensation of water vapor in clouds, is produced by some types of
marine algae. Burning of coal, oil refining, and the production of metals from ores are all
processes that release sulfur into the environment. Excess sulfur oxides in the atmosphere
can react with water vapor which results in sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid then returns to the
earth's surface in the form of acid precipitation.
Despite the fact that water is the most important resource on earth, it is also the most poorly
managed. Various human activities waste and pollute large quantities of the earth's
water. We remove large amounts of fresh water from surface water and groundwater
supplies. Deforestation increases runoff which reduces the amount of water that undergoes
infiltration and increases flooding.
Global Warming
The following natural processes can change the climate.
Volcanic eruptions
Ocean circulation
Plate tectonics
Earth's orbital motions
Solar activity
Volcanoes emit aerosols into the atmosphere. This affects the amount of sunlight reflected
back into space, which can cause the Earth's temperatures to fluctuate. Changes in the
ocean's water currents can cause short-term climate variations. The moving of plate
tectonics can have long term effects on climate. The formation of mountains can cool the
climate by removing carbon dioxide from the air. The Earth's orbit as well as tilt changes
over time which can also have an effect on time scales. The Earth's orbit rotates between
being more and less elliptical. This affects the distance from the sun, which then changes
climate. On average, the amount of solar radiation given off by the sun increases over
time. The presence or absence of sunspots can have a short term impact on climate. A
sunspot is a dark, cooler region on the surface of the sun. They may reduce the amount of
solar energy that reaches the Earth.
Global warming is an increase in average global temperatures as a result of an increase in
the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities. Since
the Industrial Revolution, scientists have seen a drastic increase in the concentrations of
many greenhouses gases, most notably CO2 and CH4. Scientists make predictions about
future effects of global warming by using climate models. Climate models are complex
computer programs that include temperature, precipitation, as well as other variables
affecting temperature. Climate models are simply an estimate, because scientists could not
possibly include all information. Global warming is a self-perpetuating cycle. Warmer surface
area causes higher evaporation, which causes an increase of water vapor. Higher
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temperatures also cause ice caps to melt, which may be due to more solar radiation
reaching the Earth.
There is a great deal of controversy among scientists regarding whether global climate
change or global warming is occurring. If it is occurring, what effect might it have on the
frequency and intensity of severe storms? One important characteristic that severe storms
have in common is that they form primarily in warm, humid atmospheric conditions. When
the average global temperature rises, even by a small margin, this causes ocean
temperatures to rise over time. The combination of warmer air currents and warmer ocean
temperatures causes the rate of evaporation of ocean water to increase. This leads to more
water vapor in the atmosphere. Based upon these factors, many scientists argue that even
a small increase in average global temperature will lead to a marked increase in both the
frequency and intensity of severe storms.
El Nio - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a good indicator of the effect of climate change on
weather patterns. ENSO describes a cyclical pattern through which air and water currents
continuously change. ENSO has two components. El Nio is the warm water phase of
ENSO. During this phase, warming of surface water temperatures down the west coast of
South America alters global climate patterns. Severe weather events such as hurricanes and
floods are more common during this time. La Nia is the cool water phase of ENSO. During
this phase, cooling of surface water temperatures down the west coast of South America
decreases the frequency of severe weather events such as hurricanes and floods.
Energy Demands Discussion

The Industrial Revolution had an impact on the amount of fossil fuel emissions released into
the environment. Advancements in agriculture, transportation, and industry occurred during
the Industrial Revolution. Farmers benefited from the use of clover and legumes which
helped improved the fertility of soil. They also began using metal instead of wood in farming
equipment. Both processes helped increase food production. What were some more
developments accomplished during the Industrial Revolution? How has the climate changed
due to technological improvements? What does the greenhouse effect have to do with
climate change? Once you have completed your responses, follow your teacher's
instructions for submitting your work.
Alternate Energy
Fossil fuels release sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and man-made carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. The world's primary source of energy is fossil fuels. Research has shown that
their availability is quickly declining as the world's population continues to increase. Fossil
fuels are nonrenewable resources. They cannot be recycled and replenished as fast as they
are consumed. Renewable resources can be replenished as quickly as they are
consumed. They are available within a few months to years compared to the millions of
years it takes a fossil fuel to form. Solar energy, hydropower, and wind energy are some
examples renewable resources. These forms of alternate energy are safer and cleaner.
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Solar energy does not pollute our environment or contribute to global warming. Solar energy
is the most abundant source of energy on Earth. The sun can provide not only heat but also
electricity. Solar panels collect the sun's rays and convert them into electricity. Solar
collectors also absorb sunlight which is used to heat homes, air, and water.
Hydropower takes the energy from moving water and transforms it into electricity. This form
of renewable energy is one of the oldest sources of energy. People have been using the
energy from hydroelectric plants for thousands of years. Water wheels were used to grind
grain and run sawmills during the 1800s. Today, hydroelectric plants have turbines to power
generators so that the mechanical energy of water can get converted into electricity.
Hydroelectric plants are built near a large source or reservoir of water. Dams are a great
source of hydropower. They not only control the flow of water; but they are also built to
provide a substantial or sizable height for water to fall. Hydropower does not produce any
pollutants such as greenhouse emissions. Hydroelectric power plants can have a negative
impact on the environment. Dams are usually formed by stopping the flow of a river to
convert the section located behind the dam into a huge lake. A dam can hinder salmon
migration and cause flooding in areas along the Colorado River. The Niagara Falls, Grand
Coulee Dam, and Hoover Dam are just a few of the dams that use hydropower in the United
States.
Wind is also a source of energy. Moving air is harnessed by windmills and wind turbines to
produce electricity. Wind turbines have blades that are similar to the propeller blades on an
aircraft. As the blades rotate, a generator that is connected to the shaft of the blade begins
to spin and make electricity. Just like water, wind is a free, renewable resource that does
not emit any pollutants or greenhouse gases. Although wind turbines are a great way to
generate electricity, some individuals may consider them quite annoying. The structure of a
wind turbine is not very appealing to everyone and they take up a lot of land. Many birds and
bats have also met their demise when they came into contact with a wind turbine.
Ecology
You have already learned so many things about biology; it seems hardly possible that you
could learn anymore! But you can! In this final unit, you will take everything you have learned
about the study of living things and make connections back to Mother Earth. This unit
focuses on how various species, grouped in populations and communities, work with the
nonliving things around them to ensure survival.
Essential Questions
How is population size regulated by abiotic and biotic factors?

How is energy flow through an ecosystem related to trophic structure?
How do elements cycle through ecosystems?
How do biotic and abiotic factors affect community structure and ecosystem function?
What are some consequences of human action on global ecosystems?
Module Minute Humans are the most widespread agents of disturbance in ecosystems
and understanding our environment is critical to sustaining life on this planet. This
understanding must include the study of populations, communities, and the nonliving factors
of ecosystems. Many of the factors that regulate populations and communities within an
ecosystem are density dependent. Food, shelter, and other resources limit the number of
organisms that will survive in an environment. Populations are also linked by interspecific
interactions that affect the survival and reproduction of the species that engage in them.
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These interactions include competition, predation, herbivory, and symbiosis. Communities

are also dependent upon abiotic, or nonliving factors, to support the ecosystem. The laws of
conservation of energy and conservation of mass govern how energy flows and how
chemicals are cycled throughout the environment. As biological and geochemical process
cycle nutrients between biotic and abiotic factors in an environment, interactions between
organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species.
What to Expect
Activity: Ecology Review

Activity: Population Growth
Case Study: Keystone Species
Project: Succession
Questions for Thought: Ecological Footprint
Free Response: Invasive species
AP Lab: Energy Dynamics
Test: Ecology
Ecology
The Earth is composed of complex and dynamic interacting systems. As we discussed in
earlier modules, there are a number of levels of organization within each of these systems.
The AP Biology course encourages you to investigate biological organization at many levels:
chemical, cellular, organ system, and organism. Individual organisms further interact with
other organisms of the same species, thereby creating a new level at which to view
biological organization, the population level. Furthermore, individual organisms interact with
organisms of different species. This level is called the community level of interaction in
biology. Finally, organisms interact collectively with their own species, other species, and the
physical factors that support life activities - the ecosystem level of organization.
What Is Ecology?
1. Ecology comes from the Greek words oikos (house or place where one lives) and
logos (the study of).
2. Ecology then means the study of the house in which we live (the study of our
environment...where we live).
3. Ecology can be defined more specifically as the study of the interactions between
organisms and the nonliving components of their environment.
4. The Earth includes a tremendous variety of living things. Each organism depends in
some way on other living and nonliving things in its environment.
Ecology involves collecting information about organisms and their environment, looking for
patterns, and seeking to explain these patterns and interrelationships.
The surface of the Earth as a whole is an ecosystem. We call the surface of the Earth the
biosphere. The Biosphere is the surface of the Earth (air, water, and land) where living
things exist. Ecologists study the biosphere because all organisms must share the biosphere
and ecologists must understand how they interact individually and collectively.
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There are three basic approaches scientists use to conduct modern ecological
research:
a. Interactions within populations
b. Individual interaction within communities
c. interactions among living things and abiotic factors.
An ecologist may want to examine how different components interact within a

controlled environment so laboratory experiments are set up.
Many ecological phenomena are difficult to study because the environment is always
changing, sometimes unexpectedly, and ecologists may have a hard time
determining which factor caused a specific observation.
Ecologists make models to represent environments or organisms to examine or
demonstrate a specific characteristic.
Sometimes mathematical formulas are developed to interpret results and predict
outcomes.
This focus, along with the levels or organization, provide ecologists with a hierarchy within
the scope of ecological research.
Ecological Factors
In examining what influences the relationships between organisms and their environments,
ecologists began to research factors which seemed to determine species distribution. They
discovered several important points: Ecosystems can contain hundreds or even thousands
of interacting species. Ecosystems are very complex and can be large or small depending
on the environment examined. Ecosystems are reliant on all the organisms and the nonliving
environment found in a particular place, and those environmental factors can be categorized
into two groups, biotic and abiotic factors.
Biotic factors are all of the living things, or organisms present in a particular environment.
The other organisms living within that ecosystem may provide positive or negative
interaction. For instance, two organisms may survive well with each other in the form of a
mutually beneficial relationship such as flowers and bees. In contrast, two organisms may
experience competition or even a predatory prey relationship.
Abiotic factors are the nonliving factors such as temperature, light, and water. These factors
are either chemical or physical factors. Chemical factors include water, oxygen, salinity, pH,
soil nutrients, etc. Physical factors include light, temperature, soil, fire, and moisture.
Climate also influences where and how organisms may live in a particular ecosystem.
Climate consists of temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind, all abiotic factors, so it is
no surprise that climate influences ecological interactions. Based on terrain and surrounding
bodies of water, particularly the ocean, there are global climate patterns evident in the
biosphere. Organisms select places to live dependent upon these climate patterns and even
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the resulting seasons. In fact, several behavioral patterns are related to climate factors such
as migration and mating behavior.
Aquatic Biomes
The combination of biotic and abiotic factors determines biomes, or life zones characterized
by vegetation and physical environment. Given that water accounts for the largest part of the
biosphere in terms of area, aquatic biomes take up a great deal of space on the
earth. Aquatic biomes are divided into two categories, marine and freshwater. Marine
biomes generally have salt concentrations that average 3%, whereas freshwater biomes
usually have a salt concentration of less than 0.1%. That would make marine biomes, the
largest biome on earth. But even though they take up 75% of the earth's surface, there are
several different aquatic biomes we will review.
Many aquatic biomes are layered dependent upon chemical and physical characteristics
such as temperature, density, and salinity. This layering is called stratification. One
important characteristic for stratification is light. The upper area of an aquatic biome that
receives light sufficient enough for photosynthetic activity is referred to as the photic zone. In
the photic zone, light penetrates the water column allowing algae, kelp, and aquatic plants
to conduct photosynthesis. The majority of ocean dwelling organisms inhabit the photic
zones. Below the photic zone is the aphotic zone. In this layer, little to no light is available
for photosynthesis. Producers at this level are often chemosynthetic bacteria that do not
need light to synthesize nutrients. The aphotic zone of the ocean begins at roughly 200 m
and extends to the ocean floor. The bottom of an aquatic biome is called the benthic zone,
and in contrast is the pelagic zone, which is the open water. Review the video below to learn
more about the characteristics of aquatic biomes. Click below.
Terrestrial Biomes
As previously discussed, the biotic and abiotic factors characterize biomes. In regard to the
terrestrial biomes, latitude and climate patterns determine the specific characteristics for
each biome. Be sure you have an understanding of each of the major terrestrial biomes,
their climate, flora, fauna, and precipitation.
Assignment: Ecology Review

To increase your understanding of ecology review the content above and use the information
available in the side bar to complete the Ecology Review handout available in the side bar.
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Be sure to complete the assignment thoroughly and identify any references used in APA
format. Please follow your teacher's instructions for submitting your work .
Population Ecology
A population is a group of organisms of the same
species, living in the same place, at the same time and
can successfully interbreed. For example, a group of
Rana pipiens (leopard frog) or a group of Rana
catesbeiana (bullfrog) are both populations. When
studying population ecology, there are three important
characteristics to consider, geographic distribution,
population density, and growth rate. Click on the video
below to learn about population ecology.
Geographic distribution
Geographic distribution, or range, is a term that describes the area inhabited by a
population. In other words, the population geographic distribution is how spread out the
organisms are within a specific population. This can vary from a few cubic centimeters to
millions of square kilometers. Environmental and social factors influence the dispersal of
individuals in a population. Organisms may clump together based on food supply; they may
spread out in a relatively uniform pattern based on aggressive social interactions; or they
may spread out at random.
Population Density
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Population density is the number of individuals in a population in a given area at a specific

time. The more individuals in a given space, the greater the population density for that
area. Population size increases from births and immigration and decreases from death and
emigration, thus influencing the demographics and density of a population.
To calculate population density, scientists determine area, count the number of organisms
living in that area, and divide the population number by the area to determine the population
per unit of area.
Population Growth Rate

Populations can stay the same size, grow larger, or decline in numbers over a period of time.
These fluctuations are considered population growth rates. Ultimately, evolutionary
outcomes reflected in development, physiology, and behavior of an organism influence
natural selection and therefore the success of a population, but scientists have developed
methods to models of population growth in shorter time spans.
Exponential Growth
Exponential growth occurs when the
individuals of a population reproduce at a
constant rate. At first, the number of
individuals in an exponentially growing
population increases slowly. Over time,
populations double with each generation and
the population grows rapidly until it
approaches an infinitely large size. When
represented on a graph, this population is
called a J-curve; it is easy to demonstrate in
bacteria populations because their
population size can double every 20
minutes. Human population is currently
experiencing a J-curve; how much longer
will earth's resources support a rapidly
doubling population? What factors besides
running out of food could cause a rapid
decline in population numbers?
Exponential Growth Rate can be calculated as
Where
d represents the "change in"
r is the rate of natural increase in
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t is some stated interval of time, and

N is the number of indiviuals in the population
Logistic Growth
Under ideal conditions with unlimited
resources, any population can grow
exponentially. However, this is not realistic.
In reality, resources eventually run out and
populations will crash! Logistic growth is
known as a realistic growth curve that most
populations exhibit because resources are
limited in any population and populations
cannot just grow limitlessly as shown in the
exponential model. Logistic growth occurs
when a population's growth slows or stops
following a period of exponential growth. The
point at which the population stops growing
is called the population's carrying capacity.
The graph of logistic growth is sometimes
called an S-curve.
Logistic Growth Rate is calculated as
Where
d represents the "change in"
r is the rate of natural increase in
t is some stated interval of time, and
N is the number of individuals in the population at a given time
K is the maximum sustainable population size, carrying capacity
Population strategies
There are two types of population growth 'strategies' utilized by most organisms. Some are
k-strategists and some are r-strategists.
1. The r-strategist species exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many
offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood
(Insects, fish, spiders).
2. In contrast, the k-strategist species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and
invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability
of surviving to adulthood (Birds, cows, elephants).
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Limits to Growth
Because most populations do follow the
logistic growth pattern and reach a carrying
capacity, as population numbers increase,
certain factors in the environment become
limits to growth. Carrying capacity is the
maximum number of individuals that an
ecosystem is capable of supporting. All living
things need food, water, oxygen and a
certain amount of space in which to live.
Consequently, those factors that can limit
the growth of a population are called limiting
factors.
Limiting factors may reduce the birth rate
and or increase the mortality rate, such as
Competition - for food, habitat, mates, niche etc.

Predation
Parasitism and disease
Drought or other climate extremes
Human disturbances
Density-dependent limiting factors are limiting factors that depend on population size.
These factors come into play when a population is large, crowded, and dense. Densitydependent limiting factors include competition, predation, parasitism, and disease. These
factors have the most effect when a population has reached or exceeded its carrying
capacity. Parasites harm or kill their host and produce a similar effect to that of predators.
Density-independent limiting factors are limiting factors that do not depend on population
size. These factors come into play and limit populations regardless of whether the population
size is large or small. These factors include unusual weather, natural disasters, seasonal
cycles, and certain human activities such as damming rivers or clear-cutting forests. A
disaster such as a forest fire may destroy specific plants that were the food of a particular
species and as a result, that population may never recover. Complete the activity below to
increase your understanding of population growth models and calculations. Click below.
Assignment: Population Ecology

To increase your understanding of population ecology watch the videos above and use the
information available in the side bar to complete the Population Ecology handout available in
the side bar. Be sure to complete the assignment thoroughly and identify any references
used in APA format. Please follow your teacher's instructions for submitting your work .
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Community Ecology
Populations are individual species, but all the interacting organisms, of all the different
populations that live in a particular area make up the community. Community interactions,
such as competition, predation, and various forms of symbiosis, can powerfully affect an
ecosystem. Let's begin with a video review of community ecology... click below.
Competition
Competition occurs when the organisms of the same or different species attempt to use an
ecology resource in the same place at the same time. For example, two different species of
mountain lions may compete for the same prey, or weeds and grass may compete for the
same nutrients available in the soil. Regardless of the species involved, both organisms are
negatively impacted. In some cases, one species may have a competitive advantage over
the other species, and may over time result in the complete elimination of the species. This
is referred to as competitive exclusion.
Another way to respond to competition between species is to separate resources in a niche.
An ecological niche is the sum of a species' use of biotic and abiotic resources in its
environment. This is different from where the organism lives, that is the habitat. A niche is
more so how the organism specifically interacts or fits in within the environment. This
specifically includes the range of conditions that the species can tolerate, the methods by
which it obtains needed resources, the number of offspring it has, its time of reproduction,
and all its other interaction with its environment.
Two species cannot coexist permanently in a community if their niches are identical. If
competitive exclusion does not lead to the extinction of the other organism, the niche of one
species becomes modified. This leads to the development of the fundamental niche and the
realized niche. The fundamental niche is the range of conditions that a species can
potentially tolerate and the range of resources it can potentially use. The realized niche of a
species is the range of resources it actually uses for that particular environment.
Generalists are species with broad niches; they can tolerate a range of conditions and use
a variety of resources. Opossums are generalists. Species that have narrow niches, such as
the koala, are called specialists.
Predation
Predation is an interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism.
The organism doing the capturing is called the predator and the organism being captured is
called the prey. This is probably an obvious review, so we will go into a little more depth as
to why this is important to the study of ecology.
The predator prey relationship is one of the primary influences of animal adaptations. Most
predators have adaptations such as claws, teeth, fangs, stingers, or poison to help them
capture and subdue their prey. Additionally, predators have acute sensory adaptations
which allow them to locate and identify potential prey. Likewise, prey have adaptations that
help them avoid attack and capture. While some defensive adaptations include behavioral
patterns, others include morphological and physiological defense mechanisms. Review the
interactivity below to review some of these adaptations.
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Click on the following video.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is any relationship where two or more species live in direct and intimate contact.
There are three categories of symbiosis, mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit. One example we
discussed previously was that of lichen. Both the algae and the fungi work together in a
mutually beneficial relationship. Commensalism is an interaction between species in which
one benefits and the other is not affected. Parasitism is a symbiotic interaction in which one
organism benefits at the expense of the other organism. The benefiting organism is called
the parasite and the organism harmed is called the host. Watch the following video and
complete the interactivity to review symbiosis. Click below.
Determine the type of symbiotic relationship that exists between organisms described
below.
Trophic Structure
As you may have notice, community structure depends on feeding relationships between
organisms. This feeding relationship is called trophic structure. Trophic levels are feeding
levels of producers and consumers in an ecosystem. By examining the feeding relationships,
ecologists have developed graphics to represent the flow of energy throughout the
ecosystem based on several key points:
Sunlight is the ultimate energy for all life on earth. Autotrophs use light energy
directly while heterotrophs benefit from light energy indirectly.
Autotrophs are producers, green plants that convert light energy into food that can be
consumed.
Heterotrophs are consumers that must obtain nutrients from food that they take into
their bodies.
Chemoautotrophs are organisms that get their energy by consuming inorganic
molecules; bacteria that live in deep ocean environments where there is no light use
inorganic molecules for energy and heterotrophs consume these bacteria rather than
a producer.
1st trophic level, Primary Consumers, are producers that use light directly
2nd trophic level, Secondary Consumers, are herbivores that feed directly on plants
3rd and higher levels, Tertiary Consumers, are carnivores that feed on herbivores or
other carnivores
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Top Carnivore - the final level of any food chain or pyramid; this is the organism that
has no natural predators
Click below to watch the video.
Food Webs
The transfer of food energy through trophic
levels is called a food chain, which is a
simple model that scientists use to show
how matter and energy move through an
ecosystem. Nutrients and energy proceed
from autotroph to heterotroph and,
eventually, to decomposer, however, a
portion of energy is lost at each link of the
chain. Interconnected food chains make a
food web indicating multiple feeding
relationships at each trophic level
Dominant & Keystone species

Some organisms within a community have a
very specific and important ecological niche.
Dominant species are those organisms that
are the most abundant or have the greatest
biomass within a community. Therefore, this species exerts significant control over the
occurrence and distribution of the other species in the community. However, the dominant
species is not always the most important species in a community. There are other species
that may not be the most abundant in the community, but offer the greatest influence; these
species are called keystone species. Keystone species are organisms that have a pivotal
niche in the community and without their presence the community would deteriorate. Review
this video about the importance of dominant and keystone species. Click on the following
videos.
Ecological Succession
Over time, as environmental conditions change, organisms and communities also change.
Eventually, new communities replace current communities and the ecosystem changes. A
series of predictable changes in an ecosystem is called succession. Two types of
succession are primary succession and secondary succession.
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Secondary Succession is the repopulation of an area after its destruction

due natural or man-made causes. One
example of secondary succession might
occur after a forest fire changes an
ecosystem. Grasses and other small
organisms are first to appear, forming a
low layer of vegetation. This changes the
burned area, allowing shrubs and small
trees to become established. The shrubs
and small tree species change the
environment, and eventually larger tree
species will become established. As plants become established, small animals, then larger
ones return and re-populate the area. This continues until the ecosystem returns to its
former condition. This mature ecosystem is referred to as a climax community.
Primary Succession occurs where there has never before been an ecosystem; for
example, a volcano erupts spreading lava; over time the lava weathers and soil formation
begins. Spores are blown into the area that develop into a specialized fungi called a lichen.
Lichens are capable of photosynthesis and enzymatically breaking down rock or other dead
organic matter. Eventually enough soil forms to hold windblown seeds and moisture so that
grasses and weeds can grow. From this point, changes continue similar to secondary
succession. Review at the activity below and compare the influence of nutrients, topsoil,
temperature, and rainfall on the rates of primary and secondary succession. Click below to
learn more about sucession.
Case Study: Keystone Species

For this assignment, you will prepare a science abstract. An abstract is a brief summary or
synopsis of a journal article or experiment. The purpose of preparing an abstract is to
expose students to recent scientific advances and to familiarize them with scientific literature
and methodology. Begin by looking at the rubric provided. Each abstract must include the
objective of the experiment, variables identified, procedures used, discussion of results and
the implications and conclusions of the experiment.
This abstract will include an examination of keystone species and community ecology.
Please read the following article and prepare your abstract according to the rubric provided.
Please follow your teacher's instructions for submitting your work .
Ucarli, Y. (2011). Usability of large carnivores as keystone species in Black Eastern

Sea Region, Turkey.African Journal of Biotechnology. 10(11).
Project: Succession
For this project, you will discuss the process of succession by answering the question below.
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2010 Question #4 (modified)

The diagram shows the succession of communities from annual plants to hardwood trees in
a specific area over a period of time.
1. Discuss the expected changes in biodiversity as the stages of succession progress
as shown in the diagram above.
2. Describe and explain three changes in abiotic conditions over time that lead to the
succession, as shown in the diagram.
3. For each of the disturbances found below this list, discuss the immediate and long
term effects on ecosystem succession.
4. Identify two biotic and two abiotic factors and discuss how each could influence the
pattern of ecological succession.
5. Discuss the differences in plant diversity and explain how the changes affect the
animal species composition.
Disturbance #1 :A volcano erupts, covering a 10 square kilometer portion of a mature

forest with lava.
Disturbance #2: A 10 square kilometer portion of a mature forest is clear cut.
You may use a concept map or some other outline or other presentation format. You may:
create a flow chart using tools such as Dia and Gliffy,

generate a concept map using resources such as CMap, FreeMind, the free version
of XMind,
make a presentation using a number of tools like PowerPoint, OpenOffice's equally
useful and free Impress component, or create a comic or video using Xtranormal or
Animoto.
No matter which method you choose to illustrate your understanding, please review the
rubric provided before you submit your final project. Be as creative as you wish and have fun
with this project! Please follow your teacher's instructions for submitting your work .
Ecosystems
Ecosystems are the sum of all the
organisms and surrounding abiotic and
biotic factors in a given
area. Ecosystems may be as large as a
forest, or small as the space under a
fallen log. Regardless of the size of the
ecosystem, the dynamics at work involve
not only the different populations and
community of organisms, it also involves
the cycling of energy and matter.
Energy
In previous units, we discussed the laws of conservation of energy and mass. In most
ecosystems, energy begins as sunlight, is converted into chemical energy by autotrophs,
passed to the heterotrophs that consume them, and eventually released as heat. Just as
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stated in the first law of thermodynamics, energy cannot be created or destroyed. The
autotrophs do not create the energy and the heterotrophs do not destroy the energy. It is
simply transformed as is passes through the ecosystem. But, it is important to note that
energy is not recycled, therefore, ecosystems rely upon a continuous influx of energy, the
sun.
Primary Productivity
Because autotrophs are responsible for converting the sun's energy into the chemical
energy necessary to sustain an ecosystem, autotrophs are called primary producers.
Although some chemoautotrophs are the primary producers in certain ecosystems, most
primary producers are plants, algae, and photosynthetic prokaryotes. The heterotrophs that
eat the autotrophs are called consumers. Herbivores are primary consumers; carnivores that
eat herbivores are secondary consumers; and carnivores that eat other carnivores are
tertiary consumers. Other heterotrophs involved in ecosystems are called detritivores.
Detritivores are decomposers which get their energy from detritus, or dead organic material.
The only problem with this system is that it has a low trophic efficiency.
Trophic efficiency is the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the
next. In most food chains, only about 10% of energy is passed and stored within the
organism in the next trophic level. That means that about 90% of energy is lost as heat or
through the metabolism of the consuming organism. This loss of energy limits the number
of tertiary consumers because they only get about 0.1% produced by the primary producers.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids are used to illustrate the relationships between producers and
consumers as energy flows through an ecosystem. There are three types of pyramids used
to illustrate different things in the community they represent.
Pyramid of energy: illustrates the energy decrease at each trophic level
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Pyramid of numbers: illustrates the population size at each trophic levels
Pyramid of biomass: illustrates the total mass living things in a given trophic level
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Biogeochemical Cycles
Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems.
Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to
another and from one part of the biosphere to another through cycles that connect living
things to the earth. Biogeochemical cycles connect living things to the earth. In our unit on
organic chemistry and macromolecules, we discussed that the four chemicals that make up
95% of living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements are
constantly being cycled through living and non-living organic matter.
Scientists create models to represent natural interactions in the environment which make it
easier to study and understand the 'big picture' without having to physically measure an
entire ecosystem. Diagrams of the nutrient cycles could be considered models of the actual
cycles as they occur in nature. The use of models also allows scientists to make predictions
about how a particular event might affect an ecosystem without having to expose the real
ecosystem to that event. Review the interactivity and the movies below to refresh your
understanding of the various biogeochemical cycles.
The Water
Cycle: the
movement of
water between
different reservoirs
on the earth,
underground and
in the atmosphere.
1. Biological
importance: The availability of water determines the diversity of organisms in an

ecosystem as it is particularly important for primary productivity and cellular function.
2. Availability: Liquid water is most abundant on earth, but water is also form as a gas
and a solid.
3. Reservoirs: The majority of water is found in the ocean (97%), some in the ice caps
and glaciers (2%), and the remaining in lakes, rivers, and ground water.
4. Process: The water cycle is driven by solar energy as water is evaporated from the
earth, transpires from plants, condenses in the atmosphere, and falls down to the
earth as precipitation.
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The Carbon
Cycle: the
framework for
cycling organic
molecules through
living things.
Biological
importance: Photosynthesis and cellular respiration form the basis of the carbon
cycle. Carbon is found in all of the major macromolecules necessary for all living
systems.
Availability: Photosynthetic organisms use atmospheric carbon dioxide to convert
carbon to organic forms. Other organisms use the autotrophs as a source of carbon
and energy.
Reservoirs: Carbon stores include limestone, fossil fuels, the ocean, soils, the
sediment of aquatic systems, plant and animal biomass and the atmosphere.
Process: The carbon cycle is indirectly driven by the sun as photosynthesis is
fundamental to the fixation of carbon. Both autotrophs and heterotrophs use oxygen
to break down carbohydrates during cellular respiration. Carbon is returned to the
environment through decomposers and cellular respiration. This cycle also includes
the transformation of carbon through volcanic eruptions, combustion.
The Nitrogen
Cycle: the cycling
of nitrogen in
organic and
inorganic forms for
effective
biosynthesis of
macromolecules.
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Biological importance: Nitrogen is required for the synthesis of amino acids, proteins,
and nucleic acids.
Availability: Bacteria and plants can use inorganic NH4 + and NO3 as well as organic
forms found in amino acids. Bacteria can also use NO2 -; animals can only use
organic forms.
Reservoirs: Most nitrogen is found in the atmosphere (80%) as N2, and most living
things cannot use it. Other forms of nitrogen are found in the soil, water reservoirs,
and in living organisms.
Process: Nitrogen is introduced to the ecosystem after nitrogen fixation, the
conversion of nitrogen gas to ammonia. Through the processes of assimilation,
ammonification, denitrification, and nitrification, nitrogen cycles in various forms
suitable for use in various organisms.
The Phosphorus
Cycle: a series of
long term and
short term cycling
of phosphorus
throughout the
environment.
Biological
importance: Phosphorus is required in nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP.

Availability: Inorganic phosphate, PO4 3-, is absorbed by plants and used to create
various organic molecules.
Reservoirs: Marine sedimentary rocks are the largest stores of phosphorus, but
phosphorus is also found in soils, oceans, and organisms.
Process: Weathering of rock adds phosphorus to the soil and water, where it is
absorbed by producers and incorporated into biological molecules. Phosphate is
returned through the soil or water from the excretion or decomposition of organisms.
Conservation
Conservation biology is the integration of ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics,
and evolutionary biology to conserve biological diversity and important ecological habitats.
Biodiversity is the measure of the number and frequency of various species in an
ecosystem. Likewise, habitat is the physical location of a population or community of
organisms. As humans, it is our responsibility to recognize how our behaviors have impacted
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various environments, and determine actions to save the species and environments of this
planet.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is evident at three main levels, genetic diversity, species diversity, and
ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity includes genetic variation within a population as well
as genetic variation between populations. If a population of species becomes extinct, then
genetic diversity within that species will decrease and may lead to microevolution. Species
diversity is the variation in species within ecosystems. Awareness of species diversity has
increased as the U.S. Endangered Species Act defined both threatened and endangered
species to prevent extinction. Species extinction may be local or global, depending on the
sustainability of a species within the environment. Ecosystem diversity is the variety of
ecosystems within the biosphere. Very often, the extinction of dominant or keystone species
may put an ecosystem at risk for extinction. Keeping species and genetic diversity in a
healthy balance is critically important for the success of the biosphere and for us as humans.
Wild populations of plants provide genetic resources that can be used to improve crop
qualities and many species of plants have proven essential to the medical field. Therefore,
as scientists, we must examine the threats to biodiversity and encourage behaviors that will
maintain a healthy biosphere.
Threats to Biodiversity
The major threats to biodiversity include habitat loss, introduced species, and
overexploitation. Habitat loss or alteration is the single greatest threat to biodivserity. Some
examples illustrate this directly as the clear cutting of a rain forest or indirectly from global
warming and climate change. Pollution and inhibiting or redirecting water flow to an area are
also examples of sources of habitat loss. Introduction of new species also leads to a loss of
biodiversity. When non-native species are introduced to a new environment, they may
disrupt the ecological balance and disrupt native species. Inevitably, the loss of species
decreases biodiversity. Likewise, when species are overexploited, often through
overhunting, population numbers decrease rapidly, threatening the species or even leading
to species extinction.
Human Influence
As the human population continues to grow, activities and technological advancements have
disrupted the natural flow established by trophic structure, energy flow, and biogeochemical
cycling. Human influence has resulted in a loss of resources, excessive pollution, and
global climate change.
Natural Resources
Natural resources are a part of natural environment that is used by living things to sustain
life. These resources can be divided into two categories, renewable and nonrenewable
resources. Renewable resources are those that can be replaced or recycled by natural
processes, such as plants, animals, crops, soil, wind, solar, geothermal power, and even
water, if carefully managed. Nonrenewable resources are those that are available in limited
amounts, such as fossil fuels, metals such as gold, silver, copper.
Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances into the environment, by air, land, or
water. Air pollution is caused most by burning fossil fuels, which causes particulates to fill the
air. This type of pollution can cause cancer and respiratory illnesses. Air pollution also leads
to acid precipitation. Water mixes with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid or with nitrous
oxide compounds to make nitric acid which collects in the water in the atmosphere and falls
as precipitation. Acid precipitation damages plants, affects fish, and contaminates water
reservoirs.
Land pollution is created when trash is burned, buried, or discarded instead of being
recycled. Non-biodegradable wastes stays in the environment for hundreds to thousands of
years. Biodegradable wastes are broken down naturally by bacteria or other decomposers in
a much shorter period of time. Water pollution may occur in relation to air pollution or land
pollution as acid precipitation and excessive waste meets natural water reservoirs. Water
pollution may also occur as a result of sewage, industrial wastes, fertilizer runoff.
Greenhouse Gases
Human activities release a variety of gaseous waste products, particularly carbon dioxide.
Normally, atmospheric gases, including CO2, act as an insulating blanket to trap heat and
keep the earth from getting too cool at night. However, scientists have found that excess
CO2 may trap too much heat, resulting in global warming. Global warming is a theory that a
temperature rise caused by combination of different greenhouse gasses such as methane
and carbon dioxide will continue until the earth becomes uninhabitable.
Another closely related problem is that of ozone depletion. The atmosphere also consists of
ozone, O3, which serves to protect the earth from ultraviolet radiation. Gases such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are responsible for the depletion of the protective layer of ozone
gas.
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Introduction to Environmental Science

Although the environment is complex and environmental issues seem to cover an
unmanageable number of topics, the science of the environment can be implicitly
summarized with three fields of study: the human population, urbanization, and sustainability
within a global perspective. Naturally, these topics are integrated with the decisions that
people make about nature. However, the solutions depend on various levels of compromise
between the science and nature.
Viewed from space, our planet Earth resembles a small blue marble. As we interact with
others and travel from place to place, the size of our planet seems voluminous. However, if
you ask an astronaut, she would tell you that Earth and its systems are finite and limited. As
our population expands, technological powers expand and consumption of resources
increases, so does our capacity to alter our planet and damage the systems that maintain
our lives.
Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that sustains life. Life on Earth is critically
dependent on the abundance of water (liquid, vapor and ice). Carbon and the multitude of its
compounds, is the very basis of life, and its greatest reservoir. In the atmosphere, carbon
fully oxidized as carbon dioxide, fully reduced as methane, and in particulate form as black
carbon soot produces the greenhouse effect making Earth habitable. Earth's atmosphere
and electromagnetic field protect the planet from harmful radiation while allowing useful
radiation to reach the surface and sustain life. Earth exists within the Sun's zone of
habitation, and with the moon, maintains the precise orbital inclination needed to produce
our seasons.a
Essential Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why is it important to identify key environmental problems?

How do the decisions that we make in our day to day lives affect the environment?
How do ethics, economics, and politics factor in environmental science principles?
What is the best way to achieve sustainability?
Module Minute
The complexity and dynamic features of Earth can be compared to the
human body. Each system in the body works in harmony with the others.
Likewise, we need to understand the interaction between each of Earth's
four interconnected geosystems: (Biosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere,
and Lithosphere). People and nature are linked. Each affects the other.
Three factors-- environmentally sound decisions, economically viable
decisions, and socially equitable decisions interact to promote sustainability when resources
are mined and developed for human benefits. Mankind has instituted environmental laws to
form legal boundaries that protect and defend our "home". Placing a value on various
aspects of the environment requires the understanding of the scientific principles involved
and what consequences are inevitable based on the knowledge that is shared with the
public. Environmental justice also depends on our judgments concerning the uses, the
aesthetics of the environment and on our moral commitment to other living things and to
future generations.
What to Expect
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Discussion: Ancient Proverbs

Assignment: Atrazine
Project: What is CSA?
Discussion: Food Production
Assignment: Europe Returns to Coal
FRQ: Energy and Climate
Test: Introduction to Environmental Science
Key Terms
Social Progress Tied to Environmental Quality

Many people today believe that the roots of the environmental movement were designed to
benefit the rich and famous in our culture, a wealthy minority, who can afford to vacation in
wilderness. In fact most environmental leaders have seen social justice and environmental
equity as closely linked. Gifford Pinchot, Teddy Roosevelt, and John Muir all endeavored to
keep nature and resources accessible to everyone at a time when public lands, forest and
waterways were increasingly controlled by a few wealthy individuals and private
corporations. The idea of national parks, one of our principal strategies for nature
conservation, is to provide public access to natural beauty and outdoor recreation. Aldo
Leopold, a found of the Wilderness Society, promoted ideas of land stewardship among
farmers, fishers, and hunters. Robert Marshall, also a founder of the Wilderness Society,
campaigned all his life for social and economic justice for low-income groups. Both Rachel
Carson and Barry Commoner were principally interested in environmental healthan issue
that is especially urgent for low-income, minority, and inner-city residents. Many of these
individuals grew up in working class families, so their sympathy with social causes is not
surprising.
Rachel Carson was best known for writing the book, "Silent Spring" after she became
concerned about the widespread use of synthetic pesticides such as DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). Although touted as safe (see the propaganda to the left),
DDT was found to be toxic to many animals and to remain in the environment for long
periods of time. Because it remained in the environment, it easily moved up the foodchain
causing severe complications for birds of prey. DDT would cause the egg shells of these
birds to be extremely thin, breaking when females sat on their eggs to incubate them. DDT
was eventually banned in the United States in 1972.
Read the article "There's Poison All Around Us Now" in the sidebar and watch the video
documentary "Silent Spring" as well.
Once you have learned about these people and movements, answer the following
questions.
Current Environmental Problems

We were born on this Earth to enjoy its benefits and resources. Our ultimate goal will be to
pass this "world" on to future generations in as good- perhaps even better- condition than
when we arrived.
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Conceivably the most amazing feature of our planet is the rich diversity of life that exists
here. Millions of beautiful and intriguing species populate the earth and help sustain a
habitable environment. This vast multitude of life creates complex, interrelated communities
where towering trees and huge animals live together with, and depend upon, tiny life-forms
such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi. This thin section, though, is teeming with life. It is
estimated that an acre of typical farm soil, six inches deep, has several tons of living
bacteria, almost a ton of fungi, two hundred pounds of one-cell protozoan animals, about
one hundred pounds of yeast, and the same amount of algae. Together all these organisms
make up dense, moist forests, vast sunny savannas and richly colorful coral reefs.
Watch the following video on Biodiversity created by the Vancouver Film School.
The extremely fine line between an environment where life can and cannot exist is illustrated
by the fact that it is estimated a five-degree temperature change in the average worldwide
temperature would, in time, seriously affect life on the Earth, and much greater temperature
change could be disastrous to life.
With more than 7 billion humans currently, we're adding about 75 million more to the world
every year. While demographers report a transition to slower growth rates in most countries,
present trends project a population between 8 and 10 billion by 2050. The impacts of that
many people on our natural resources and ecological systems are a serious concern.
Risk and Risk Assessment

Minorities in the US and around the globe are subjected to a disproportionally high level of
environmental health risks in their neighborhoods and on their jobs.
The environmental justice movement dates to the late 1970s and early 1980s when African
Americans in Warren County, North Carolina, protested the placement of a polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB) landfill in their community.
Environmental justice combines civil rights with environmental protection to demand a safe,
healthy, life-giving environment for everyone. Among the evidence of environmental injustice
is the fact that three out of five African-Americans and Hispanics, and nearly half of all Native
Americans, Asians, and Pacific Islanders live in communities with one or more uncontrolled
toxic waste sites, incinerators, or major landfills, while fewer than 10 percent of all
Caucasians live in these areas.
In 1978, the Ward Transformer Company, a former electrical transformer repair facility, paid
Robert Burns, who owned a waste removal business, to illegally dispose of PCB-tainted
liquid. Burns did this by dumping it on the side of 240 miles of state roads across 14 counties
in rural North Carolina. When the state discovered the pollution, it arranged to open a landfill
in the town of Afton in Warren County, a community that was 84-percent African American.
Though the people of Warren County took the state as well as the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) to court, they lost their battle, and the landfill opened in 1982. Residents next
organized a series of protests, backed by national civil rights organizations such as the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Protesters worried about the contamination of
groundwater from the landfill as well as the economic impact (industry might hesitate to
locate in a county that was home to a landfill).
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Over 400 black and white activists were arrested during these protests, bringing national
attention to the Warren County landfill. Though the landfill was not closed, the activists had
brought a new environmental and civil rights issue to light: environmental racism.
Environmental Racism
During these protests, Reverend Benjamin Chavis, Jr., coined the term "environmental
racism," a phenomenon that was soon empirically proven. Washington, D.C. delegate Walter
E. Fauntroy asked the General Accounting Office (GAO) to study the placement of
hazardous waste sites in the South. The study revealed that hazardous waste sites were
disproportionately located in poor black communities. The Commission for Racial Justice
confirmed these findings in 1987.
Environmental Justice
During the 1980s and 1990s, other community activists followed in the steps of Warren
County and challenged environmental hazards in their communities. Scholars also began
examining the phenomenon of environmental racism, placing it under the larger umbrella of
the movement for "environmental justice," which emphasizes the factors of class and
ethnicity in addition to race.
Environmental justice activists rarely see themselves as environmentalists or as largely
fighting an environmental problem, according to sociologist Robert D. Bullard. Environmental
justice activists viewed themselves as battling social injustice and used the language of the
civil rights movement.
By the 1990s, the federal government had taken note. The EPA created an Office of
Environmental Equity in 1992, and President Bill Clinton issued Executive Order 12898 in
1994, which directed federal agencies (like the EPA) to consider the impact of their
programs on minority communities. Although its roots were in the American Civil Rights
Movement, environmental justice has become a worldwide concern with researchers
examining these same issues within other countries. The estimated cost for cleanup has
increased from an early EPA estimate of about $5.6M to near $50M.
Watch the following video on the PCB Contamination at the Ward Transformer Plant
from the University of North Carolina Superfund Research Program with grants from
the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
Clean Water
Water may well be the most critical resource in the twenty-first century. Already at least 1.1
billion people lack an adequate supply of safe drinking water, and more than twice that many
don't have modern sanitation. Polluted water and lack of sanitation are estimated to
contribute to the ill health of more than 1.2 billion people annually, including the death of 15
million children per year. About 40 percent of the world population lives in countries where
water demands now exceed supplies. By 2025, the UN projects that as many as threefourths of us could live under similar conditions. Water wars may well become the major
sources of international conflict in coming decades.
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Assignment: Atrazine
Food Supplies
Over the past century, global food production has more than kept pace with human
population growth, but there are worries about whether we will be able to maintain this pace.
Soil scientists report that about two-thirds of all agricultural lands show signs of degradation.
Biotechnology and intensive farming techniques responsible for much of our recent
production gains often are two expensive for poor farmers. Can we find ways to produce the
food we need without further environmental degradation? Will that food be distributed
equitably? In a world of food surpluses, the United Nations estimates that some 850 million
people are now chronically undernourished, and at least 60 million face acute food
shortages due to natural disasters or conflicts.
The expectation that population growth will outrun its food supply has a long history.
Surprisingly, from the 1950s to the 1990s, which experienced the most dramatic increase in
human population ever, per capita world food production increased. The Green Revolution high-yield varieties of cereal crops - resulted in enormous increases in yield per hectare.
However, environmental costs are high. Most arable land already is farmed, and the land
area under agriculture had slightly declined. Improved agricultural methods that increase
yields while minimizing environmental impacts hold the greatest promise for increasing world
food supplies. At present, humans use or co-opt a substantial fraction of the world's
terrestrial net primary production, raising doubts about our ability to greatly increase food
supply to humans.
Watch the following video on agricultural runoff:
Agricultural Runoff and the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone
When you have finished watching, answer the following self-reflection questions.
1. Explain why excess nitrogen in the water can lead to fewer fish and shrimp. Which
organisms grow more abundantly with added nitrogen?
2. What do you think the farmers should do for the fishermen? Do you think that giving
the fishermen a share of the corn profits is a good idea?
3. Brainstorm some ways to reduce the amount of nitrogen in the water reaching the
Gulf of Mexico.
Project: What Is CSA?

Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is a popular movement across America. Search the
Internet to find information that supports and explains the growth of CSAs. What did you
learn? Why is it important to buy local agriculture? Create a Glogster or other multimedia
project to explain the benefits of CSAs.
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When you have finished, submit your project.
Discussion: Food Production

By 2050, the world's population will have reached 9 billion. If all these people are going to
have enough to eat, increases in food production and changes in consumer patterns of
behavior will both be needed. But what will these look like? And what's the best way to make
them happen?
Submit your response.
Energy
How we obtain and use energy is likely to play a crucial role in our environmental future.
Fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) presently provide around 80 percent of the energy
used in industrialize countries. Supplies of these fuels are diminishing, however, and
problems associated with their acquisition and use-air and water pollution, mining damage,
shipping accidents, and geopolitics-may limit what we do with remaining reserves. Cleaner
renewable energy resources-solar power, wind, geothermal, and biomass-together with
conservation, could give us cleaner, less destructive options if we invest in appropriate
technology.
Tapped Out
After reading, the National Geographic June 2008 article, Tapped Out, please answer the
following self-reflection discussion questions.
Reflection Questions:
1. Today you will read, "Tapped Out", published in National Geographic. The article
talks about discovery rates, and how they can be used to forecast future production
trends. What is the connection between discovery rates and production? What trends
do discovery rates predict for production?
2. This article begins with a discussion of an analysis undertaken by Sadad Al Husseini,
a Saudi oil geologist. Al Husseini was skeptical of forecasts for future oil production.
He decided to carry out a quantitative data analysis to determine whether these
forecasts were realistic. What did he find out? What method did he apply to collect
information and reach his conclusion?
3. Do you agree or disagree with the conclusions of Al Husseini? What weakness or
problems do you see from his method?
Peaking of World Oil Production

Read the following article, published by The Atlantic Council in October 2005
The Inevitable Peaking of World Oil Production
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Reflect on the answers to the following questions:

1. Who is the author and what is his background? What are his qualifications on this to
2. What is meant by 'peaking?' What is the difference between peaking versus 'running
out of oil?'pic? What organization published this report? What type of work does this
organization do?
3. The paper talks about a liquid fuels crisis. What does that mean? What industries are
vulnerable to a liquid fuels crisis?
Assignment: Europe Returns to Coal

Within the last decade, many European countries have decided to convert their
power plants from oil to coal. Search the Internet to find reliable information about
this conversion. There are some resources in the sidebar to help you get started.
Then, answer the questions below. Be sure to cite the websites that you used to
obtain your information in your answers.
Answer the following questions:

1. Many countries are turning to coal for electricity. Why? What are the advantages of
using coal?
2. What is "clean coal?" What is the biggest problem caused by burning more coal?
3. Are oil companies greedy when they raise the price of oil? Argue that this is TRUE,
and support your argument with facts (include reference or link to sources).
4. Are oil companies greedy when they raise the price of oil? Argue that this is FALSE,
and support your argument with facts (include reference or link to sources).
Submit your completed assignment.
Climate Change
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Burning fossil fuels, making cement,

cultivating rice paddies, clearing forests,
and other human activities release carbon
dioxide and other so-called "greenhouse
gases" that trap heat in the atmosphere.
Over the past 200 years, atmospheric CO2
concentrations have increased about 35
percent. By 2100, if current trends
continue, climatologists warn that mean
global temperatures will probably warm 1.5
degrees to 6 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees
- 11 degrees Fahrenheit). Although it's
controversial whether specific recent
storms were influenced by global warming,
climate changes caused by greenhouse
gases are very likely to cause increasingly
severe weather events including droughts
in some areas and floods in others. Melting
alpine glaciers and snowfields could
threaten water supplies on which millions
of people depend.
Climate change can have broad effects on biodiversity (the number and variety of plant and
animal species in a particular location). Although species have adapted to environmental
change for millions of years, a quickly changing climate could require adaption on larger and
faster scales than in the past. Those species that cannot adapt are at risk of extinction. Even
the loss of a single species can have cascading effects because organisms are connected
through food webs and other interactions.
Air Pollution
Watch the following animation from NASA:
"Tiny solid and liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere are called aerosols. Windblown
dust, sea salts, volcanic ash, smoke from wildfires, and pollution from factories are all
examples of aerosols. Depending upon their size, type, and location, aerosols can either
cool the surface, or warm it. They can help clouds to form, or they can inhibit cloud
formation. And if inhaled, some aerosols can be harmful to people's health". (NASA)
Air quality has worsened globally in many areas. Over southern Asia, satellite images is
revealed a 3 km (2 mile) thick toxic haze of ash, acids, aerosols, dust and photo-chemical
products. This haze regularly covers the entire Indian subcontinent for much of the year. Air
pollution no longer is merely a local problem. Mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
DDT, and other long-lasting pollutants travel throughout the atmosphere and accumulate in
arctic ecosystems. On some days, as much as 75 percent of the smog and particulate
pollution recorded on the west coast of North American can be traced to Asia.
Biodiversity Loss
Watch the following video on sustainability by The Natural Step.
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Biodiversity includes the variety of all forms of life, from genes to species, through to the
broad scale of ecosystems.
Patterns of biodiversity vary across the globe - for terrestrial biomes often biodiversity
increases towards the equator but for marine habitats this pattern may be nearly reversed.
There are hotspots of biodiversity around the world often in tropical forests. For both marine
and terrestrial habitats, Indonesia is one of the most diverse regions on the planet. Often,
extreme habitats create the need for more species specialization and adaptation which leads
to high diversity in these areas. The question of what leads to biodiversity is still an area of
research in all fields of biology and ecology.
Higher biodiversity conveys resilience to an ecosystem. Each species has some role to play
in the ecosystem (ecosystem services) and by having more species (sometimes with
overlapping services or jobs) the ecosystem is more likely to stay functioning and healthy
even if some species are lost or decrease in abundance.
1. Biodiversity is the key to successful agriculture. Monocropping, or the practice of
planting just one crop on one plot per year, can be very efficient for getting the most
produce out of one area but it requires heavy pesticide use and fertilizer. If crops are
rotated and planted in greater diversity, the soil is healthier, pests are less
problematic and the farms operate more closely to a natural ecological state. The
opposite of monocropping is biodynamic farming. Products of biodynamic farming or
even organic farming are healthier and more nutrient rich, even though short-term
yields are less than monocropping.
2. Biodiversity relates to human health in many ways. With less diversity, more pest
species are likely to grow in numbers and can be disease vectors in some cases.
Having a variety of foods to eat is necessary for our nutrition. Biodiversity in some
environment helps ensure cleaner water and cleaner air.
3. Business & Manufacturing: we are constantly searching for new products and
solutions in business, manufacturing, engineering etc. Often, natural products or
special traits of a species give us inspiration or the actual materials for solving some
of these problems. Click the link in the sidebar to learn more about engineering
spider silk.
4. When we are tourists, animals and unique environmental habitats are some of our
top "must-see's". Ecotourism has evolved because of our inclination for seeing the
wild side.
5. Ecosystem services -- each organism has a role to play to keep the ecosystem
running. Keeping the biodiversity high and intact means the ecosystem functions
properly.
You've probably heard the phrase "variety is the spice of life". Well biodiversity is literally the
spice of life since it refers to the total variety of living organisms that make each landscape,
ecosystem or biome unique.
Studies have proven that biodiversity increases the ability of an ecosystem to function
properly. When species go extinct or are lost from a habitat, the service or role that species
performed in the habitat is also gone. Scientists often refer to these services as "ecosystem
services". Ecosystem services increase the resilience of a habitat in the face of natural or
man-made change. Therefore, maintaining biodiversity will be an important way that we can
help guard against more dramatic environmental changes in the face of climate change and
other man-made pressures. If you're thinking this sounds similar to the advice you hear on
the news or from your bank manager telling you to "diversify your assets" ...it is! If one stock
plummets, hopefully you're whole savings won't if you have a "diverse portfolio". Same goes
for ecosystems!
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Biodiversity can be assessed in various ways- at the genetic level, species level, or by
comparing across ecosystems. Though taking counts of species diversity may seem
relatively straightforward, scientists still have a lot to learn about "functional diversity,"
meaning the diversity of roles that species play in an ecosystem. Understanding the
relationships between species and what each species does will give us a much better
understanding of the operation of the system as a whole.
Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems

While energy flows in a complex, but ultimately one way path through nature, materials are
endlessly recycled. The major material cycles (water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur) are
critically important to living organisms. As humans interfere with these material cycles, we make it
easier for some organisms to survive and more difficult for others. Often, we're intent on
manipulating material cycles for our own short-term gain, but we don't think about the
consequences for other species or even for ourselves in the long term. Clearly, it's important to
understand these environmental systems and to take them into account in our public policy.
Essential Questions
1. How does carbon move through the carbon cycle?
2. How have humans impacted the nitrogen cycle?
3. Why is phosphorous not able to be transported to different locations during the
phosphorous cycle?
4. How are humans affecting the sulfur cycle?
5. Why are phytoplankton such an important part of the ocean food chain?
Module Minute
While energy does not cycle through an ecosystem, molecules and elements do. Either the sun, or
the heat released from the mantle and core of the Earth, provide energy for the transportation of
those atoms. In addition to inorganic nutrients that cycle through organisms, compounds also enter
the atmosphere, oceans, and even rocks. Since these compounds cycle through both the biological
and the geological world, we call them biogeochemical cycles. Each compound has its own unique
cycle, but all of the cycles do have some things in common. Reservoirs are those parts of the cycle
where the compound is held in large quantities for long periods of time. In exchange pools, the
compound is held for only a short time. The length of time a chemical is held in an exchange pool or
a reservoir is termed its residence time. For example, the oceans are a reservoir for water, whereas a
cloud is more properly termed an exchange pool.
What to Expect
Assignment: Carbon Virtual Lab
Lab: Energy in a Cell and the Cycle of Matter
Discussion: Water Footprint
FRQ: Go Green!
Test: Science, Matter, Energy and Systems

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Key Terms
Introduction to Cycles
We have already identified the value of Earth's location as the "3rd rock" from the sun. The type of
star and the distance of a planet from the star affect the two major parts of the system that control
the surface temperature of a planet. The atmosphere of a planet affects the planetary temperature
system, which determines the temperature of that planet. No matter how substances within a
closed system interact with one another, or how they combine or break apart, the total weight of
the system remains the same. The idea of atoms explains the conservation of matter: If the number
of atoms stays the same no matter how they are rearranged, their total mass stays the same. The
following geologic characteristics allow Earth to remain habitable to humans:
Liquid outer core (couples with the planet's rotation) and a thick atmosphere
Viscous mantle (slow motion)
Slow motion of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere) of 3-5 centimeters per year
The crust and top part of the mantle that is solid are called the lithosphere (sphere of rock). The
lower part of the upper mantle that is composed of partially molten or melted rock is called the
asthenosphere. Plate tectonics demonstrate how the lithosphere moves over the asthenosphere.
Volcanoes occur where the plates collide or move apart, and in areas known as "hot spots".
The nutrient atoms, ions, and molecules that organisms need to live, grow, and reproduce are
continuously cycled from the nonliving environment (air, water, soil, and rock) to living organism
(biota) and then back again in what are called literally life-earth-chemical cycles commonly known as
the nutrient cycles or the biogeochemical cycles.
Along with energy, water and several other chemical elements cycle through ecosystems and
influence the rates at which organisms grow and reproduce. About 10 major nutrients and six trace
nutrients are essential to all animals and plants, while others play important roles for selected
species. The most important biogeochemical cycles affecting ecosystem health are the water,
carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is essential to life as we know it. It is the basic building block of the carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, DNA, and other organic compounds necessary to life.
Humans and other life forms require a balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to maintain a
moderate surface temperature. The carbon cycle provides this balance. Carbon dioxide in the air
interacts with rain to form acid rain that reacts with rocks and is eventually deposited into the
oceans. Sea creatures, like coral and clam, take the carbon out of the water to build their
bodies/shells. When these sea creatures die, their bodies form limestone, which is eventually
subducted under a continental plate and released again as volcanic gas. This process is part of the
carbon cycle. No matter is created or destroyed in this process. It only changes form and location.
Volcanoes release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), which can raise the Earth's surface
temperature. Volcanoes can also release ash, which can block the Sun's light from reaching Earth's
surface, therefore decreasing the surface temperature.
Removing Carbon from the Atmosphere
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Original Animation from NASA

The process known as photosynthesis by green plants will remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Green plants use this carbon to build their bodies. In the NASA video watch how carbon
moves from the atmosphere to the plants (stored as part of the plant and as food) to the consumers
that eat the plants until it is eventually returned to the Earth during decomposition or added back to
the atmosphere during respiration. The burning of fossil fuels like oil and gasoline returns the
biological carbon stored in the Earth back into the atmosphere. The biological cycle is considered the
"short-term" cycle. The geological cycle is considered "long-term." The biological and geological
carbon cycles are actually two parts of the same cycle. Be sure to explore the Carbon Cycle
Animation available in the sidebar.
Self-Reflection Assignment: Current Research - The USGS Gas Hydrates Lab
Assignment: Carbon Virtual Lab

Using this Carbon cycle simulator, you will experiment with how humans affect the cycle and what
could happen between now and 2100. Pay attention to the atmospheric CO2 levels as you adjust the
variables between the atmosphere, the biosphere, oceans, and the crust. This model is similar to
models presented by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Between the years
1850 and 2006, atmospheric concentrations have risen from 290 parts per million (ppm) to over 380
ppm - a level higher than any known on Earth in more than 30 million years.
Carbon Cycle Lesson 1
Run the simulation to 2100 with the default settings, and, complete the Data Table, record the total
carbon levels in each "sink" (terrestrial plants, soil, oil and gas, coal, Surface Ocean, and Deep Ocean)
at 2050 and 2100.
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Using the data you collect from the model, answer the following questions while thinking about how
the model mimics real-life conditions:
1. If only one half of the flora in the world existed in 2100 (perhaps due to deforestation), what
do you predict the atmospheric carbon level would be? How would you change the
simulation to reflect this?
2. What is the relationship between increased carbon in the ocean and increased carbon in the
soil? How else might carbon be transferred to soil?
3. Using the data generated by the simulation, determine the mathematical relationship
between the percentage increase in fossil fuel consumption and the increase in atmospheric
carbon. Is the relationship linear?
Carbon Cycle Lesson 2
To find out where all the carbon really goes, run the simulation again, one decade at a time. Record
the total amount of carbon in the atmosphere (the number in the sky) and other carbon sinks
(terrestrial plants, soil, surface ocean, and deep ocean), as carbon moves through the system. Note
that 1 ppm of atmospheric CO2 is equivalent to 2.1 GT (Gigatons) of carbon. As you record your data,
keep in mind that this is a simulation of real life. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the relationship between an increase in fossil fuel consumption and increased
carbon in terrestrial plants? How might this change flora population? What impact could
twenty years at this level of consumption have on flora?
2. What is the relationship between an increase in total carbon concentration (the smokestack)
and increased carbon in the ocean surface? How might this change marine life populations?
What impact could fifty years at this level of emissions have on marine fauna? On marine
flora?
3. In addition to circulating through the carbon cycle, where else might excess carbon be
found? In fifty years, where would you be most likely to see excess carbon?
4. Which areas are most highly (and quickly) affected by an increase in carbon emissions (and
increase in fossil fuel consumption)? How would these effects manifest themselves? What
are the dangers/benefits to these areas?
When you have completed this assignment, submit your work according to your teacher's
instructions.
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Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen and phosphorus are two of the most essential mineral nutrients for all types of ecosystems
and often limit growth if they are not available in sufficient quantities. This is why the basic
ingredients in plant fertilizer are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, commonly abbreviated as
NPK. A slightly expanded version of the basic equation for photosynthesis shows how plants use
energy from the sun to turn nutrients and carbon into organic compounds:
Our atmosphere is composed of 78% N and 21% O. However, this atmospheric nitrogen cannot be
used by organisms without some assistance. The nitrogen cycle is unique because it has stages
during which bacteria help convert the nitrogen into useable forms. Nitrogen is essential for life
because it helps to develop proteins, DNA, and RNA, and provide for plant growth. It can also be a
limiting factor in plant growth.
The nitrogen cycle begins in the atmosphere as a gas N2 . It then goes through many steps
throughout its cycle.
For it to be made useable by organisms, N2 needs to be "fixed". This can occur by lightning or with
the help of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and in nodules on the
roots of legumes.
Click below to watch an animation of nitrogen fixation. A transcript is available on that page.
When N2 is fixed, it's combined with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH3). This fixing process is called
ammonification.
The water-soluble ion of NH3 is converted to (NH4+), which can be taken in by plants through their
roots. NH4+ then goes through a process known as nitrification, in which it is converted into nitrite
ions (NO2-) and then nitrate ions (NO3-). This process is conducted by specialized bacteria called
nitrifying bacteria. These ions can be taken in by plants since they too, are water soluble.
The ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate ions can be assimilated and taken in by plants. Animals then
receive nitrogen through consuming plants. Decomposers receive nitrogen through the
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decomposition of waste and decaying plants and animals. Decomposers process the nitrogen
substances they take in and return the nitrogen to the soil as ammonium ions. Decomposition makes
the nitrogen available to go through nitrification again. For nitrogen to return to the atmosphere in
its gaseous N2 form, it must be denitrified. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into N2+.
Humans have intervened in the nitrogen cycle by developing a way to fix nitrogen artificially,
creating fertilizer. This fixation process, called the Haber process, or Haber-Bosch process conducted
on an enormous scale, has negatively altered the nitrogen cycle by nearly doubling the amount of
nitrogen fixation occurring on the Earth. Excess nitrogen in an aquatic environment can led to the
eutrophication of the ecosystem. Fritz Haber, a German chemist, developed the process in the first
decade of the 20th century. Karl Bosch, another German scientist, adapted the process for industrial
use.
Self-Assessment Quiz
Access the following links on the nitrogen cycle, then answer the following questions.
The Nitrogen Cycle by Teacher's Domain
The Nitrogen Cycle by McGraw Hill
The Nitrogen Cycle Flash Animation
Phosphorous Cycle
The phosphorus cycle is probably the easiest of the biogeochemical cycles to describe. Phosphorus
does not exist in the atmosphere except in dust particles. It is necessary for living organisms, as it is
the backbone of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and other important biological molecules. Phosphorus
tends to move through a local cycle, whereas the other cycles are global in nature, mostly because of
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the Earth's weather. Since phosphorus is limited in the atmosphere, it is unlikely to move great
distances.
Phosphorus is found in soil, rock, and sediments. It is released from these rock forms through
chemical weathering in the form of phosphate (PO4-3). Phosphate is highly soluble in aqueous
solutions and can be absorbed from the soil into plants through their roots. Often phosphorus is a
limiting factor for plant growth, as little of it is released into the environment.
Phosphorus can enter the water table and ultimately travel to the oceans, where it settles on the
ocean floor. Later, through geological processes, ocean mixing, and upwelling, these rocks on the
ocean floor may rise and become new land surface, with the result that their components can
reenter the terrestrial cycles.
Humans affect the phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus-rich rocks for the purpose of processing
them and adding them to commercial inorganic fertilizers. The phosphorus is easily leached into the
groundwater and can find its way into aquatic ecosystems; where it can help promote algae and
other aquatic plant growth than can lead to overgrowth of these plants and ultimately
eutrophication of the pond or lake. Phosphorus also can be added to ecosystems by humans through
the release of untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, and detergents.
Sulfur Cycle
An
important component of protein and vitamins, sulfur is essential for plant and animal health.
Naturally, most sulfur is located in rocks and ocean sediments, but some is also found in the
atmosphere.
The natural sulfur cycle is described by the following path:
1. Sulfur is naturally released into the atmosphere from rocks and sediment in the forms of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) through weathering, volcanic eruptions, and
the decay of dead organisms.
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2. Once in the atmosphere, SO2 reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide (SO3) and with water
to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
3. Sulfur particles are deposited back into the soil and water, or they combine with water and
fall in the form of acid precipitation.
4. Plants absorb sulfate ions (SO42-) through their roots, and animals receive sulfur by
consuming plants.
How are human activities affecting the sulfur cycle?
We intervene in the atmospheric phase of the earth's sulfur cycle by:
Burning sulfur-containing coal and oil to produce electric power, producing about two-thirds
of the human inputs of sulfur dioxide.
Refining sulfur-containing petroleum to make gasoline, heating oil, and other useful
products.
Using smelting to convert sulfur compounds of metallic minerals into free metals such as
copper, lead, and zinc.
The Future of Sulfur

The U.S. is no longer the top energy consumer according to the International Energy Agency. This
occurred in 2009 when China rose to the global energy apex, consuming 2,252 billion tons of oil
equivalent energy from sources such as coal, nuclear power, natural gas and hydro-electric power
about 4 percent more than the United States. In 2000, China only consumed half of the energy of
the USA. Demand for energy is soaring as Chinese are buying more cars, moving into bigger houses
that need more heat, purchasing more televisions, refrigerators and other appliances and starting
new businesses and factories.
Sulfur is different than other minerals with respect to mining issues and supply concerns. As long as
the world economy is petroleum-driven, the sustainable production of necessary sulfur supplies is
not in question. Instead of relying on sulfur mining, it is possible to recover enough sulfur for the
global demand using the natural byproducts at natural gas plants and petroleum refineries.
Byproduct H2SO4 from metal smelters contributes additional supplies.
While the production of recovered sulfur has been increasing around the world as a result of
growing environmental awareness and concerns, the use of sulfur in a multitude of end uses has
increased at a slower pace. Huge quantities of sulfur and H2SO4 are consumed in many industries,
but not as much as is produced. Expansive world trade transfers large quantities of sulfur from the
large producing areas to the large consumers. Stocks, however, are accumulating at recovery
operations in remote locations where the distances to the market make its transportation
prohibitively expensive. In such countries as Kazakhstan, the infrastructure is inadequate for
transporting the large volumes of sulfur produced.
The cumulative effects of sulfur production also differ from the results of other mineral production.
Modern sulfur production actually results in improved environmental conditions rather than mining
processes and outcomes that must be repaired. Sulfur recovery prevents the emissions of SO2 and
other harmful compounds into the atmosphere, avoiding the detrimental effects of those emissions.
The challenges facing the sulfur industry are unique. In other mineral industries, the major concerns
are how to continue to produce necessary materials and protect the environment as much as
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possible at the same time. The sulfur industry is confronting the question of what to do with all the
sulfur it produces. Current production exceeds consumption by a relatively small percentage, but
environmental regulations continue to increase with little growth in sulfur uses. The 21st century
sulfur industry will need to expand sulfur consumption in nontraditional markets and find acceptable
ways to dispose of unneeded sulfur without compromising environmental protection.
Oxygen Cycle
The Oxygen cycle is not
described in most textbooks
but is nevertheless very
important for the living
world. Oxygen (O2) is the
byproduct of
photosynthesis in plants
and a reactant in the
cellular respiration of plants
and animals. Oxygen is the
second major component of
the atmosphere after
nitrogen gas (N2) and
composes approximately 21
percent of the atmosphere.
Oxygen is a reactive
molecule. Besides
involvement in the photosynthetic and cellular respiration reactions, oxygen is removed from the
atmosphere during the weathering process of rock and minerals. As new rocks and minerals are
exposed to the atmosphere during weathering, oxygen combines with them in a process called
oxidation and is, thus, removed from the atmosphere.
Oxygen is also important in the formation of atmospheric ozone. Sunlight breaks water (H2O) vapor
into hydrogen gas and oxygen, and the hydrogen escapes Earth's atmosphere and travels into outer
space. Ozone (O3) is a naturally occurring reaction product in the atmosphere, where it forms a
layer. The ozone layer is important for filtering out much of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
from the sun and keeping it from hitting the Earth.
The chemical reaction for the formation of ozone is:
Lab: Energy in a Cell and the Cycle of Matter

This assignment has two subparts. First, you will complete a virtual lab on photosynthesis and
cellular respiration, then you will conduct a lab to demonstrate how photosynthesis connects the
carbon and oxygen cycles.
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Download the lab handout from sidebar. When you have completed this assignment, please submit
your work.
The Hydrologic Cycle

The
water cycle is one of the first elementary science topics introduced to young children. As one moves
from elementary, middle to high school, we begin to understand the complexity and integration of
the hydrologic cycle with the other biogeochemical cycles.
Basically, it is understood that:
Water enters the atmosphere by evaporation and by transpiration from leaves.
It condenses and falls from the atmosphere as precipitation.
When water falls as precipitation on land, it has two possible pathways:

o
Returns to the hydrosphere by flowing as runoff from the land surface into streams,
rivers, lakes, and eventually the ocean.
Returns to the lithosphere by infiltration into the ground becoming soil water or
ground water.
Five Processes of the Hydrologic Cycle

1. Precipitation: Any form of water falling from the atmosphere to the ground.
2. Condensation: The process of changing from a gas to a liquid
3. Evapotranspiration: Evaporation + transpiration = Evapotranspiration
1. Evaporation: the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from
the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.
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1. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation

2. Transpiration: the release of water vapor from plants into the atmosphere.
4. Run-off: Variety of ways water moves across the land
1. Snowmelt: run off from melting of snow on mountain tops
2. Water can flow to rivers, lakes, reservoirs, oceans or infiltrate into soil
5. Infiltration: Flow of water from surface into the ground
1. Once in ground can become soil water or ground water
The Fremont School District uses oil to heat school buildings. Go Green! is a new project the district
will implement. The superintendent has declared that the district will dedicate itself to reducing its
carbon footprint. In addition to taking serious energy-conservation measures, the district is planning
to help offset its carbon dioxide emissions by raising money to help conserve a portion of a large
tract of forest land adjacent to the high school campus.
(a) Describe one alternative energy source that would reduce the carbon footprint of the school
district. Discuss one environmental benefit (other than reduced CO2 emissions) and one
environmental drawback of using the alternative source instead of fuel oil.
(b) Identify TWO ecological benefits provided by intact forest ecosystems (other than reducing CO2
levels in the atmosphere).
(c) Use the assumptions below to answer the questions that follow. For each calculation, show all
work.
The biomass of the forest increases at an annual rate of 2.7 x 105 kg/ha.
The forest biomass is 50 percent carbon by mass.
Each year the district uses 3.0 x 105 gallons of fuel oil for heating and hot water.
10 kg of CO2 is produced when 1 gallon of fuel oil is burned.
1.0 kg of CO2 contains 0.27 kg of carbon.
The cost of putting 1 ha of the forest into conservancy is $12,000
(i) Calculate the mass of carbon, in kg, that is accumulated and stored in 1.0 ha of forest in one year.
(ii) Calculate the mass of carbon, in kg, that is emitted by the school as a result of its fuel-oil
consumption in one year.
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(iii) Calculate the number of hectares of forest the school district needs to conserve in order to offset
the carbon released in one year by the school burning its fuel oil.
(iv) Calculate the amount of money the school district must raise for the conservation project.
Biodiversity: Fragile Ecosystems and Endangered Species
The rate at which species are becoming extinct today has become more accelerated than in the past.
Humans are altering the environment to such a degree that many animals cannot adapt - therefore
they die. Other species are being illegally hunted or trapped at a rate that is also causing extinction.
Oil spills, pesticides, acid rain, and solid wastes are finding their way into animals' digestive tracts
and skin, which is still another reason animals are disappearing from our earth. If, in fact, wildlife are
an "environmental barometer", the human species is also in trouble.
Essential Questions
1. What is the inherent value of biological diversity?
2. How does the conservation of biological diversity involve an understanding of the intricate
relationships among species and between species and their environments?
3. What are the ecological functions of biological diversity?
4. What major problems are associated with biological diversity and what impact does human
activity have?
5. How do species interact?
6. What limits the growth of populations?
7. How do communities and ecosystems respond to changing environmental conditions?
8. How do species replace one another in ecological succession?
9. Why should we protect certain species and not others?
Module Minute
Environmental richness is used to describe the variety and interconnectedness of
life on Earth. It includes genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem
diversity around the world. The potential location of biological communities is
determined in large part by climate, moisture availability, soil type,
geomorphology and other natural features. Understanding the global
distribution of biomes, and knowing the differences in who lives where and why,
are essential to the study of global environmental science. Human occupation and use of natural
resources is strongly dependent on the biomes found in particular locations. Natural selection, in
which beneficial traits are passed from survivors to their progeny, is the mechanism by which
evolution occurs. Species interactions-competition, predation, symbiosis, etc., are important factors
in natural selection. Human introduction of new species as well as removal of existing ones can
cause profound changes in biological communities and can compromise the life-supporting
ecological services on which we all depend.
What to Expect
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Discussion: Fragile Earth
Assignment: Biome Concept Map
Lab: Ecosystem Field Walk
Project: Endangered Species
FRQ: 2010 Deadly Pollutants Kill Children
Test: Biodiversity
Key Terms
Introduction to Biodiversity
When surveyed, Americans often list the environment as one thing they are concerned about. The
problems our generation faces are becoming more alarming every day. Although animals whose
species are threatened, or in danger of extinction, is one topic of concern, wildlife can be also be
considered an "environmental barometer." Wildlife exists where nature is in balance. Some
scientists estimate the current extinction rate is more than 1,000 times the natural rate of
extinction.
As you will recall, a species is a distinct type of organism, a set of individuals that uniquely share
certain characteristics and can breed with one another and produce fertile offspring. We can express
species diversity in terms of the number or variety of species in a particular region. One component
of species diversity is species richness, the number of species. Another is evenness or relative
abundance, the extent to which different species are similar in their numbers of individuals.
Our rising human population and resource consumption are putting ever greater pressure on the
flora and fauna of our planet, from tigers to tiger beetles. We are diminishing Earth's diversity of life,
the very quality that makes our planet unique among all other planets. The study of the
environment and biodiversity in an effort to protect species and their habitats is known as
conservation biology. Through these studies, solutions are developed to address habitat loss and
species loss.
People from many walks of life are trying to protect and conserve our natural world in many ways.
Nonprofit organizations, communities, and individuals bring awareness and take initiative to protect
habitats and wildlife, and laws and policies are put in place to support conservation efforts.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) was signed on December 28, 1973, and provides for the
conservation of species that are endangered or threatened throughout all or a significant portion of
their range, and the conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend. The ESA has been
amended several times and replaced the Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Conservation Strategies
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Discussion: Fragile Earth

Take a look below at a photo slide show of the "Fragile Earth."
Source
Select one slide that you felt best summarized the title (Fragile Earth). Explain why you picked this
slide.
Biodiversity Patterns
Species richness generally increases as one approaches the equator. This pattern of variation with
latitude, called the latitudinal gradient, is one the most obvious patterns in ecology, yet one of the
most difficult ones for scientists to explain. Greater amounts of solar energy, heat, and humidity at
tropical latitudes lead to more plant growth, making areas nearer the equator more productive and
able to support larger numbers of animals. Additionally, polar and temperate regions may be
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relatively species-poor because glaciation events repeatedly force organisms from these regions
toward more tropical latitudes.
The latitudinal gradient influences the species diversity of Earth's biomes. Tropical dry forests and
rain forests tend to support far more species than tundra and boreal forests. Tropical biomes
typically show more evenness as well, whereas in high latitude biomes with low species richness,
particular species greatly outnumber others.
For any given area, species diversity tends to increase with diversity of habitats, because each
habitat supports a somewhat different set of organisms. Thus, ecotones, transition zones where two
or more habitats intersect, often support high biodiversity. Human disturbance (such as when we
clear open patches within a forested landscape) can sometimes create ecotones or patchwork
combinations of habitats.
Terrestrial Biome Distribution
Biodiversity and Speciation Self-Assessment

Click to watch "How Did Life Emerge Here?"
Answer the following self-assessment questions:
Describe how different life forms plants, birds, marine organisms arose in the Hawaiian
Islands. ANSWER What was the first type of life that developed on the Hawaiian Islands?
ANSWER What are some reasons that snakes, land mammals, and ants are not native to the
Hawaiian Islands? ANSWER
Why was it difficult for life to flourish on the islands? ANSWER Why does it take so long for
plants to grow on lava flows? ANSWER
How did soil develop on the Hawaiian Islands? How did lichens, mosses and ferns pave the
way for other plants to grow on the Hawaiian Islands? ANSWER
Why is the soil that is created over time on the Hawaiian Islands very fertile? ANSWER
Why do you think 90% of Hawaii's species are endemic to the archipelago? ANSWER
Assignment: Biome Concept Map

Create a concept map on a particular biome. The project will contain various images, a graph, a
world map, other factors that are interesting or unique, and pictures of characteristic plants and
animals in this particular biome. The following content, (images/climate graph) and concepts should
include:
1. World Location (include latitude/longitude) and a map that illustrates its location.
2. Select a representative city for the climate (Average annual temperature, seasonal temperature,
and precipitation)
a. you will complete a climate graph for the biome selected
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b. use the "creating a climate graph using excel" handout

3. Other Environmental Factors (soil, tides, salinity, etc.)
4. Representative flora and fauna found in this biome.
5. Correct documentation for all sources must be used. You may upload a separate word document
listing your sources and what you obtained from each source.
The project should be created using concept mapping software or may be hand drawn and
then scanned into the document you will upload. Images must be included, either digitally
created by you, or pulled from the Internet with proper citation for content. When you have
completed your assignment, submit it according to your teacher's instructions.
Here is a VERY simple biome concept map. This example is just to give you an idea of what a concept
map looks like. Obviously, yours will contain much more detail and information.
Assignment Instructions
1. Select a biome. Choose from: Tundra, Coniferous Forest, Temperate Decicuous Forest,
Tropical Rain Forest, Grasslands (temperate, savanna), Desert, Freshwater Ecosystems, or
Marine Ecosystems.
2. Place the biome in the center concept on your map.
3. Then make appropriate branches from the center point for each of the following categories:
fauna (animals), flora (plants), climate specifics, world location/map, other environmental
factors, and interesting facts.
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4. Research your biome to include terms and ideas for each of those main categories and link
them on your map. Include photos or other images where appropriate.
5. Submit a word document for your sources. You can use a webtool to help your format your
source.
See More resources for possible webtools to use for formating sources.
Evolution and Natural selection

Biodiversity on Earth has been created through
the process of evolution, the variation in genetic
makeup of a population of organisms through
generations. Genetic changes take place in
organisms within a population over many
generations, occurring randomly or through the
process of natural selection. Natural selection
results when genetic traits that strengthen an
organism's chance of survival and reproduction
are passed on from generation to generation,
ultimately altering the genetic makeup of a
population, creating a new species. In the process
of natural selection, some organisms in a
population are better suited to survive than others; therefore, organisms that survive are those that
have a reproduction advantage and are more likely to pass on their genes. Across time, entire
populations contain traits that increase the likelihood to adapt, survive and reproduce.
Natural selection is the concept that individuals in a population exhibit variation in their heritable
traits, and those organisms with traits that are best suited for the environment tend to produce
more offspring than those that are less well suited. You may have heard the phrase, "survival of the
fittest" to describe natural selection, but this phrase is often misleading, often putting people in the
mind of animals fighting to the death to survive. The truth is that relative fitness depends on several
different factors, such as the ability to gather food, protective coloration, or environmental
adaptations. Each of these examples influences natural selection by determining how efficiently an
organism can reproduce in a particular environment. Natural selection can alter the frequency
distribution of heritable traits in three distinct ways depending on the influence of environmental
factors.
Stabilizing Selection favors the intermediate phenotypes. For example if bees preferred pink
petunias over red or white, then the pink ones would be more fit and its population would increase
while the red and white ones would decrease.
Directional Selection favors one extreme or the other. In the graph below, it seems that darker
squirrels would be less frequently eaten, as they could hide in the shadows of tree limbs, and the
population of darker colored squirrels would increase.
Disruptive Selection favors the extreme phenotypes. In the case of the petunias, if bees preferred
either the red or white, but not pink, then the pink ones would not be pollinated and would decline
in population.
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The traits that lead to success are adaptive traits, or adaptations. For these traits to be passed on to
offspring, genes in an organism's DNA must code for that trait. During DNA replication, which occurs
in an organism's cells millions of times throughout its life, errors can occur. These errors lead to
accidental alterations in DNA, called mutations. Most mutations don't have an effect, but some can
be favorable and some can be fatal. The positive mutations can lead to a better ability to survive and
reproduce in an environment, leading to natural selection. These mutations can occur through
mating, when genetic material combines during sexual reproduction.
Switching Genes On and Off
Click below to watch a NOVA video on genes. Then answer the self-assessment questions.
Self-Assessment Questions:
Why does one species of fruit fly exhibit wing spots while the other does not, even though
they share the same genes? ANSWER
What is "junk" DNA? ANSWER
What is a gene switch, and how does it function? ANSWER
What evolutionary advantage do you think a fruit fly gains from having wing spots? ANSWER
The environment plays a key role in determining which traits are beneficial; thus, an organism's
environment, as well as genetic makeup, effect natural selection and ultimately the evolution of a
species.
Island Biogeography Experiment
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Background Information: Biogeography refers to the past and present geographic distribution of
plants and animals in the world. The term "island" in this instance does not literally refer to an
island. An "island" could be a literal island, but it can also be any ecosystem that is different from the
ecosystems around it, such as a wetland in the urban community or a small rainforest surrounded by
farmland.
Once the island reaches equilibrium, it will support a finite number of species. The diversity of those
species mainly depends on three things:
Extinction: how many species die out over time
Immigration: how many new species move to the island from neighboring islands or
landmasses
Emigration: how many species leave the island to settle elsewhere.
Time, climate, and isolation will also effect species diversity. The distance of an island or other
isolated habitat from other habitats is an important contributor to the levels of immigration and
emigration. If an island is close to a large mainland, more animals will arrive and colonize the island;
whereas an island that is isolated or many miles away from the mainland will have less diverse
species.
To experiment with these ideas. Click below to access the virtual island.
This virtual world has 10 species of various animals on the mainland to the left. To the right are two
islands. You can adjust island size, distance from the mainland, and temperature. You can also adjust
whether you are looking at mammal populations, arthropod, or birds and how densely populated
those species are. See if you can create an island that contains at least 5 species. This will not be
turned in for a grade.
Natural Ecosystem Changes
Believe it or not, often the biotic balance in a community is maintained by a single species, known as
the keystone species. A keystone species is a species whose very presence contributes to an
ecosystem's diversity and whose extinction would consequently lead to the extinction of other forms
of life. For example, fig trees are the keystone species in a tropical forest; likewise, wolves were
introduced back into Yellowstone Park because without wolves to control the number of herbivores,
the ecosystem was drastically changed. As a general rule, if the keystone species is removed from an
ecosystem, then the ecosystem completely changes.
Indigenous species are those that originate and live or occur naturally in an area or environment.
With increasing frequency, however, new species are being introduced into ecosystems by chance,
by accident, or with intention. While some introduced species cannot find a niche and die out, many
others are quite happy in their new environment, and compete successfully with the indigenous
species. One example of the harm that introduced species can do was seen when, in 1904, a fungus
was introduced accidentally into deciduous forests of the eastern United States; thus fungus caused
a blight that killed nearly all of the chestnut tress by the early 1950s. Be sure to read the section
titled "Invasive Species" on the next page of this module.
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Lab: Ecosystem Field Walk

It is now time to put on your hiking boots and take a field walk. Download a copy of the Ecosystem
Field Walk from the sidebar. When you have completed your walk, write a formal lab report. Be sure
to refer to the rubric for help. When you have finished, submit your report according to your
teacher's instructions.
Relationships between Species
Populations are individual species, but all the interacting organisms, of all the different populations
that live in a particular area make up the community. Community interactions, such as competition,
predation, and various forms of symbiosis, can powerfully affect an ecosystem. Let's begin with a
video review of community ecology... click below.
Competition
Competition occurs when the organisms of the same or different species attempt to use an ecology
resource in the same place at the same time. For example, two different species of mountain lions
may compete for the same prey, or weeds and grass may compete for the same nutrients available
in the soil. Regardless of the species involved, both organisms are negatively impacted. In some
cases, one species may have a competitive advantage over the other species, and may over time
result in the complete elimination of the species. This is referred to as competitive exclusion.
Another way to respond to competition between species is to separate resources in a niche. An
ecological niche is the sum of a species' use of biotic and abiotic resources in its environment. This is
different from where the organism lives, that is the habitat. A niche is more so how the organism
specifically interacts or fits in within the environment. This specifically includes the range of
conditions that the species can tolerate, the methods by which it obtains needed resources, the
number of offspring it has, its time of reproduction, and all its other interaction with its
environment.
Two species cannot coexist permanently in a community if their niches are identical. If competitive
exclusion does not lead to the extinction of the other organism, the niche of one species becomes
modified. This leads to the development of the fundamental niche and the realized niche. The
fundamental niche is the range of conditions that a species can potentially tolerate and the range of
resources it can potentially use. The realized niche of a species is the range of resources it actually
uses for that particular environment. Generalists are species with broad niches; they can tolerate a
range of conditions and use a variety of resources. Opossums are generalists. Species that have
narrow niches, such as the koala, are called specialists.
Predation
Predation is an interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism. The
organism doing the capturing is called the predator and the organism being captured is called the
prey. This is probably an obvious review, so we will go into a little more depth as to why this is
important to the study of ecology.
The predator prey relationship is one of the primary influences of animal adaptations. Most
predators have adaptations such as claws, teeth, fangs, stingers, or poison to help them capture and
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subdue their prey. Additionally, predators have acute sensory adaptations which allow them to
locate and identify potential prey. Likewise, prey have adaptations that help them avoid attack and
capture. While some defensive adaptations include behavioral patterns, others include
morphological and physiological defense mechanisms. Review the interactivity below to review
some of these adaptations.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is any relationship where two or more species live in direct and intimate contact. There
are three categories of symbiosis, mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Mutualism is a
symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit. One example we discussed previously was that
of lichen. Both the algae and the fungi work together in a mutually beneficial relationship.
Commensalism is an interaction between species in which one benefits and the other is not
affected. Parasitism is a symbiotic interaction in which one organism benefits at the expense of the
other organism. The benefiting organism is called the parasite and the organism harmed is called the
host.
Clip 1: Shark and Turtle

1. How does the turtle protect itself? ANSWER
2. What relationship is held between the tiger shark and the loggerhead turtle? ANSWER
Clip 2: Unlikely Travel Companions
1. List three ways in which being near a shark might be beneficial to a fish. ANSWER
2. What is one way that a shark might benefit from a fish (other than as prey)? ANSWER
3. Classify each shark-fish relationship shown in this clip as commensalism, or mutualism.
ANSWER
Clip 3: Sharks and Fisherman
1. How have sharks become trained to follow fishermen? ANSWER
2. Describe how the following species pairs interact in the clip: fishermen/fish; sharks/fish;
sharks/fishermen. ANSWER
Clip 4: Collapse of Sharks
1. Why are shark populations in danger of collapse? ANSWER
2. How has the relationship between sharks and humans changed over time? ANSWER
3. What might happen if the shark fin trade continues unchecked? ANSWER
Clip 5: Sharks in our Future
1. Describe the type of tourism seen in this clip. ANSWER
2. What benefit do these businesses provide to: sharks? To local populations? To tourists?
ANSWER
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3. How might these businesses help prevent the collapse of shark populations? ANSWER
Biodiversity Loss, Conservation, Extinction

Biodiversity at all levels is being lost to human impact, most irretrievably in the extinction of species.
Extinction occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist. The
disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally, is
referred to as extirpation. The International Union for Conservation and Natural Resources (IUCN)
maintains The Red List, an updated list of species facing high risks of extinction. The 2010 Red List
reported that 21% of mammal species, 12% of bird species, and 30% of amphibian species are
threatened with extinction. Among the 1,143 mammals facing extinction, the tiger is one of the most
endangered large animals on the planet.
Overall, scientists have identified four primary causes of population decline and species extinction:
habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, and overharvesting. Global climate change now is becoming
the fifth.
Habitat Loss
Habitat alteration results from any human activity that changes an ecosystem. Deforestation,
farming, mining, development, and dams are examples that affect habitats. Habitation alteration is
the largest contributor to biodiversity loss and population declines. At one point, there were an
estimated 16 million square kilometers of tropical rain forest. Today that number is only 9 million.
Additionally, farming and logging have degraded at least 94% of temperate broadleaf forests. In the
last 200 years, almost 50% of the natural wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed. Destruction is
not limited to land. Oceans are also experiencing habitat loss. At least one-fifth of coral reefs have
been completely destroyed while another one-fifth are severely degraded due to overfishing.
Overharvesting
For most species, a high intensity of hunting or harvesting by people will not in itself pose a threat of
extinction, but for some it can. The Siberian Tiger is one of the classic K-selected species impacted by
the political freedom that came with the Soviet Union's breakup in 1980. Large in size, few in
number, long-lived and raising few young in its lifetime, this tiger species fell prey to advent of
Russian hunting. The sale of the parts from one tiger fetches at least $15,000 in today's black
market- a powerful incentive for poachers in poor regions.
Recently, more attention has been given to overharvesting in the world's oceans. Populations of
whales were decimated in the 17th and 18th centuries. More recently, scientists have expressed
concern about overharvesting of large fish such as sharks and tuna. Coral reefs are threatened by
excessive tourism and the removal of species for home aquariums. According to a Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimate, over 70% of the world's fish species are either fully
exploited or depleted. The dramatic increase of destructive fishing techniques worldwide destroys
marine mammals and entire ecosystems. FAO reports that illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing worldwide appears to be increasing as fishermen seek to avoid stricter rules in many places in
response to shrinking catches and declining fish stocks.
Governments have passed laws, signed treaties, and strengthened anti-poaching efforts. Click below
to watch a video explaining the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
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Wild Fauna and Flora) legislation. Scientific tests that use DNA from elephant ivory can determine
the geographic location and whether its origin is natural environment or black market.
Self-Assessment: Biologists Push to Save Sturgeon

Watch this short documentary on the push to save the sturgeon and answer the following questions
to check your understanding.
How has the sturgeons' river habitat been diminished? ANSWER
What other practice threatens sturgeon in the Ural River? ANSWER
What steps have some countries taken to help protect sturgeon? ANSWER
How are conservation biologists identifying illegal imports? ANSWER
Do you think enforcing laws and reducing consumer demand for caviar will help sturgeon
survive? Why or why not? What other steps do you think could be taken? ANSWER
Pollution
Although pollution is a substantial threat, it tends to be less significant than the public actually
believes. The damage to wildlife and ecosystems caused by pollution can be severe, but this tends to
be surpassed by the harm caused by habitat alteration or invasive species.
Due to the sensitivity of many amphibian species, their decline and degradation is directly associated
with water pollution and agricultural runoff (including fertilizers, pesticides, and sediments).
Investigate the factors listed below to determine the variation and severity of pollution on aquatic
and terrestrial amphibians. Each factor is linked to a website with more information.
Source of table
FACTOR
PROCESS(ES)
Habitat destruction, alteration

and fragmentation
Roads, introduced species, or other factors separate remaining

populations of amphibians from each other.
Introduced Species
Non-native species prey on or compete with native amphibians.
Over-Exploitation
Amphibians are removed from the wild and sold internationally

as food, as pets, or for medicinal and biological supply markets.
Climate Change
Amphibians are extremely sensitive to small changes in

temperature and moisture. Changes in global weather patterns
(e.g. El Nio events or global warming) can alter breeding
behavior, affect reproductive success, decrease immune
functions and increase amphibian sensitivity to chemical
contaminants.
UV-B Radiation
Levels of UV-B radiation in the atmosphere have risen

significantly over the past few decades. Researchers have found
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that UV-B radiation can kill amphibians directly, cause sublethal

effects such as slowed growth rates and immune dysfunction,
and work synergistically with contaminants, pathogens and
climate change.
Chemical Contaminants
Chemical stressors (e.g., pesticides, heavy metals, acidification

and nitrogen based fertilizers) can have lethal, sublethal, direct
or indirect effects on amphibians. These effects may include
death, decreased growth rates, developmental and behavioral
abnormalities, decreased reproductive success, weakened
immune systems and/or hermaphroditism.
Disease
New diseases (such as chytridiomycosis) or higher susceptibility

to existing diseases leads to deaths of adults and larvae.
Deformities
There has been a recent and widespread increase of deformities

(or malformations) in natural populations of amphibians; this is
now perceived as a major environmental problem.
Synergisms
Multiple factors can act together to cause mortality or sub-lethal

effects.
Invasive Species
When humans introduce non-invasive species to new environments, some may become invasive and
might also push native species toward extinction. These species are so numerous and widespread
that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a native, and invasive species. The invasive
species proliferate because there are no known predators to keep the population in check. Kudzu,
photo to right, was introduced into the southeast for erosion control in the early 20th century. With
the mild winters in the southeastern United States, the vine soon ran rampant and is widespread
across the region. Due to the global economy and ease with which goods are transported
throughout the world, invasive species are continually being introduced and will continue to be a
problem.
Population Dynamics
Our growing population, as well as our growing consumption, affects the environment and our
ability to meet the needs of humanity. However, there are at lest two major reasons to be
encouraged. First, although global population is still rising, the rate of growth has decreased nearly
everywhere, and some countries are even seeing population declines. Most developed nations have
passed through the demographic transition showing that is possible. A second reason to feel
encouraged is the progress is expanding rights for women worldwide. Women are receiving better
education, more economic independence, and more ability to control their reproductive decisions.
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Aside from the clear ethical progress these developments entail, they are helping slow population
growth.
Essential Questions
1. Can there be long-term solutions to environmental problems without a decrease in human
population growth rate?
2. What factors control the rate of human population growth?
3. How many people can the earth sustain?
4. What has been the impact of modern medical practices, improvements in sanitation, control
of disease-spreading organisms, and supplies of human necessities, on the birth rates and
death rates of human populations?
5. Why have countries with a high standard of living moved more quickly to a lower birth rate
than have countries with a low standard of living?
Module Minute
The human population is unique compared to other species due to our ability to
alter our environment effectively and efficiently with the use of technology and
invention. Although population growth has begun to stabilize or decline in some
countries, it continues to soar in others. Overall, the human population continues to
grow exponentially, and since we can alter our environment to suit our needs, we
have extended the carrying capacity of our planet for ourselves, while reducing the
carrying capacity for other species.
What to Expect
Discussion: Aging Baby Boomers
Assignment: Demographics Lab
Lab: Population Growth
Assignment: Generating Heat
Project: Public Service Announcement
FRQ: 2000 Population Pyramids
Test: Population Dynamics
Key Terms
age structure pyramid - the number and proportion of people at each age in a population
birth rate - the number of births per 1000 people per year; also called natality.
carrying capacity: (K) - The maximum number of individuals of a given species that a
particular environment can support sustainably (long-term), assuming there are no changes
in that environment
death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people per year; also call mortality
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demographic transition: the process whereby a country that is industrializing moves from
relatively high birth and death rates to relatively low death rates, followed within a few
generations by reduced birth rates.
demographics: the application of demographic science that provides information on the

populations of various countries or groups of people
developing countries: a country that is not highly industrialized and is characterized by high
fertility rates, high infant mortality rates, and low per capita incomes. Developing countries
fall into two subcategories: moderately developed and less developed.
less developed or underdeveloped countries: a developing country with a low level of

industrialization , a high fertility rate, a high infant morality rate, and a low per capita
income (relative to highly developed counties)
emigration: a type of dispersal in which individuals leave a population and thus decrease its
size
density dependent factors: an environmental factor whose effects on a population change

as population density changes; density-dependent factors tend to retard population growth
as population density increases and enhance population growth as population density
decreases
exponential growth: The accelerating population growth that occurs when optimal
conditions allow a constant rate of increase over time. When the increase in population
number versus time is plotted on a graph, exponential population growth produces a
characteristic J-shaped curve.
density independent factors: an environmental factor that affects the size of a population
but is not influenced by changes in population density
immigration: movement of a population into an area
highly developed country: an industrialized country that is characterized by a low fertility

rate, low infant mortality rate, and high per capita income.
IPAT model- summarizes how environmental impact (I) results from interactions among
population size (P), affluence (A), and technology (T)
life expectancy: the amount of time that the typical person in a population or cohort is
expected to live
K-selected species: a reproductive strategy in which a species typically has a large body size,
slow development, long life span, and does not devote a large proportion of its metabolic
energy to the production of offspring
limiting resources: any environmental resource that, because it is scarce or at unfavorable

levels, restricts the ecological niche of an organism.
population: a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same geographic area
at the same time.
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population density: the number of individuals of a species per unit of area or volume at a
given time.; Population density: number of people the area they occupy = population
density
population growth momentum: the continued growth of a population after fertility rates
have declined as a result of a population's young age structure; population growth
momentum can be either positive or negative but is usually discussion in a positive context.
population ecology: the branch of biology that deals with the numbers of a particular
species that are found in an area and how and why those numbers change (or remain fixed)
over time.
Population
Watch the following video "The Minature Earth Project" to gain a better understanding of how the
global population is distributed. If the video below will not open go directly to the Miniature Earth
Project Website.
Population in the world is currently growing at a rate of around 1.10% per year representing a
doubling time of about 61 years. The average population change is currently estimated at around 75
million per year. Annual growth rate reached its peak in the late 1960s, when it was at 2% and
above. The rate of increase has therefore almost halved since its peak of 2.19 %, which was reached
in 1963, to the current 1.15%. The annual growth rate is currently declining and is projected to
continue to decline in the coming years, but the pace of the future change is uncertain. Currently, it
is estimated that it will become less than 1% by 2020 and less than 0.5% by 2050. This means that
world population will continue to grow in the 21st century, but at a slower rate compared to the
recent past. World population has doubled (100% increase) in 40 years from 1959 (3 billion) to 1999
(6 billion). It is now estimated that it will take a further 42 years to increase by another 50%, to
become 9 billion by 2042.
The latest United Nations projections indicate that world population will nearly stabilize at just
above 10 billion people after 2100.
Population Growth Rate Around the World in 2011
Distribution
Population growth is not the same in every country or every region. Currently, growth is slowing in
developed nations, while many developing countries are still growing at an astounding rate.
Studying the statistical change in human populations and applying the concepts of population
ecology to this is called demography. By studying the size, density, distribution, sex ratios, age
structure, birth and death rates, and movement of people, a demographer can help to predict shifts
in populations and potential environmental consequences throughout the world.
The distribution of the human population is considered to be clumped, with more people living in
regions with climates that are tropical, subtropical, or temperate. Such locations include China,
India, Europe, and Mexico. Populations are also the densest near water, whether freshwater or
saltwater. More people living in a particular area means there is more of an impact on the
environment from use and pollution in that area.
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The most populous nation, China has approximately 1.3 billion; India is 2nd with about 1.15 billion
and the USA is third with approximately 300 million people. China and India are considered
developing nations but are continuing to move toward "developed" nation status due to increased
job growth and opportunities. The environmental impact of both countries is quite large, but with
more and more people having the means to consume and the desire to have materials that improve
their own lifestyles, the effect on the environment will be even more dramatic and humans will
continue to move closer to the carrying capacity of the Earth.
Population Density by Country and Region 2009
How is population studied?

Imagine for a moment 3 groups of countries, each with a different population pyramid . The first has
a huge bulge at the bottom, the second is wider in the middle and the third is relatively broad at top.
If this represents the world in 2025, what can we expect?

This Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report tells some of the story:
3 Groups:
We can start by dividing the world into the developed, developing, and under developed nations.
The more developed countries of the world would include most of Western and Eastern
Europe, New Zealand, Canada, and Japan.
In the middle group, commonly called the developing countries, we could list many Latin
American countries like Brazil and Argentina. Kenya is an example in Africa. For Asia, there is
India, and in the Pacific, Indonesia.
For the underdeveloped countries, we would identify Ethiopia, Uganda, many other African
nations, and Haiti and Samoa are examples. (In the CBO report, the U.S. and China were
presented separately.)
3 Demographic Stages:
Historically, due to disease and limitations on food production, the human population would be
subject to high birth rates and high death rates. A woman may have 10 children in her lifetime and
only a few would have reached maturity to have his or her own children. Over time, these two rates
balanced each other out and the human population remained steady.
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World Population from 10,000 BC to Present Day
In recent years, medicine and other technolgoical advances have decreased the death rate and
increased food production. This has lead to an overall increase in the population of the world. As
individual populations move from underdeveloped to developed, it will undergo 3 distinct changes
after centuries of high mortality and fertility rates.
1. Stage 1 - Initially there are high birth rates and high death rates which "cancel" each other
out. Overall popualtion, shown in black, remains low and steady
2. Stage 2 - Due to advances in health care, development of modern technology, and better
sanitation, birth rates remain high, but more children live. The death rate decreases as fewer
people die due to illness and overall length of life incrases. The result is an increase in
population. Depending on characteristics of the initial population, this growth rate can be
quite high.
3. Stage 3 - When these children grow up and become young adults, they tend to have fewer
children than the previous generation. Birth rate will begin to decline and population growth
will slow.
4. Stage 4 - Birth Rates and death rates have once again become harmonious, this time at the
low end of the spectrum. Death rates "cancel" birth rates and the total population will
steady. Depending on the population, birth rates may even become lower than death rates,
leading to a declining popualation.
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3 Population Pyramids
Each of the stages described above, can also be seen in population pyramids.
In stage 1, the population bulge is at the bottom of the pyramid, stage 2, in the bottom and middle,
and stage 3 and 4 at the top.
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Population Age Structure

Click on the following video from Hippocampus to learn about how population pyramids are created.
Balanced
A balanced age structure generally has the same number of individuals throughout each age group
and represents a stable population and no growth. Examples include Denmark, Austria, and Spain.
Pyramid Shape
A pyramid-shaped diagram reflects a population with a large number of young people. This is a
growing population, and in the long terms this population will increase assuming no major changes
to any particular group. A pyramid can represent either rapid growth or slow growth. Examples of
rapid growth (a steep-sided pyramid) include Afghanistan, Angola, Kenya, Nigeria, and Guatemala.
Examples of slow growth (gently sloping pyramid) include the USA and Canada.
Inverted Pyramid
An inverted pyramid structure, or diamond-shaped structure, shows an aging population with fewer
young. This population will decline over time, but it may put pressure on the young to take care of
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the elderly. Also there could be a decline in the economy and in the strength of that nation's
military, with fewer young entering the workforce. Examples include China and Germany.
The Economic Lesson

3 Economic Implications
Each of the stages discussed on the previous page, also impact the economy of the region.
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During Stage 1, while death rates and birth rates are high, countries experience less economic
growth because adults use the resources for child rearing. The purchases are centered on demands
or needs of the children. Additinally, because there are so many children, there are fewer resources
available for each child. For example, in many countries, education is not free, if a couple has 10
children, the liklihood of all 10 being able to recieve an education is low. Additionally, there is less
food, medicine, and attention provided to each child.
As a region moves into Stage 2, and birth rates begin to decline. More resources are avilable to each
child, education rates tend to climb, and those children compose a larger group that works, saves
and contributes to economic growth. Additionally, each of those children, who are now working
adults, tend to have fewer children themselves, concentrating the resources available for each child.
As long as a country generally stays in this pattern, where each couple has two children to replace
themselves, then population rates will remain stead and there will be enough younger people to
support the older people.
However, if birth rates decline, as is happening in many developed countries who are in Stage 3,
there will be a large "retired" or senior population dependent on a much smaller younger
generation. This older population will consume more than they produce as many no longer work,
incur increased costs due to health care, and live longer than previous generations. For countries in
the third stage, this "old age dependency" is a controversial issue.
Below is a population pyramid for the United States from populationpyramid.net. Notice the
"babyboom" generation. There is a serious concern in the US that as this larger population of people
continue to age, retire, and draw on social security and medicare, that the younger, smaller
generation supporting them, will not be able to keep up financially.
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Discussion: Aging Baby Boomers

As mentioned in the text above, the aging population of the United States will have a
significant impact on programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security. What types
of impacts do you foresee on these programs? What suggestions do you have for
maintaining the programs? Submit your response
Assignment: Demographics Lab
Open the online lab by clicking HERE. Read the overview, download the data table from the
sidebar, and then begin the lessons. The first lesson is The Demographic Transition. As you
complete Step 1 follow the instructions, record your data, and answer the questions. As you
run the simulator, you will begin to understand how populations grow and impact the environment.
Be sure to work through the entire lesson including Demographic Transition, Population Momentum,
and Social Impacts. When you have completed the assignment, submit it according to your teacher's
instructions.
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Lab: Population Growth

In 2045, the world population could be as high as 9 billion people. Review the links provided in the
sidebar and conduct the lab provided to explore population sampling and growth. When you have
completed this assignment, please submit your work.
The IPAT Model

As a way to look at the human impact on the environment, Paul Ehrlich and John Holdren (1974)
developed this model. The IPAT model examines how Technology, Affluence and Population all work
together to impact the environment. It's shown as
I=PxAxT
I stands for the impact on the environment
P stands for population. Population can affect the environment because more people mean more
land and resources are used and more waste is produced.
A stands for affluence. Greater affluence means larger resource consumption per person due to
increased wealth.
T stands for technology. Technology can act positively or negatively either by creating ways to
exploit resources faster and more easily, or by developing better ways to reduce our impact, such as
better pollution controls or renewable energy.
Sensitivity can also be added to the IPAT model, taking into account the sensitivity of an
environment when being used by humans. For example, deserts and grassland are more susceptible
to degradation if they are not managed properly.
Cultural Carrying Capacity
Click on the following video from Hippocampus to learn about cultural carrying capacity.
The Rule of 70
The Rule of 70 is a general rule of thumb that explains the time period required for a population in a
constant rate of exponential growth, to double. For example, if a region of people is growing at a
rate of 1% per year, then after 70 years, the population number will have doubled. If the rate for
that group of people doubles to 2%, then the rate will be cut in half to 35 years.
Overall, a population's net change in size, per 1,000 individuals, is measured by its growth rate,
which is calculated as follows:
Growth Rate = (Birth Rate + Immigration) - (Death Rate + Emigration)
Population Sustainability
Exactly what is meant by population sustainability? The continued research and study of population
sustainability recognizes the importance of the preservation of human-valued natural resources
(land, air, and water) to sustain the population and preserve quality of life for future generations.
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There is no way to measure whether global population has reached the carrying capacity of Earth, or
if there are sufficient renewable resources to support the number of living organisms for future
generations. What we do know is that over 6 million children die every year form preventable or
treatable diseases, nearly 1 billion people do not have access to clean water, nearly 1 billion people
are malnourished, and 96 percent of the population growth between 2005 and 2050 will occur in the
developing counties. In addition, sub-Saharan Africa has high levels of HIV/AIDS - as high as 50
percent in some regions. Other issues that affect population growth include religion, the availability
of family planning, education, income, attitudes toward birth control, the role of women, and
cultural norms.
Percentage of the World Population by Region that is Undernourished (2006)
Population Policies
In order to slow population growth, many countries have established policies and programs to
educate people and promote family-planning programs. The efforts to institute programs with the
goal of lowering the growth rate, in both developed and developing nations, have been successful.
Countries sometimes address immigration as opposed to birth rates as a way to reduce population
growth.
Poverty
In countries in which a large percentage of the population lives in severe economic hardship, people
are generally more concerned about food, water, and shelter than they are about environmental
impact. Many of these impoverished countries have large populations that rely on biomass (wood
fuel) for their energy needs. Denuding the landscape depletes the habitat needed for native plants
and animal species to flourish and erodes the soil. As farming becomes less productive, it
necessitates hunting for game, with the possibility that some species of animals may be hunted to
extinction.
Culture
Culture is the patterns of human knowledge, belief, and behaviors that are considered the norm for
a society. This is based on shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterize the society
and can be based on a set of religious beliefs, a common history, or a common goal. The way in
which a society treats the environment is impacted by cultural values. These human actions can
pertain to agricultural use of the land, fishing practices, land development, resource extraction, or
by-products from use including pollution. Cultural influence combined with personal experiences
affects how an individual views and treats the environment.
Disease
Disease affects population growth. Death rates, especially infant mortality rates, are lower in
industrialized societies than in developing nations. Industrialized societies have better access to
medicines, hospitals or clinics, and doctors. Developing countries may have difficulty providing
inoculations against diseases commonly considered eliminated in developed countries such as polio,
measles, and tuberculosis. Education, medicines, and preventive measures for HIV infections,
available in developed nations, are seriously lacking in the developing countries. Africa has severe
issues with HIV and AIDS infections. Malaria, which is almost nonexistent in the industrialized
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nations, is common in African countries. The picture to the right depicts a pediatric ICU where the
beds are covered with netting to prevent mosquitos from spreading malaria.
Terrestrial Biomes and Land Use

Forests and grasslands cover nearly 60 percent of global land area. The vast majority of humans live
in these biomes, and we obtain many valuable materials from them. Yet, these biomes also are the
source of much of the world's biodiversity on which we depend for life-supporting ecological
services. How we can live sustainable on our natural resources while also preserving enough nature
so these resources can be replenished represents one of the most important questions in
environmental science.
Essential Questions
1. What are the major threats to a forest ecosystem?
2. How should we manage and sustain forests?
3. How should we manage and sustain grasslands?
4. How should we manage and sustain parks and natural reserves?
5. What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity?
6. Will restoration encourage further destruction and what can you do?
Module Minute
There is some good news in our search for a balance between exploitation and preservation.
Although deforestation and land degradation are continuing at unacceptable rates-particularly in
some developing countries-many countries are more thickly forested now than they were two
centuries ago. Protection of the Great Bear Rainforest in Canada and Australia's Great Barrier Reef
shows that we can choose to protect some biodiversity areas in spite of forces that want to exploit
them. Overall, nearly 12 percent of the earth's land area is now in some sort of protected status.
While the level of protection in these preserves varies, the rapid recent increase in number and area
in protected status exceeds the goals of the United National Millennium Project.
What to Expect
Assignment: Pros and Cons of Genetic Modification
Discussion: Curitiba, Brazil
FRQ: Terrestrial Biomes
Test: Terrestrial Biomes and Land Use
Key Terms
Conservation Biology
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Conservation biology attempts to slow down the rate at which we are destroying and degrading the
Earth's biodiversity through the use of rapid response strategies. More people require more food,
and more food requires the use of more land, water, and fossil fuels, all of which impacts the
environment.
One of the great challenges of humanity's transition from hunter-gatherer societies to cities was
feeding a densely packed population. Now that Earth's population has exceeded 7 billion, the
challenge is greater than ever, requiring the development of efficient farming and livestock
techniques. These techniques have so far allowed the food supply to keep pace with the population.
Still, agricultural science is not without its drawbacks including the potential for environmental
damage.
The beginning of industrialized agriculture in the mid-and late 20th century became known as the
Green Revolution.
The Green Revolution included these developments:
1. Increased irrigation infrastructure
2. Wide use of pesticides and fertilizers
3. High-yield crop varieties (mainly wheat, maize, and rice) created through breeding and
crossbreeding techniques (selective breeding).
Genetic Engineering and Crop Production
Changing segments of an organism's DNA is called genetic engineering or genetic modification, and
organisms that are altered are called genetically modified organisms. In the process of genetic
modification, genes from an organism with a desired trait are harvested and spliced into the DNA of
an existing organism. Ultimately, the combination creates the desired traits. The result of artificially
transferring genetic material is known as a transgenic organism. Historically, the technique used to
introduce desired traits in existing crops or livestock was selective breeding, but genetic modification
differs in its altering of an organism's DNA; it might mix genes from difference species with little or
no similarities.
Examples of genetically modified crops:
Bt corn and cotton: Contains a toxin from the Bt bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis) which acts
as an insecticide, removing the need to spray chemicals
Round-up Ready Cotton: Plant is resistant to Round-Up, a common herbicide, so that when
the field is sprayed, the weeds are killed and the cotton is not. Be sure to check the link in
the sidebar about current problems with this variety.
Ice-minus strawberries: Frost resistant
Long-lasting tomatoes: Remain fresh longer
Golden Rice: Contains vitamin A, a missing nutrient in many developing countries. Shown in
the picture, the golden rice is in the upper right, as compared with normal rice in the bottom
left.
One way in which biodiversity can be maintained on a global scale is to preserve diverse seed types,
including wild varieties. For this purpose, seed banks exist throughout the world. Housing and
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preserving many seed types is a way to protect seed genetic diversity along with safeguarding our
food supply in case of disaster.

Genetic engineering is a much-debated and high emotion topic. Research the advantages
and disadvantages of genetic modification. Develop a chart that lists at least five basic
points for each side. Be sure to include a citation with this assignment and consider the
reputation of your sources. Submit your completed assignment when finished.
Forests and Deforestation

Forests provide important ecological and economic services, are storehouses of biodiversity, and
affect weather and climate throughout the world. Forest resource management varies according to
the type of forests. In diverse forests, the age and size of trees are preserved to foster natural
regeneration. Government policies will primarily determine the future of forests, including oldgrowth forests. In the picture below, Haiti, a country which has allowed massive clear cutting is on
the left, the Dominican Republic is on the right. The river you see going through the middle of the
photo marks the boundary between the two countries.
Because of the extensive deforestation that has occurred globally and throughout the United States,
many remaining forests are considered to be secondary growth. When old growth forest is cut down
and new growth emerges and is called secondary growth.
Forests in the United States should be managed so as to retain as much of the forests as possible.
Clear-cutting and seed-tree cutting methods of harvesting are scourges on the forest; selective
cutting is the most reasonable way to harvest trees.
Forest fires are certainly destructive and can be dangerous, but they are also a necessary part of the
forest ecosystem. Many ecosystems depend on fires to help seeds germinate and to return nutrients
to the soil. In a chaparral ecosystem, fire's extreme heat causes some species' seeds to open.
Periodic fires also help to thin the underbrush in an ecosystem. Small fires that burn branches, twigs,
and dead tress help to reduce a future fire's fuel, making a future fire less intense. However, if
underbrush accumulates over a long period of time, as it did under the former Forest Service policy
of fire suppression, the forest can be more prone to a larger, more devastating fire. Now, rather than
suppressing fire, many areas use prescribed burns or controlled burns to help maintain forests.
Deforestation is one of the most serious ecological problems of this century. The Earth's forests have
been reduced by 20-50% and the destruction continues to this day. Deforestation has many harmful
environmental effects: reduces ecological services of forests, releases large amounts of carbon
dioxide in the air, produces a drier and hotter climate; reduces the control of water movements, and
increases soil erosion.
Tropical deforestation is one of the biggest threats to world economic health and climate. To help
sustain tropical forests, nations of the world must unite to discourage deforestation and degradation
Read the following background essay, watch the video, and then answer the self-assessment
questions:
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Poisoned Waters: How Does Land Use Affect Water Quality

Background Essay
Video
Self-Assessment Questions
State and local government pass growth management laws and zoning regulations.
1. How are policies protecting the environment?
2. Are such policies being applied in your area?
3. How do political leaders and the general public reconcile the common need to protect the
environment with the private rights of property owners?
Irrigation
Supplying water for agricultural purposes is called irrigation. It allows areas that would otherwise be
dry and unusable for agriculture to become fertile and productive. However, if land is over-watered,
it can become waterlogged, a condition in which soil becomes saturated or oversaturated, and the
water table rises. The excessive water can ultimately suffocate plant roots, compact soil and lead to
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salinization. Salinization occurs when salts accumulate on the soil's surface it leaves behind the salts
that were once dissolved in it. This salinization can reduce crop productivity. Salinization is more
common in arid regions where there is limited precipitation, but it can occur from over-irrigation and
water logging.
It is imperative that plants receive proper drainage and that only the necessary amount of water is
used for irrigation. Crops should be planted in areas with appropriate rainfall. Crops that require
large amounts of water should not be planted in areas with minimal natural water sources. If
irrigation is needed, use of low-salt water is preferable. Water efficiency can be accomplished by
using modern irrigation systems. For example, drip irrigation allows water to drip directly onto
plants, as opposed to mass spraying of water onto an entire field.
Sustainable Agriculture
Click below to watch the following video from Hippocampus.
National Forests
In the United States, land usage and the goals of land usage have changed, in part, due to human
immigration and migration. During westward expansion, people explored and settle new areas,
largely in the hope of extracting and profiting from natural resources such as gold, silver, and timber.
Laws created during these times including the Homestead Act of 1862 and the General Mining Act of
1872, focused on promoting the expansion and settlement of the country.
The U.S federal government has taken many actions to protect and preserve forest ecosystems.
Currently, about 29 percent of the land in the USA is overseen by four federal agencies: the Bureau
of Land Management, the National Park Service and the Fish and Wildlife Service in the U.S.
Department of the Interior, and the Forest Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In 1905,
the U.S Forest Service was established to manage and conserve the nation's forests, with the goal of
managing the timber resources for both use and ecosystem preservations.
In May 2010, at the Oslo Climate and Forest Conference in Norway, approximately 50 countries
singed the REDD+ Partnership, aimed at reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation.
Problems affecting parks run from little/no protection from their governments or being too small to
sustain large animal species, to being too popular and, therefore, overused by people. Some
methods for managing parks include: limiting the number of visitors, raising entry fees to provide
funds for maintenance and management, managing parks in reference to nearby federal lands,
discouraging development around already established parks, and providing more volunteers and
better paid employees to maintain the parks.
Only about 7% of the world's terrestrial areas are protected from potentially harmful human
activities; these areas need to be expanded throughout the world. In order to adequately conserve
biodiversity, at least 20% of the earth's land area should be protected in a global network of
reserves.
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Wilderness is an amount of land legally set aside to prevent/minimize harm from human activities.
This is land where human beings may visit but not remain. Wilderness areas are important for: (1)
their natural beauty, (2) their natural biological diversity, (3) their enhancement of mental and
physical health of visitors, and (4) their contributions to biodiversity and to evolutionary possibilities.
Ecological restoration is the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and
dynamics of natural ecosystems.
Initiatives that would help to sustain the earth's biodiversity include:
Immediately preserving the world's biological hot spots
Protecting the remaining old-growth forests
Mapping the world's terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity
Identifying and taking action for the world's marine hot spots, just as for the terrestrial hot
spots
Protecting and restoring the world's lakes and river systems
Developing a global conservation strategy that protects the earth's terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems
Making conservation profitable
Initiating ecological restoration projects worldwide
Rangelands
The large expanses of undeveloped land containing primarily low vegetation such as grasses and
shrubs, and are suitable for grazing of livestock. Throughout the world cattle, goats, and sheep are
necessary for the survival of many people and cultures, both for food and for the economic value of
the animals.
Raising livestock is widely considered to be another essential part of feeding the human population.
Livestock include cows, chicks, pigs, goats, sheep, and other domesticated animals raised for profit.
Commonly animals such as cows are kept on large expanses of land to graze for a period of time
until they are sold to feedlots. Feedlots, also called factory farms or concentrated animal feeding
operations, are areas where livestock are fed foods high in energy to fatten them up before market.
Feedlots require less land per cow and are a more efficient way of meeting the meat consumption
needs of a large population. Also, the manure produced by feedlot animals is frequently used as
fertilizer for farms.
Negative aspects of feedlots include potential contamination of water sources from runoff
containing waste products and the increased potential for the spread of disease among animals in
close contact, which necessitates use of antibiotics. This industry is monitored by states and
federally by the Environmental Protection Agency, to help minimize the environmental impact.
Overgrazing
When vegetation on rangelands is over-consumed, it hinders plant re-growth. If the plants that are
being eaten are not being replaced over time, the land becomes degraded and unusable.
Consequences of overgrazing include the following:
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Soil erosion
Soil compaction
Desertification
Proliferation of invasive species
Reduction in biodiversity and native vegetation
Economic loss to those who depend on the land, such as ranchers
The land is exposed to wind and water when excessive vegetation is removed from the soil. Once the
soil starts to erode, it is more difficult for plant cover to re-grow. The vegetation that does get a
toehold in degraded rangeland consists mainly of invasive, wee-type plants, which livestock do not
eat. The livestock also compact the soils with their weight and hooves; over time the soil can
become compacted enough that it is more difficult for water to seep through, blocking air from
filling pore spaces, which roots need to grow. Once the consequences of over-grazing become
visible, the cycle is hard to break, and each step creates more degradation of the land.
The cycle of degradation creating more degradation is called a positive feedback loop, in which, once
the system starts moving in a direction, it accelerates in that direction unless an intervention stops
the progression. This ultimately drives a system to an extreme. In this case, the extreme is degraded,
unusable land.
Conservation-Related Law
Because the United States has faced serious soil depletion and erosion issues, laws have been
enacted to protect this precious resource. In 1935, in response to the Dust Bowl, Congress enacted
the Soil Conservation Act, which established the Soil Conservation Service to monitor soil erosion.
Now called the Natural Resources Conservation Service, the agency has expanded to include water
quality and pollution control.
Are there benefits to urbanization?

Human society has shifted from an agricultural society to an urban, industrialized society and land
use has been impacted. Industrialization centralized many new jobs in urban areas, and since
technological advancements also made agricultural processes more efficient, few people were need
to produce the needed food. Movement from rural to urban life is called urbanization.
Transportation and transportation infrastructure impact the environment, increasing air pollution by
burning fossil fuels, destroying and fragmenting habitats, creating noise and light pollution, and
increasing animal deaths due to collisions. However, since infrastructure is essential in today's world,
instead of depending on decreasing infrastructure to lessen environmental impact, many point to
thoughtful design and implementation of these systems as key to sustainable transportation.
The U.S highway system began in 1944 with the Federal Aid Highway Act. In 1952, the Federal
Highway Systems Act was passed and allocated federal funds to help develop a national interstate
system. It passed in 1956 and required that interstate road engineers would develop uniform traffic
highway designs. Although ease of travel was a benefit, the environmental impact has been equally
dramatic. Large sections of habitat fragmentation occurred. An EIS (Environmental Impact
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Statement) must be created to assess potential impacts to the environment before development
occurs.
Sustainable Land Use Strategies
Advancements in sustainable building techniques help balance the needs of human society with
environmental impact. Much of the policy governing sustainable building is designed at the city and
regional levels. Effective city planning takes into account the location and types of parks and green
areas, transportation infrastructure, recreation, commerce areas, housing options, hospitals,
schools, energy usage, waste removal, and many other components. One way cities manage these
diverse needs is through zoning (limitations on the types of building allowed in certain areas). Zoning
helps to control how a city grows and includes restrictions on what can be done with land,
separating commercial, industrial, and residential areas.
Partly in response to congestion and high population density in cities, some people now choose to
move out of large urban areas to surrounding suburban and rural areas, broadening the continued
environmental issues associate with urbanization.
Discussion: Curitiba, Brazil

Watch the following video highlighting the sustainable use strategies used in Curitiba,
Brazil. Consider how some of these strategies might be used in the United States. Which
ideas do you think are feasible? Which would be harder to implement? Would you
consider living in a place like Curitiba? What might you have to give up?
Module Wrap-Up
In this module you were responsible for completing the following assignments.
Discussion: Curtiba, Brazil
Test: Terrestrial Biomes and Land Use
Review
Now that you have completed the initial assessments for this module, review the lesson material
with the practice activities and extra resources. Then, continue to the next page for your final
assessment instructions.
Final Assessments
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For decades, forest fires in the United States have been suppressed. In 2003 legislation was
passed under the
Healthy Forests Initiative (HFI) in response to the record-breaking wildfires that had
occurred in the early 2000s.
Some environmental and conservation groups fear that negative impacts could result if timber
companies are
encouraged to harvest medium- and large-size trees in federally owned forests while clearing away
the smaller
trees and underbrush.
(a) Identify TWO characteristics of forests that develop when fires are suppressed, and explain why
the practice
of fire suppression does not reduce, but actually increases, the risk of intense and extensive forest
fires.
(b) The effects of the HFI are expected to extend beyond fire reduction. Excluding fire reduction,
describe ONE
positive and ONE negative effect likely to result from the implementation of the provisions of the
HFI.
(c) Describe TWO ecosystem services provided for humans by forests. Explain how clear-cutting
would affect
each ecosystem service you describe.
(d) Identify a specific type of plant community or biome (other than a forest) that is naturally
maintained by fire.
Explain how the fire maintains the community or biome.
Aquatic Biomes and Ecology

As the universal solvent, this compound makes up the largest part of the biosphere and is the
common link between the five biomes. Water covers nearly 75% of the Earth's surface. Aquatic
region habitats comprise numerous species of plants and animals, both large and small. In fact, this
is where life began billions of years ago when amino acids first started to come together. Without
water, most life forms would be unable to sustain themselves and the Earth would be a barren,
desert-like place. Although water temperatures can vary widely, aquatic areas tend to be more
humid and the air temperature on the cooler side. The aquatic biome can be broken down into two
basic regions, freshwater (i.e. ponds and rivers) and marine (i.e. oceans and estuaries).
Essential Questions
1. What is the importance of water and the hydrologic cycle to ecosystems, human health, and
economic pursuits?
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2. Can you describe the major types of freshwater and marine ecosystems?
3. Can you discuss how we use water and alter freshwater systems?
4. What is the distribution of global freshwater?
5. Can you assess problems of water supply and propose solutions to address depletion of
fresh water?
Module Minute
The surprising thing about the world's water is that its volume never changes. The planet is always
home to approximately 1,386 million km3 of water. Of the fresh water that is technically available for
people to use, only a tiny proportion is found on the surface of the Earth-in lakes, rivers, wetlands,
the soil, air humidity, and in plants and animals. All the rest is stored in glaciers and underground
aquifers. Although this groundwater is a key resource in many countries, it is being used faster than
it is replenished.
What to Expect
Lab: Water Quality
Discussion: How much water do I use?
Project: Changing Planet: Our Fading Corals
FRQ: Aquatic Biomes
Test: Aquatic Biomes and Ecology Test
Key Terms
Case Study: The Colorado River
The Colorado River is of critical importance to not only the West, but to the economy of the nation.
The challenges today for Colorado River water users are similar to those of the past, to protect and
manage this precious resource.
In the high peaks of the Rocky Mountains, the Colorado River begins its descent through the Grand
Canyon, crosses into Mexico, and empties into the Gulf of California.
Today only a very small amount reaches the river's mouth. Instead, the waters of the Colorado River
are impounded by massive dams to provide flood control, recreation, and hydroelectric power.
Water is siphoned off for irrigation to make agriculture possible in the desert. It is piped to cities in
canals and aqueducts to quench the thirst of 40 million people. Under the most aggressive growth
scenario, that number could nearly double, to about 76 million people, by 2060.
A 1992 treaty signed by Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming,
apportioned water according to the needs and negotiating power each state had at the time. Since
population has continued to grow, water has become a commodity that is in constant demand.
New scientific data gathered from tree ring research show that mega droughts were common in the
past, and climate modelers predict that global climate change will bring still more drought. The study
details a 50-year Colorado River water supply and demand outlook. Based on a combination of
population growth and climate models that show a general drying trend in the region, the river
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could be short by at least 3.2 million acre feet by 2060, and perhaps by as much as 8 million acre
feet, according to the Colorado River Water Users Association.
In spring 2007, the states worked out a plan that allowed upper-basin states to withhold more water
when needed and that encouraged lower-basin state to develop supplies elsewhere.
The Colorado River Basin
Lab: Water Quality

Now is the time for you to go out and make observations like a true environmental scientist! For this
lab, you will need to go to a lake, river, or pond and test the aquatic biome for water quality and
health. You will be looking for macroinvertebrates and testing the chemical composition of the
water. Download the lab from the sidebar for guidelines and when you have completed your study,
submit your report.
How We Use Water

Water may seem abundant to us, but water that we can drink is actually quite rare and limited.
Roughly 97.5% of Earth's water resides in the oceans and is too salty to drink or use to water crops.
Only 2.5% is considered fresh water. Most fresh water is tied up in glaciers, icecaps, and
underground aquifers; just over 1 part in 10,000 of Earth's water is easily available for human use.
As water moves, it redistributes heat, erodes mountain ranges, builds river deltas, maintains
organisms and ecosystems, shapes civilizations, and gives rise to political conflicts.
Food production is a thirsty business. It takes more than 1,900 liters of water to grow just one
kilogram of rice - the staple food in many parts of Asia. But it is meat -especially beef and lamb- that
is most costly in terms of water, given the amount of water need to grow the plants on which the
animals feed, as well as the water they drink.
Irrigation is essential to feeding the world. Only 17 percent of the world's cropland is irrigated, but it
produces more than one-third of the world's food. Agriculture is becoming increasingly
industrialized. The chemicals that are used in the process run off into rivers and lakes, leach into the
soil, and contaminate the water we drink. Around 20 percent of all fresh water withdrawn is used by
industry. This amounts to an average of about 130 cubic meters per person per year although more
than half of this is used by hydropower plants, and for cooling in power stations, with much of the
water being returned to its source virtually unchanged.
Hydropower is the world's most important source of renewable energy. It produces neither
greenhouse gases nor the pollutants associated with burning fossil fuels, and tends to be more
acceptable to people than nuclear energy. Dams harness water resources for food production,
energy generation, flood control and domestic use. During the 1990's, between US$32 and US$46
billion was spent annually on large dams. Up to 40 percent of irrigated land now relies on dams, and
hydroelectric plants generate 19 percent of the world's electricity.
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The proportions of each of these three types of use-residential/municipal, agricultural, and

industrial-vary dramatically among nations. Nations with arid climates tend to use more fresh water
for agricultural and heavily industrialized nations use a great deal for industry. Globally, we spend
about 70% of our annual fresh water allotment on agriculture. Industry accounts for only 10%.
Click through the following presentation and watch the video at the end before continuing in this
module.
There have been a number of legal efforts made by governments to clean up existing water pollution
and prevent future pollution. The following are important to know for the APES Exam.
Clean Water Act (CWA)(1972): Also called Water Pollution Control Act. The purpose of the
Clean Water Act was to maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of our
nation's waters. The goal was to make all surface waters clean enough for swimming and
fishing.
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (1972): Controls dumping into the ocean.
Safe Drinking Water Act (1975): Protects groundwater and surface water from pollution.
Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability (CERCLA) (1980):

Makes owners, operators and customers of hazardous waste sites responsible for their own
clean up.
Water Quality Act (1987): Supports efforts to clean polluted waters and protect estuaries.
MARPOL: (The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Prohibits
discharge of oil and dumping of plastics.
Law of the Sea Treaty: Enacted to clarify "ownership" of the oceans. Only 134 countries
signed this treaty, some did not (including the U.S.). This treaty established the Territorial
Sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone. The rest of the world's oceans are controlled by the
International Seabed Authority.
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Major Types of Freshwater Regions

Typically, if the salt concentration in a body of water is less than 1%, the water is considered fresh.
Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able
to survive in areas of high salt concentration (i.e., ocean). Streams and rivers, ponds and lakes, and
wetlands are all different types of freshwater regions. Specific characteristics for each of these
regions are explained below.
Ponds and Lakes
Ponds and lakes range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
Several regions are remnants from the Pleistocene glaciation. Many ponds are seasonal, lasting just
a couple of months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may exist for hundreds of years or more.
Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one another
and from other water sources like rivers and oceans. Lakes and ponds are divided into three
different "zones" which are usually determined by depth and distance from the shoreline.
At the edges of the lake or pond is found the littoral zone. Because it can absorb the sun's heat and it
is typically shallow, the warmth provides habitat for a fairly diverse community, which can include
several species of algae (like diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, insects, crustaceans,
fishes, and amphibians. Only the egg and larvae stages of insects are found in this zone. The
vegetation and animals living in the littoral zone are food for other creatures such as turtles, snakes,
and ducks.
The limnetic zone is near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone. This zone is well lit
(like the littoral zone) and is dominated by zooplankton and phytoplankton. Plankton are small
organisms that play a crucial role in the food chain. Without aquatic plankton, there would be few
living organisms in the world, and certainly no humans. A variety of freshwater fish also occupy this
zone.
Plankton have short life spanswhen they die, they fall into the deep-water part of the lake/pond,
the benthic zone. This zone is much colder and denser than the other two. Little light penetrates all
the way through the euphotic zone into the benthic zone. The fauna are heterotrophs, meaning that
they eat dead organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.
Temperature variation occurs seasonally. During the summer, the temperature can range from 4 C
near the bottom to 22 C at the top. During the winter, the temperature at the bottom can be 4 C
while the top is 0 C (ice). A narrow zone called the thermocline is located between the two layers. In
this layer the temperature of the water changes rapidly. Mixing between the top and bottom layers
(due to winds) occur in the spring and fall. This causes a more uniform 4 degrees C. This mixing also
circulates oxygen throughout the lake. Of course there are many lakes and ponds that do not freeze
during the winter, thus the top layer would be a little warmer.
Streams and Rivers
These are bodies of flowing water moving in one direction. Streams and rivers can be found
everywherethey get their start at headwaters, which may be springs, snowmelt or even lakes, and
then travel all the way to their mouth, usually another water channel or the ocean.
These streams and rivers are stratified into vertical zones, extending from surface water through
groundwater. The salt and nutrient content increases from the headwaters to the mouth. Stream
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headwaters are usually richer in oxygen. Rivers may also contain substantial oxygen, except where
there has been organic enrichment. Headwater streams are often narrow with rocky bottoms. The
temperature is cooler at the source than it is at the mouth. The water is also clearer, has higher
oxygen levels, and freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs can be found there. Towards the
middle part of the stream/river, the width increases, as does species diversitynumerous aquatic
green plants and algae can be found.
The downstream reaches of river's area are wide and meandering with silt bottoms. If streams flow
through grasslands or deserts than it may be rich in algae and aquatic plants, but if they flow
through temperate or tropical forests, then leaves and other organic matter are the primary source
of food. In rivers, the organic matter consists of dissolved and highly fragmented material.
The mighty Mississippi River is the major river that divides the United States into eastern and
western halves. Click below to work through an interactive learning activity on the Mississippi. Study
the content in each of the slides and then answer the following questions to check your
understanding.
Mississippi River Delta Self-Assessment Questions

1. How many different features of the Mississippi River Delta can you distinguish in these
images?
2. Rivers are powerful agents of erosion and deposition. What do the satellite images show
about the river delta and the way it has likely changed the shape of the coast?
3. How has human intervention and management of the river affected the delta over the past
century? List all of the pros and cons.
4. Describe the impact of Hurricane Katrina on the Mississippi River
Lakes
Lakes are standing bodies of water that can range from small ponds to really large lakes. The deeper
it gets, the less light there is, which cause stratification. The salt content, oxygen concentration, and
nutrient content vary among lakes and can change by season. Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor
and are oxygen-rich while eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich. Oligotrophic lakes have less surface area
relative to their depth than eurotrophic lakes. The rate of photosynthesis is higher in eurotrophic
lakes than oligotrohpic. In the littoral zone aquatic plants live, and phytoplankton and cyanobacteria
live in the limnetic zone. Also in the limnetic zone, small drifting animals graze on phytoplankton.
Invertebrate animals live in the benethic zone. Fish live in all zones of lakes with sufficient oxygen.
Wetlands
Wetlands are an area covered with water for a long enough period to support aquatic plants. The
high organic production and decomposition in wetlands cause the water and soil to be periodically
low in dissolved oxygen. Basin wetlands develop in shallow basins. River wetlands develop along
shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams. Fringe wetlands occur along the coasts
of large lakes and seas. Wetlands are the most productive biomes on Earth. They have watersaturated soils that favor the growth of plants. Wetlands are homes to invertebrates, crustaceans,
aquatic insect larvae, dragonflies, otters, alligators and owls.
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Hurricane Katrina and the Destruction of Wetlands around New Orleans

After watching this short video answer the following questions to check for understanding:
1. Explain how wetlands act as a buffer against the ocean's force when a hurricane approaches
the coastline.
2. Why do some people think it is important to rebuild the marshes that were damaged during
Hurricane Katrina?
3. Do you think there should be restrictions on building in wetlands? Explain your reasoning.
Marine Regions
Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth's surface and include oceans, coral reefs, and
estuaries. Marine algae supply much of the world's oxygen supply and take in a huge amount of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. The evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the land.
Estuaries
Transition areas located between the river and the ocean are called estuaries. The salt content varies
within estuaries because of the rise and fall of the tides. Nutrients from rivers make estuaries one of
the most productive biomes. They create a complex network of tidal channels, islands, natural levee,
and mudflats. The major producers in estuaries are salt marsh grasses and algae. Estuaries support
the lives of worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish species. This is a special environment where some
creatures have learned to adapt to a mixture of fresh and salt water. When fresh water, ground
water and soils are altered by human actions and salinity greatly increases, it can have an extreme
detrimental effect on life there. Changes in salinity brought about by human residential, commercial
and industrial activity can kill plant life, aquatic life, and animal life in a given area. Humans have the
responsibility to make sure their actions are not causing this type of devastation.
Intertidal Zones
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An intertidal zone is periodically submerged and exposed by the

tides, twice daily. The oxygen and nutrient levels are usually
high. The substrates, which are either rocky or sandy, select for
particular behavior and anatomy among organisms. Common
animals are clams, crustaceans, sponges, sea anemones,
mollusks, and small fishes.
The ocean pelagic biome is a vast realm of open blue water.
The oxygen levels are high while the nutrients level is lower
than other coastal waters. This biome covers approximately
70% of the earth's surface. Phytoplankton are the dominant
photosynthetic organisms. The most abundant animals in this
biome are zooplankton. It also includes free-swimming animals,
squids, fishes, sea turtles, and marine mammals.
The benthic zone is the area below the pelagic zone, but does
not include the very deepest parts of the ocean (see abyssal
zone below). The bottom of the zone consists of sand, slit,
and/or dead organisms. Here temperature decreases as depth
increases toward the abyssal zone, since light cannot penetrate
through the deeper water. Flora are represented primarily by
seaweed while the fauna, since it is very nutrient-rich, include
all sorts of bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea anemones, worms, sea
stars, and fishes.
The deep ocean is the abyssal zone. The water in this region is
very cold (around 3 C), highly pressured, high in oxygen
content, but low in nutritional content. The abyssal zone
supports many species of invertebrates and fishes. Mid-ocean
ridges (spreading zones between tectonic plates), often with
hydrothermal vents, are found in the abyssal zones along the
ocean floors. Chemosynthetic bacteria thrive near these vents
because of the large amounts of hydrogen sulfide and other
minerals they emit. These bacteria are thus the start of the food web as they are eaten by
invertebrates and fishes.
Coral Reefs
Coral Reefs are sensitive to temperatures below 18-20 C and above 30 C. Coral Reefs require high
oxygen levels. They are formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals and develop over a
long period of time on oceanic levels. Unicellular algae live within the tissue of the corals. Cnidarians
are the predominant animals on the coral reefs. Fish population is exceptionally high.

Watch the following video. Then download the handout from the sidebar. Submit your assignment
when finished.
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Water Health
In the world of the 21st century, the greatest scandal is that more than a billion people do not have
easy access to a safe supply of fresh water. Not having easy access to water means a real hardship
for millions of people, mostly women.
As everyone knows, dirty water kills. On our planet dirty water kills on a massive scale. The major
killer is common enough: diarrhea. In developing countries some 4 million people are affected each
year and many of them, mostly children, die as a result of the dehydration that follows severe and
untreated diarrhea. Such disease is easily treated with salts dissolved in water. Even so, the World
Health Organization estimates that unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene now cause the death of
nearly 200 people an hour - that is, 200 people every hour of every day of every year.
But this is not the end of the story. As much as 80 % of all illnesses in developing countries are
water-related. Some, like diarrhea, are transmitted through water by micro-organisms. Others,
including malaria, which still kills more than 1 million people per year, are transmitted by larger
animals (in this case the mosquito) that live on or in stagnant water. This list of water-borne illnesses
is long: dengue fever, guinea worm disease, trachoma, bilhazia, and river blindness are the best
known. Of these, many are debilitating diseases that condemn sufferers to a lifetime of blindness or
inaction. The economic loss to countries than can ill afford it is staggering. While action can, and
should be taken to control and eliminate all these diseases, contaminated water can cause even
more intractable problems. A relatively recent discovery is the high level of arsenic found in water
supplies in many different parts of the world. The situation has become extremely serious over large
areas in Bangladesh, ironically as a result of a program to sink more and deeper boreholes to obtain
better quality water. The new water has been found to be contaminated, in some places, heavily, by
naturally occurring arsenic. The resulting disease, called arsenicosis, builds up over time and can
cause death. Fluorosis, caused by the build-up of fluoride, is a similar form of water poisoning that
has become a major public health problem in many parts of Asia and north Africa.
Solutions to Depletion of Fresh Water
Citizen action, government legislation and regulation, new technologies, economic incentives, and
public education are all enabling us to confront what will surely be one of the greatest
environmental challenges of the new century: ensuring adequate quantity and quality of fresh water
for ourselves and for the planet's ecosystems.
Accessible fresh water comprises only a minuscule percentage of the hydrosphere, but we generally
take it for granted. With our expanding population and increasing water usage, we are approaching
conditions of wide-spread scarcity. Water depletion and water pollution are already taking a toll on
the health, economies, and societies of the developing world, and they are beginning to do so in arid
areas of the developed world. There is reason to hope that we may yet attain sustainability in our
water usage, however, potential solutions are numerous and the issue is too important to ignore.
Module Wrap-Up
Lab: Water Quality
Discussion: How much water do I use?
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FRQ: Aquatic Biomes
Test: Aquatic Biomes and Ecology
Review
Now that you have completed the initial assessments for this module, review the lesson material
with the practice activities and extra resources. Then, continue to the next page for your final
assessment instructions.
Final Assessments
FRQ: Aquatic Biomes
Read and and answer the FRQ below. When you have completed your answer, be sure to
submit it according to your teacher's instructions.
(a) Identify TWO human activities that alter the natural flow of sediments into Gulf Coast
ecosystems. Explain
how each of the activities alters the flow of sediments.
(b) Dr. James says that it is important to restore sediments.
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Describe TWO ways that the loss of natural sediment harms Gulf Coast wetland ecosystems.
(c) Dr. James also indicates that it is necessary to limit fertilizer runoff into the Mississippi River.
i. Describe TWO environmental impacts on the marine ecosystem that are caused by fertilizer when
it flows into the Gulf of Mexico.
ii. What are TWO economic consequences that result from the flow of fertilizer into the
Gulf of Mexico?
iii. Describe ONE strategy, other than reducing the use of fertilizer, that can be employed to
reduce the flow of nutrients into the Mississippi River.
Energy Use and Energy Sources

Energy makes things happen and is usually described as the ability to do work, but what does this
really mean? Energy is an often discussed concept in environmental science; whether in food chains
or solar energy driving most biological processes or the waning sources of fossil fuels. Energy is a
perpetual theme because it is responsible for making change and the maintenance of all processes
on Earth. This module will focus on the fundamentals of energy and energy sources, renewable and
nonrenewable, that support the human population. Our dependence on nonrenewable fossil fuels to
support our lifestyles has created many environmental problems, with the current focus to move
toward renewable fuels sources that support the growing population and reduce the impact on our
planet. The picture to the right is of a coal plant in Pennsylvania in 1942.
Essential Questions
1. What is energy?
2. What is the difference between potential and kinetic energy?
3. How does the energy in a hamburger come from the sun?
4. What is combustion?
5. What are the laws of thermodynamics?
6. Do Americans use more renewable or nonrenewable energy sources?
7. Which energy source in the U.S. generates the most electricity?
8. Why are fossil fuels so commonly used?
9. Which fossil fuel is most abundant in the U.S.?
10. Which two elements are present in all fossil fuels?
11. What are the advantages and disadvantages to rising oil prices?
12. Renewable energy sources provide what percentage of total U.S. energy consumption?
13. Which of the renewal energy sources are realistic fuels for the future?
14. What roles do conservation and improving energy efficiency have in energy use?
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Module Minute
Energy is the ability to do work or produce change. Every living thing
needs energy to perform its daily functions and even more energy
to grow. Plants get energy from the "food" they make by
photosynthesis, and animals get energy directly or indirectly from
that food. People also use energy for many things, such as cooking food, keeping
ice cream cold in the freezer, heating a house, constructing a skyscraper, or
lighting their homes. Because billions of people all around the world use energy, there is a huge
need for energy resources. Energy conservation is something everyone can do now to help reduce
the strain on energy resources.
What to Expect
Assignment: Energy Problems Review Sheet
Lab: Nuclear Power Plant and Nuclear Waste
Assignment: Energy Sources Summary Chart
Discussion: What does the future hold for energy sources?
Lab: Personal Energy Audit
FRQ: Energy Use
Test: Energy Use Test
Key Terms
Renewable- something that can be remade to be used within a short period of time
Nonrenewable- something has a definite supply and or cannot be remade to be used within
a short period time
Nuclear Fuel Cycle- the series of processes which involve the production of electricity from
uranium in nuclear power reactors
Fossil fuels- hydrocarbon based fuels (source of potential energy) formed over millions of
years from organic material due to incomplete decomposition and long term exposure to
pressure and temperature
Laws of thermodynamics- physics principles describing how energy and work in a system
Energy efficiency- a measure of input to output of desired energy often represented as a

percentage
Potential energy- energy source capable of but not yet converted to another form of energy
Kinetic energy- energy associated with motion
Entropy- in a system, the decreased availability, increased disorder, of usable energy due to
the second Law of Thermodynamics
Fuel- a source of potential energy than can be converted to other form(s) of energy
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Fuel cell- a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent
Conservation - saving resources by using them more efficienty, using less of them, or not
using them at all.
What is Energy?
Energy Basics
Energy exists in many forms, such as heat, light, chemical energy, and electrical energy. Energy is the
ability to bring about change or to do work, and thermodynamics is the study of the energy and
work of a system. Like the conservation of matter, energy is also conserved as explained by the First
Law of Thermodynamics. Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created
or destroyed. Therefore, the total amount of energy and matter on Earth and in the Universe
remains constant; it is merely changing from one form to another.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that in all energy exchanges (or work done), if no energy
enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the
initial state. OK, if energy is neither created nor destroyed, why is there less potential energy? This
energy change means that there is the same amount of energy, but it is just less usable. This is
known as entropy. In biological systems a large percentage of the fuel (food) we use ends up as
unusable heat, the same is true for all energy exchanges and entropy is this increasing disorder of
less usable energy.
Kinetic Energy
The law of conservation of energy (First Law of Thermodynamics) says that energy cannot be created
or destroyed. This means that even though energy changes form, the total amount of energy always
stays the same. How does energy get converted from one type to another when you kick a soccer
ball? When your body breaks down the food you eat, it stores the energy from the food as chemical
energy. But some of this stored energy has to be released to make your leg muscles move.
The chemical energy is converted to another form of energy called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is
the energy of anything in motion. Your muscles move your leg, your foot kicks the ball, and the ball
gains kinetic energy from the kick. So you can think of the action of kicking the ball as a story of
energy changing forms.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is energy that is stored. Potential energy has the potential to do work or the
potential to be converted into other forms of energy. If a ball is sitting on the very edge at the top of
the hill, it is not moving, but it has a lot of potential energy.
Fuel
If you read a book beneath a lit lamp, that lamp has energy from electricity. The energy to make the
electricity comes from fuel. Fuel has energy that it releases. A fuel is any material that can release
energy in a chemical change.
What are some examples of fuel, and what are they used for?
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1. Food is fuel for your body.

2. Sunlight is the energy plants need to make food (fuel) by photosynthesis.
3. Gasoline is fuel for cars.
4. Hydrogen is fuel for the Sun.
For a fuel to be useful, its energy must be released in a way that can be controlled. Controlling the
release of energy makes it possible for the energy to be used to do work.
Heat
When fuel is used for its energy, it is usually burned (combustion), and most of the energy is
released as heat. The heat may then be used to do work. Think of a person striking a match to set
some small twigs on fire. After the twigs burn for a while, they get hot enough to make some larger
sticks burn. The fire keeps getting hotter, and soon it is hot enough to burn whole logs. Pretty soon
the fire is roaring, and a pot of water placed on the fire starts to boil. Some of the liquid water
evaporates.
What is the source of energy for boiling and evaporating the water? Although some chemical energy
from the match was put into starting the fire, the heat to boil and evaporate the water comes from
the energy that was stored in the wood. The wood is the fuel for the fire.
Nonrenewable Resources
Fossil fuels, coal, oil, and natural gas, are the most common example of nonrenewable energy
resources. Fossil fuels are formed from fossils, the partially decomposed remains of once living
plants and animals. These fossils took millions of years to form. When fossil fuels are burned for
energy, they release pollutants into the atmosphere. Fossil fuels also release carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases, which are causing global temperatures to rise.
Renewable Resources
Renewable energy resources include solar, water, wind, biomass, and geothermal. These resources
are either virtually limitless like the Sun, which will continue to shine for billions of years, or will be
replaced faster than we can use them. Amounts of falling water or wind will change over the course
of time, but they are quite abundant. Biomass energy, like wood for fire, can be replaced quickly.
The use of renewable resources may also cause problems. Some are expensive, while some, such as
trees, have other uses. Some cause environmental problems. As the technology improves and more
people use renewable energy, the prices may come down. At the same time, as we use up fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, these nonrenewable resources will become more expensive.
At some point, even if renewable energy costs are high, nonrenewable energy will be even more
expensive. Ultimately, we will have to use renewable sources.
Important Things to Consider about Energy Resources
With both renewable and nonrenewable resources, there are at least two important things to
consider. One is that we have to have a practical way to turn the resource into a useful form of
energy. The other is that we have to consider what happens when we turn the resource into energy.
For example, if we get much less energy from burning a fuel than we put into making it, then that
fuel is probably not a practical energy resource. On the other hand, if another fuel gives us large
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amounts of energy but creates large amounts of pollution, that fuel also may not be the best choice
for an energy resource.
Electrical Grids
No matter what the source,
once it is generated electricity
has to move from place to
place. It does so by an electrical
grid. Many communities have
electrical grids that were built
decades ago. These grids are
inefficient and have high failure
rates.
The electrical grids of the future
are likely to be smart grids.
Smart grids start with electricity
production from one or more
power generation sources. The
electricity is streamed through
multiple networks out to
millions of consumers. Smart
meters are placed with the
consumers. They supply
information on the state of the
electrical system. Operators
know within minutes if the
power goes out, rather than
having to wait for phone calls
from consumers. Smart meters
measure consumption and
assist consumers in using power
when it is more economical,
even turning on or off appliances in homes or workplaces to smooth demand. Smart grids are
essential for integrating renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, into the network
because they have highs and lows in their supply.
Today we rely on electricity more than ever, but the resources that currently supply our power are
finite. The race is on to harness more renewable resources, but getting all that clean energy from
production sites to homes and businesses is proving to be a major challenge.
Units
Calculations are an important part of this module and are critical to a full understanding of energy
and energy efficiency. You will be required to know the main units, but will always be provided the
conversions. The only exception that you are responsible for are the prefixes for metric units shown
below. Further, as you will be working with numbers that can be quite large and small, you will be
expected to read and caulculate problems using scientific notation. Please review the references in
the sidebar for support.
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Prefix Symbol Multiplier
Exponent
tera
1,000,000,000,000
1012
giga
1,000,000,000
109
mega M
1,000,000
106
kilo
1,000
103
hecto h
100
102
deca
10
101
100
da
base
deci
0.1
10-1
centi
0.01
10-2
milli
0.001
10-3
micro
0.000001
10-6
nano
0.000000001
10-9
Energy Units
UNIT
CONVERSIONS
DESCRIPTIONS
Joule (J)
1 J= 0.00094782 or 9.48 x 10-4

Btu = 0.00000028 or 2.8 x 10-7
kWh
A small unit of energy but used often in

scientific measurements and calculations
Btu (British Thermal

Unit)
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1055 J
1 kWh = 1,000 J/s x 3,600 s = 3.6

6
kWh (kilowatt-hours) x 10 J
1 cal = 4.186 joules

calorie (cal)
1 Cal = 4.186 x 103 J
A unit of heat energy and the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit
A unit of electrical energy most often used in

the US by utility companies.
One calorie is the amount of heat energy

required to raise the temperature of one gram
of water by one Celsius degree. Dietary calories
are actually kilocalories (Cal) and are always
written with a capital C
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Gas companies in the U.S. often measure sales

1 therm = 105 Btu / 1,030 Btu/ft3 in "thermal units" or therms . One therm is
3
3
Therm (thermal units) = 97.1 ft 100 ft
defined as 100,000 Btu, and natural gas at
normal temperature and pressure has a heat
value of 1,030 Btu/ft3.
Power
Power is used to describe energy flow or the rate of doing work (or using energy). Power is
measured in joules/second. In the SI system, the unit of power is the watt (W).
1 watt (W) = 1 joule/second (J/s)
Electric Power Plants
Electric utility power plants are rated in terms of their capacity to deliver electric power. For
instance, a large coal-fired or nuclear plant might be rated at 1,000 MW (megawatts). This is the
"output" capacity of the plant, not the energy input. Input energy is usually measured in terms of the
heating value for the fuel; Btus for coal, for instance. If the plant operates at, say, 40 percent
efficiency, then the energy input required for such a plant can be computed as follows:
Coal has heat value of 25 x 106 Btu/ton:
Operating at full capacity 24 hours a day the plant uses:
Self-Assessment: Practice Questions

It is time to complete some practice questions, so you can apply this information. It is an expectation
to complete calculations of this type for this course and they are common place on the AP exam. Use
the information above and in the questions to complete this problem set, then check your answers
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by downloading the answer key (in the sidebar). After completing this practice, you have an
assignment with similar problems. Please review the videos for help and ALWAYS include units with
your calculations and final answers.
1. Given that 1 kcal of heat is required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1C:
a. How many kcals would be required to heat 100 kg of water by 20C for a bath?
b. How many joules is this?
c. How many Btus?
d. If your water heater can supply 40 kBtu/h, how long will it take to heat this water?
2. With moderate winds, a modern large wind turbine can generate about 250 kW of electricity,
whereas a large nuclear power plant can generate 1,000 MW.
How many wind turbines would be required to give the same output as one nuclear power plant?
3. A typical home in the northern U.S. might require 120 MBtu of heat for the average winter.
a. If this heat were supplied by a natural gas furnace operating at 60 percent efficiency, how many
cubic feet of gas would need to be purchased?
b. At a cost of $0.90/100 cf, what would it cost to heat this house for one season?
c. If a new 80 percent efficient furnace could be installed at a cost of $4,000, how long would it take
to pay back the cost of this furnace assuming gas prices remained the same?
4. Batteries are usually rated in terms of ampere-hours, indicating the current that the cell is capable
of delivering for a specified time. A typical D-cell flashlight battery, for instance, might be rated at 3
ampere-hours. The total electrical energy available from such a battery is found by multiplying the
ampere-hour rating by the battery voltage. Thus this same 1.5 volt D cell could deliver 4.5 watthours of electrical energy. Convert this energy to kWh and compare the cost of electrical energy
derived in this manner to that of standard "grid-based" electricity. Assume that the battery costs
$1.00 and that electricity from the power company is available at $0.10/kWh.
5. The table below gives prices and heat energy content for various fuels that are commonly used for
home heating. Fuel prices are given as a per-unit cost for fuel delivered to the home. Complete the
table by filling in the last two columns and thereby compare the cost of home heating by these
various methods. In your computations, assume that the home requires 120 MBtu of heat for a
season and that gas- or oil-fired furnaces operate at 80 percent efficiency. Assume that electrical
heating is 100 percent efficient.
Energy Content of
Fuel
Fuel
Price
Nat. Gas
$1.14 /
1030 Btu / cf
100 cf
Propane
$1.69 /
92 k Btu / gal
gal
Fuel Oil
$193 /
113 k Btu / gal
gal
Cost per M
Btu
Cost of Home
Heating
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Electricity
$0.10 /
3412 Btu / kWh
kWh
***Be sure to download the key available in the sidebar to check your answers.
Assignment: Energy Problems Review Sheet

Download, complete and submit the Energy Problems Review Sheet according to your
teacher's instructions. Be sure to show all of your work, include all units for all problems.
The needed conversions are on the assignment, but use the video references and
examples in the lesson to guide your work.
Nonrenewable Energy Sources

Use of Energy Resources
Look at the circle graph in the figure below. It shows that oil (petroleum) is the single most
commonly used energy resource in the U.S., followed by natural gas, and then by coal. All of these
energy resources are nonrenewable. Nonrenewable resources are resources that are limited in
supply and cannot be replaced as quickly as they are used up. Renewable resources, in contrast,
provide only 9 percent of all energy used in the U.S. Renewable resources are natural resources that
can be replaced in a relatively short period of time or are virtually limitless in supply. They include
solar energy from sunlight, geothermal energy from under Earth's surface, wind, biomass (from
once-living things or their wastes), and hydropower (from running water).
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Oil Use by Nation

People in the U.S. use far more energyespecially energy from oilthan people in any other nation.
The bar graph in the Figure below compares the amount of oil used by the top ten oil-using nations.
The U.S. uses more oil than several other top-ten countries combined. If you also consider the
population size in these countries, the differences are even more stunning. The average person in
the U.S. uses a whopping 23 barrels of oil a year! In comparison, the average person in India or China
uses just 1 or 2 barrels of oil a year. If you click HERE, you can explore energy use per person in the
U.S. and other countries or regions of the world over the past 50 years.
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What Are Nonrenewable Resources?

Nonrenewable resources are natural resources that are limited in supply and cannot be replaced as
quickly as they are used up. A natural resource is anything people can use that comes from nature.
Energy resources are some of the most important natural resources because everything we do
requires energy. Nonrenewable energy resources include fossil fuels such as oil and the radioactive
element uranium.
Types of Fossil Fuels
Oil, or petroleum, is one of several fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons (compounds
containing only hydrogen and carbon) that formed over millions of years from the remains of dead
organisms. In addition to oil, they include coal and natural gas. Fossil fuels provide most of the
energy used in the world today. They are burned in power plants to produce electrical energy, and
they also fuel cars, heat homes, and supply energy for many other purposes. For a more detailed
introduction to fossil fuels, click HERE.
Q: Why do fossil fuels have energy?
A: Fossil fuels contain stored chemical energy that originally came from the sun
How Fossil Fuels Formed
When ancient plants underwent photosynthesis, they changed energy in sunlight to stored chemical
energy in food. The plants used the food and so did the organisms that ate the plants. After the
plants and other organisms died, their remains gradually changed to fossil fuels as they were
covered and compressed by layers of sediments. Petroleum and natural gas formed from ocean
organisms and are found together. Coal formed from giant tree ferns and other swamp plants. Click
below to watch a video on coal formation.
Fossil Fuels and the Environment

When fossil fuels burn, they release thermal energy, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. The thermal
energy can be used to generate electricity or do other work. The carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere and is a major cause of global climate change. The burning of fossil fuels also releases
many pollutants into the air. Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide form acid rain, which kills living things
and damages metals, stonework, and other materials. Pollutants such as nitrogen oxides cause
smog, which is harmful to human health. Tiny particles, or particulates, released when fossil fuels
burn also harm human health.
The table below shows the amounts of pollutants released by different fossil fuels. Natural gas
releases the least pollution; coal releases the most. Petroleum has the additional risk of oil spills,
which may seriously damage ecosystems. Be sure to watch the video, "300 Years of Fossil Fuels in
300 Seconds" available in the sidebar.
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Q: Some newer models of cars and other motor vehicles can run on natural gas. Why would a
natural gas vehicle be better for the environment than a vehicle that burns gasoline, which is made
from oil? ANSWER
Nuclear Energy
Like fossil fuels, the radioactive element
uranium can be used to generate
electrical energy in power plants. This
source of energy is known as nuclear
energy. In a nuclear power plant, the
nuclei of uranium atoms are split apart
into smaller nuclei in the process of
nuclear fission. This process releases a
tremendous amount of energy from just
a small amount of uranium. The total
supply of uranium in the world is quite
limited, however, and cannot be
replaced once it is used up. That's why
nuclear energy is a nonrenewable resource. The use of nuclear energy also produces dangerous
radioactive wastes. In addition, accidents at nuclear power plants have the potential to release large
amounts of harmful radiation into the environment.
Q: Why is nuclear energy often considered to be "greener" than energy from fossil fuels? ANSWER
World's Oil Production Peaks
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Oil
Oil (or petroleum) is a liquid fossil fuel that is extremely useful because it can be transported easily
and can be used in cars and other vehicles. Oil is currently the single largest source of energy in the
world.
Oil Formation
Oil from the ground is called crude oil, which is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. Crude oil
is a thick dark brown or black liquid hydrocarbon. Oil also forms from buried dead organisms, but
these are tiny organisms that live on the sea surface and then sink to the seafloor when they die.
The dead organisms are kept away from oxygen by layers of other dead creatures and sediments. As
the layers pile up, heat and pressure increase. Over millions of years, the dead organisms turn into
liquid oil.
Oil Production
In order to be collected, the oil must be located between a porous rock layer and an impermeable
layer. Trapped above the porous rock layer and beneath the impermeable layer, the oil will remain
between these layers until it is extracted from the rock.
Pump Jack
Pump Jack Diagram
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To separate the different types of hydrocarbons in crude oil for different uses, the crude oil must be
refined in refineries like the one shown in the images below. Refining is possible because each
hydrocarbon in crude oil boils at a different temperature. When the oil is boiled in the refinery,
separate equipment collects the different compounds.
Below is a picture of an oil refinery located at Martinez, California. The tapering vertical elements
are smokestacks to create draft for heating units. Most of the complex vertical units are
fractionating towers. Others are flares.
Crude Oil Fractional Distillation
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Oil Use
Most of the compounds that come out of the refining process are fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, and
heating oil. Because these fuels are rich sources of energy and can be easily transported, oil provides
about 90% of the energy used for transportation around the world. The rest of the compounds from
crude oil are used for waxes, plastics, fertilizers, and other products.
Gasoline is in a convenient form for use in cars and other transportation vehicles. In a car engine, the
burned gasoline mostly turns into carbon dioxide and water vapor. The fuel releases most of its
energy as heat, which causes the gases to expand. This creates enough force to move the pistons
inside the engine and to power the car.
Consequences of Oil Use
The United States does produce oil, but the amount produced is only about one-third as much as the
nation uses. The United States has only about 1.5% of the world's proven oil reserves, so most of the
oil used by Americans must be imported from other nations.
The main oil-producing regions in the United States are the Gulf of Mexico, Texas, Alaska, and
California.
Click here to see an animation of the location of petroleum basins in the contiguous United States.
Imported Crude Oil as a Percent of U.S. Consumption, 1950-2003
See how you do on this practice quiz!
Other Uses of Petroleum
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Read over the PDF file The How's and Why's of Replacing the Whole Barrel by the US Department
of Energy (available in the sidebar).
Natural Gas
Natural gas, often known simply as gas, is composed mostly of the hydrocarbon methane. The
amount of natural gas being extracted and used in the Untied States is increasing rapidly.
Natural Gas Formation
Natural gas forms under the same conditions that create oil. Organic material buried in the
sediments harden to become a shale formation that is the source of the gas. Although natural gas
forms at higher temperatures than crude oil, the two are often found together.
Click HERE to see the formation of an oil and gas deposit that can be mined.
The largest natural gas reserves in the United States are in the Appalachian Basin, Texas, and the
Gulf of Mexico region. California also has natural gas, found mostly in the Central Valley. In the
northern Sacramento Valley and the Sacramento Delta, a sediment-filled trough formed along a
location where crust was pushed together (an ancient convergent margin).
Click HERE to see an animation about global natural gas reserves.
Natural Gas Use
Like crude oil, natural gas must be processed before it can be used as a fuel. Some of the chemicals
in unprocessed natural gas are poisonous to humans. Other chemicals, such as water, make the gas
less useful as a fuel. Processing natural gas removes almost everything except the methane. Once
the gas is processed, it is ready to be delivered and used. Natural gas is delivered to homes for uses
such as cooking and heating. Like coal and oil, natural gas is also burned to generate heat for
powering turbines. The spinning turbines turn generators, and the generators create electricity.
Consequences of Natural Gas Use
Natural gas burns much cleaner than other fossil fuels, meaning that it causes less air pollution.
Natural gas also produces less carbon dioxide than other fossil fuels do for the same amount of
energy, so its global warming effects are less.
Unfortunately, drilling for natural gas can be environmentally destructive. One technique used is
hydraulic fracturing, also called fracking, which increases the rate of recovery of natural gas. Fluids
are pumped through a borehole to create fractures in the reservoir rock that contains the natural
gas. Material is added to the fluid to prevent the fractures from closing.
The damage comes primarily from chemicals in the fracturing fluids. Chemicals that have been found
in the fluids may be carcinogens (cancer-causing), radioactive materials, or endocrine disruptors,
which interrupt hormones in the bodies of humans and animals. The fluids may get into
groundwater or may runoff into streams and other surface waters. Plus, fracking may cause
earthquakes.
Coal: The Fossil Fuel that Started the Industrial Revolution
Coal , a solid fossil fuel formed from the partially decomposed remains of ancient forests, is burned
primarily to produce electricity. Coal use is undergoing enormous growth as the availability of oil and
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natural gas decreases and cost increases. This increase in coal use is happening particularly in
developing nations, such as China, where coal is cheap and plentiful.
Coal is black or brownish-black. The most common form of coal is bituminous, a sedimentary rock
that contains impurities such as sulfur. Anthracite coal has been metamorphosed and is nearly all
carbon. For this reason, anthracite coal burns more cleanly than bituminous coal.
Coal Formation
Coal forms from dead plants that settled at the bottom of ancient swamps. Lush coal swamps were
common in the tropics during the Carboniferous period, which took place more than 300 million
years ago. The climate was warmer then. Mud and other dead plants buried the organic material in
the swamp, and burial kept oxygen away. When plants are buried without oxygen, the organic
material can be preserved or fossilized. Sand and clay settling on top of the decaying plants
squeezed out the water and other substances. Millions of years later, what remains is a carboncontaining rock that we know as coal.
Coal Use
Around the world, coal is the largest source of energy for electricity. The United States is rich in coal.
California once had a number of small coal mines, but the state no longer produces coal. To turn coal
into electricity, the rock is crushed into powder, which is then burned in a furnace that has a boiler.
Like other fuels, coal releases its energy as heat when it burns. Heat from the burning coal boils the
water in the boiler to make steam. The steam spins turbines, which turn generators to create
electricity. In this way, the energy stored in the coal is converted to useful energy like electricity.
Global Coal Output as a Percentage of China (top producer) 2005
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Consequences of Coal Use

For coal to be used as an energy source, it must first be mined. Coal mining occurs at the surface or
underground by methods. Mining, especially underground mining, can be dangerous. In April 2010,
29 miners were killed at a West Virginia coal mine when gas that had accumulated in the mine
tunnels exploded and started a fire
Coal mining exposes minerals and rocks from underground to air and water at the surface. Many of
these minerals contain the element sulfur, which mixes with air and water to make sulfuric acid, a
highly corrosive chemical. If the sulfuric acid gets into streams, it can kill fish, plants, and animals
that live in or near the water.
Biomagnification and Sources of Mercury
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The diagram to the right shows

another environmental
consequence of burning coal,
our primary fuel source for
electrical power. Mercury,
arsenic, sulfur, other heavy
metals like cadmium, lead and
uranium as well as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide,
VOCs, particulates and nitrogen
and sulfur oxides are all
produced from the combustion
of coal.
How much is left?
The answer to that question
depends on what we as a
society are willing to do to get
fossil fuels. How much are we
willing to damage the
environment to extract and
transport fossil fuels? How
much are we willing to raise
atmospheric greenhouse gas
levels and further alter climate?
The Keystone Pipeline would bring crude oil from tar sands to the U.S., but for the time being, that
project is on hold.
Fossil Fuel Reserves
Fossil fuels provide about 85% of the world's energy at this time. Worldwide fossil fuel usage has
increased many times over in the past half century (coal - 2.6x, oil - 8x, natural gas - 14x) because of
population increases, because of increases in the number of cars, televisions, and other fuelconsuming uses in the developed world, and because of lifestyle improvements in the developing
world. Click HERE to learn about past and predicted use of different types of energy in the United
States.
Worldwide Oil Reserves
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Alternative Fossil Fuels

As the easy-to-reach fossil fuel sources are depleted, alternative sources of fossil fuels are
increasingly being exploited. These include oil shale and tar sands. Oil shale is rock that contains
dispersed oil that has not collected in reservoirs. To extract the oil from the shale requires enormous
amounts of hot water. Tar sands are rocky materials mixed with very thick oil. The tar is too thick to
pump and so tar sands are strip-mined. Hot water and caustic soda are used to separate the oil from
the rock.
The environmental consequences of mining these fuels, and of fossil fuel use in general, along with
the fact that these fuels do not have a limitless supply, are prompting the development of
alternative energy sources in some regions.
Nuclear Energy (Nuclear Fission)
Nuclear energy is produced by splitting the nucleus of an atom. This releases a huge amount of
energy.
How Nuclear Power Plants Work
Nuclear power plants use uranium that has been concentrated in fuel rods. The uranium atoms are
split apart when they are hit by other extremely tiny particles. These particles must be controlled or
they would cause a dangerous explosion.
Nuclear power plants use the energy they produce to heat water. The water turns into steam, which
causes a turbine to spin. This in turn produces electricity.
Conversion of Yellow Cake Uranium to Uranium Hexafluoride (UF6)
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Nuclear Power as a Resource

Many countries around the world use nuclear energy as a source of electricity. For example, France
gets about 80% of its electricity from nuclear energy. In the United States, a little less than 20% of
electricity comes from nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy does not pollute. If there are no accidents, a nuclear power plant releases nothing
but steam into the air. But nuclear energy does create other environmental problems. Splitting
atoms creates dangerous radioactive waste. These wastes can remain dangerous for hundreds of
thousands of years. Scientists and engineers are still looking for ways to keep this waste safely away
from people.
Consequences of Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is clean. It does not pollute the air. However, the use of nuclear energy does create
other environmental problems. Uranium must be mined. The process of splitting atoms creates
radioactive waste. This waste may be dangerous for thousands or hundreds of thousands of years.
As yet, there is no long-term solution for storing the radioactive waste.
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For three decades new nuclear power plants were not built in the U.S. Accidents at Three Mile Island
and Chernobyl, Ukraine made people nervous about harnessing nuclear power. Because nuclear
energy is clean, nuclear power was making a comeback. But the 2011 disaster at the Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan changed attitudes back. This accident seems to have resulted in
a new fear of nuclear power. The disaster was caused by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and tsunami.
These events seriously damaged the plant.
Nuclear power is a controversial subject. Nuclear power has no pollutants. Nuclear power does not
produce greenhouse gases. However, accidents do happen and they can be devastating. The longterm disposal of wastes is a problem that has not yet been solved. The future of nuclear power is
murky.
Where could long-term nuclear waste go?
That's a very good question. For years, a waste facility was in development in Nevada. The site at
Yucca Mountain was cancelled due to public outcry. Now there is no facility for storing long-term
nuclear waste from most sources. No facilities are currently being developed either.
Lab: Nuclear Power Plant and Nuclear Waste

First, you will take a virtual tour of a nuclear power plant,
then you will conduct a lab to test methods of disposing of nuclear waste. Finally, you will
then you will describe how a nuclear power plant works, noting each of the key parts and including
illustrations. Download the handout from the sidebar for complete instructions. Be sure to submit
your completed assignment according to your instructor's directions.
Renewable Energy Sources

What Are Renewable Resources?
Renewable resources are natural resources that can be replaced in a relatively short period of time
or are virtually limitless in supply. In addition to wind, renewable energy resources include sunlight,
moving water, biomass, and geothermal energy. All of these resources are freely available and won't
run out. Most of them also have the advantage of producing little if any pollution or carbon dioxide,
which contributes to global climate change. Nonetheless, these energy resources are used far less
than nonrenewable energy resources, especially fossil fuels.
Sunlight
The sunlight that reaches Earth is the planet's most important source of energy. The energy in
sunlight, called solar energy, is electromagnetic energy. This is a form of energy that travels through
space in electric and magnetic waves. Solar energy can be used to heat homes and produce
electricity in solar cells. Sunny areas receive plenty of sunlight to generate electricity, but solar
energy may not be practical in areas that are often cloudy.
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Society's use of solar power on a larger scale is just starting to increase. Scientists and engineers
have very active, ongoing research into new ways to harness energy from the Sun more efficiently.
Because of the tremendous amount of incoming sunlight, solar power is being developed in the
United States in southeastern California, Nevada, and Arizona.
Photovoltaic Panel Array
Solar power plants turn sunlight into electricity using a large group of mirrors to focus sunlight on
one place, called a receiver. A liquid, such as oil or water, flows through this receiver and is heated
to a high temperature by the focused sunlight. The heated liquid transfers its heat to a nearby object
that is at a lower temperature through a process called conduction. The energy conducted by the
heated liquid is used to make electricity.
Consequences of Solar Power Use
Solar energy has many benefits. It is extremely abundant, widespread, and will never run out. But
there are problems with the widespread use of solar power.
Sunlight must be present. Solar power is not useful in locations that are often cloudy or dark.
However, storage technology is being developed.
The technology needed for solar power is still expensive. An increase in interested
customers will provide incentive for companies to research and develop new technologies
and to figure out how to mass-produce existing technologies.
Solar panels require a lot of space. Fortunately, solar panels can be placed on any rooftop to
supply at least some of the power required for a home or business.
Other Solar Powered Technologies
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Diagram explaining how solar water heating works

1. Cold water enters through an inlet
2. Into an insulated storage tank
3. From there it flows through a panel
4. Which absorbs solar radiation
The solar energy is absorbed as heat and the hot water re-enters the tank where it exchanges heat
with the rest of the water through convection or a heat exchanger. Hot water exits the tank at the
top where it can be used (E). The temperature at the top of the tank (F+) is higher than that at the
bottom (G-) because of reduced specific mass of warmer water.
Wind Energy
Wind is moving air, so it has mechanical energy that can do work. People have been using wind for
energy for thousands of years. The old-fashioned windmill is one way that wind energy can be used.
The wind turbines in the image above are a much newer way of using wind energy. They change the
kinetic energy of the wind to electrical energy. However, only certain areas of the world get enough
steady wind to produce much electricity. Many people also think that wind turbines are noisy,
dangerous to birds, and unattractive in the landscape.
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Consequences of Wind Power

Wind power has many advantages. It does not burn, so it does not release pollution or carbon
dioxide. Also, wind is plentiful in many places. Wind, however, does not blow all of the time, even
though power is needed all of the time. Just as with solar power, engineers are working on
technologies that can store wind power for later use.
Windmills are expensive and wear out quickly. A lot of windmills are needed to power a region, so
nearby residents may complain about the loss of a nice view if a wind farm is built. Coastlines
typically receive a lot of wind, but wind farms built near beaches may cause unhappiness for local
residents and tourists.
The Cape Wind project off of Cape Cod, Massachusetts has been approved but is generating much
controversy. Opponents are in favor of green power but not at that location. Proponents say that
clean energy is needed and the project would supply 75% of the electricity needed for Cape Cod and
nearby islands.
California was an early adopter of wind power. Windmills are found in mountain passes, where the
cooler Pacific Ocean air is sucked through on its way to warmer inland valleys. Large fields of
windmills can be seen at Altamont Pass in the eastern San Francisco Bay Area, San Gorgonio Pass
east of Los Angeles, and Tehachapi Pass at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley.
Moving Water
The mechanical energy of rapidly flowing water can turn a turbine and generate electricity.
Electricity produced in this way is called hydroelectric power. The water may flow over a waterfall or
through a dam. You can see a picture of a dam above. A drawback of dams is that they flood land
upstream from the dam and reduce water flow downstream from the dam, and this can destroy
ecosystems.
Water covers 70% of the planet's surface, and water power (hydroelectric power) is the most widely
used form of renewable energy in the world. Hydroelectric power from streams provides almost one
fifth of the world's electricity.
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Hydroelectric Power
Remember that potential energy is the energy of an object waiting to fall. Water held behind a dam
has a lot of potential energy.
In a hydroelectric plant, a dam across a riverbed holds a stream to create a reservoir. Instead of
flowing down its normal channel, the water is allowed to flow into a large turbine. As the water
moves, it has kinetic energy, which makes the turbine spin. The turbine is connected to a generator,
which makes electricity.
Hoover Dam Generators
Consequences of Water Power Use

The major benefit of hydropower is that it generates power without releasing any pollution.
Hydropower is also a renewable resource since the stream will keep on flowing. However, there are
a limited number of suitable dam sites. Hydropower also has environmental problems. When a large
dam disrupts a river's flow, it changes the ecosystem upstream. As the land is flooded by rising
water, plants and animals are displaced or killed. Many beautiful landscapes, villages, and
archeological sites have been drowned by the water in a reservoir.
The dam and turbines also change the downstream environment for fish and other living things.
Dams slow the release of silt so that downstream deltas retreat and seaside cities become
dangerously exposed to storms and rising sea levels. The picture to the right shows a salmon, or fish,
ladder. These ladders provide a route for the fish to travel upstream, around dams and other manmade obstructions.
Ocean Water Power
The energy of waves and tides can be used to produce water power. Tidal power stations may need
to close off a narrow bay or estuary. Wave power applications have to be able to withstand coastal
storms and the corrosion of seawater. Because of the many problems with them, tide and wave
power plants are not very common. Although not yet widely used, many believe tidal power has
more potential than wind or solar power for meeting alternative energy needs.
Geothermal Energy
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The heat that is used for geothermal power may come to the surface naturally as hot springs or
geysers, like The Geysers in northern California. Where water does not naturally come to the
surface, engineers may pump cool water into the ground. The water is heated by the hot rock and
then pumped back to the surface for use. The hot water or steam from a geothermal well spins a
turbine to make electricity.
Geothermal energy is clean and safe. The energy source is renewable since hot rock is found
everywhere in the Earth, although in many parts of the world the hot rock is not close enough to the
surface for building geothermal power plants. In some areas, geothermal power is common.
In the United States, California is a leader in producing geothermal energy. The largest geothermal
power plant in the state is in the Geysers Geothermal Resource Area in Napa and Sonoma Counties.
The source of heat is thought to be a large magma chamber lying beneath the area.
Biomass
For many people in the world, wood is their main energy resource. They burn it to stay warm as well
as to cook their food. The photo at right shows Iraqi women who are making flatbread with an
outdoor clay stove that uses wood as fuel. Other energy resources, such as oil or gas, are simply not
available to them or are far too expensive for most people to use. However, if you live in the U.S. or
another of the richer nations of the world, you probably depend almost totally on these more
expensive energy resources, especially oil.
The stored chemical energy in organic matter or wastes is called biomass energy. The organic matter
may be trees or other plants, or it may be wastes from homes and industries. When biomass is
burned, it produces thermal energy that can be used for heating homes, cooking, or generating
electricity. Biomassespecially woodis an important energy source in the poorer nations where
most people can't afford fossil fuels. However, burning biomass releases air pollution and
contributes to global climate change. Biomass can be used to make ethanol, a fuel that is added to
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gasoline. Although ethanol releases less pollution than gasoline, large areas of land are needed to
grow the plants needed to make it. This reduces the amount of land available for food production.
Consequences of Biomass Use
In many instances, the amount of energy, fertilizer, and land needed to produce the crops used
make biofuels mean that they often produce very little more energy than they consume. The
fertilizers and pesticides used to grow the crops run off and become damaging pollutants in nearby
water bodies or in the oceans.
To generate biomass energy, break down the cell walls of plants to release the sugars and then
ferment those sugars to create fuel. Corn is a very inefficient source; scientists are looking for much
better sources of biomass energy. Below is a photo of the Stevens Croft Biomass Plant. This plant
opened in 2008, the largest biomass plant in Scotland with an output of 44MW.
Other Sources of Biomass

Omega System
Investigate the use of algae for waste water treatment and fuel production by clicking HERE.
Ethanol
Click HERE to read about ethnaol as a renewable fuel source.
Ethanol Production Plant
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Energy Generation

Click HERE to learn about using MSW as a renewable fuel source.
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Assignment: Energy Sources Summary Chart

Download the Energy Sources Summary Chart from the sidebar. When you have
completed this assignment, be sure to submit it according to your teacher's insructions.
Discussion: What does the future hold for energy sources?

Click HERE.
Read over all of the History of Energy energy timelines linked to the URL above. Select one
of the energy types and then "predict" its future by creating three (3) future entries in the
timeline. In your timeline entries, be sure to justify and fully explain your predictions, even
though they may be creative.
Energy Conservation and Efficiency

U.S. Energy Consumption (2010-2050)
Have you converted to compact fluorescent light bulbs at your house?
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Compact fluorescent light bulbs are more efficient than incandescent light bulbs. Look at the chart
and try to see how much more efficient. The answer is that they could be as much as six times more
efficient. So why aren't all people using compact fluorescent bulbs all the time? Early ones were
large and expensive, and many people don't like the color of the light. But they are much more
environmentally friendly.
Net energy
Net energy is the amount of useable energy available from a resource after subtracting the amount
of energy needed to make the energy from that resource available. For example, every 5 barrels of
oil that are made available for use require 1 barrel for extracting and refining the petroleum. What is
the net energy from this process? About 4 barrels (5 barrels minus 1 barrel).
What happens if the energy needed to extract and refine oil increases? Why might that happen? The
energy cost of an energy resource increases when the easy deposits of that resource have already
been consumed. For example, if all the nearshore petroleum in a region has been extracted, more
costly drilling must take place further offshore. If the energy cost of obtaining energy increases, the
resource will be used even faster.
Net-Energy Ratio
The net-energy ratio demonstrates the proportion between the amount of energy available in a
resource and the amount of energy used to get it. If it takes 8 units of energy to make available 10
units of energy, then the net-energy ratio is 10/8 or 1.25. What does a net-energy ratio larger than 1
mean? What if the net-energy ratio is less than 1? A net-energy ratio larger than 1 means that there
is a net gain in usable energy; a net-energy ratio smaller than one means there is an overall energy
loss.
Table below shows the net-energy ratios for some common energy sources.
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Energy Source
Net-Energy Ratio
Solar Energy
5.8
Natural Gas
4.9
Petroleum
4.5
Coal-fired Electricity
2.5-5.1
Notice from the table that solar energy yields much more net energy than other sources. This is
because it takes very little energy to get usable solar energy. Sunshine is abundant and does not
need to be found, extracted, or transported very far. The range for coal-fired electricity is because of
the differing costs of transporting the coal. What does this suggest about using coal to generate
electricity? The efficiency is greater in areas where the coal is locally mined and does not have to be
transported great distances.
This is not to say that solar energy is less expensive than other types of energy. The cost of energy is
dependent on lots of different factors, such as the cost of the equipment needed to harness the
energy. If solar power cost less to use, it would be more widespread.
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency describes how much useful work is extracted from one unit of energy. Remember
that although energy is not created or destroyed, it's just transferred from one form to another,
some energy is nearly always lost in the transfer as heat. By saying that the work must be useful, it is
possible to account for the energy that is lost to non-useful work. For example, some energy may
not be doing useful work if the equipment is not running well (maybe a piston is moving sideways a
bit rather than just up and down).
Higher energy efficiency is desirable because:
Less energy is being wasted.
Non-renewable resources will last longer.
The cost is kept lower.
Because so much of the energy we use is from fossil fuels, we need to be especially concerned about
using them efficiently. Sometimes our choices affect energy efficiency. For example, transportation
by cars and airplanes is less energy-efficient than transportation by boats and trains.
Conserving Energy
Everyone can reduce their use of energy resources and the pollution the resources cause by
conserving energy. Conservation means saving resources by using them more efficiently, using less
of them, or not using them at all. You can read below about some of the ways you can conserve
energy on the road and in the home.
Conserving Energy in Transportation
Much of the energy used in the U.S. is used for transportation. You can conserve transportation
energy in several ways. For example, you can:
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Plan ahead to avoid unnecessary trips.
Take public transit such as subways (or buses) instead of driving.
Drive an energy-efficient vehicle when driving is the only way to get there.
Take a Practice Quiz by clicking HERE.
FRQ: Energy Use
Read the editorial below and answer the questions that follow.
(a) On the basis of the article above, indicate one human activity that releases mercury
into the environment.
Describe how mercury is transported from that source and enters aquatic systems, often hundreds
of miles
away.
(b) Describe TWO ways that the amount of mercury released into the environment from the source
in part (a)
could be reduced.
(c) Explain why there are greater health risks associated with eating large predatory fish, such as
tuna and sea
bass, than from eating small nonpredatory fish.
(d) Identify a toxic metal other than mercury that has a negative impact on human health and
describe how it is
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introduced into the environment. Describe an acute sublethal effect on humans that results from
exposure to this metal.
Plate Tectonics, Natural Resources & Management

What are natural resources?
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials or substances that have value. That value of the
individual resource may be economic, ecological, aesthetic and or bequest. Whether the resource is
sunlight or petroleum, all resources are needed and vary in availability by location and demand.
Further, natural resources are not evenly distributed throughout the landmasses on Earth. Plate
tectonics are a chief factor for this inequitable division, especially of mineral resources. Further,
latitude determines the availability of many resources such as water and sunlight. Naturals resources
and be renewable or non-renewable, but sustainable use and management must be applied to
ensure they are available for the long term.
Essential Questions
1. What is a natural resource?
2. How do renewable and nonrenewable resources differ?
3. What is the Tragedy of the Commons?
4. How are natural resources managed and conserved?
5. How does per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) relate to consumption of natural
resources?
6. When did Earth's resources form?
7. What is the composition of each of Earth's layers?
8. What is the practical significance today of the way Earth's resources were distributed when
the planet formed and cooled?
9. What is Plate Tectonic Theory?
10. When the "plates" move, what are the consequences?
11. How do earthquakes and volcanoes occur?
12. Why are economically valuable mineral resources distributed unevenly on the planet?
13. Describe the various types of surface mining operations.
14. What are the consequences of surface mining versus subsurface mining, and how has mining
legislation tried to reduce those impacts?
15. What are rare earth elements and how are they used?
Module Minute
Resources can be renewable or nonrenewable, but all have value. Renewable resources should not
run out, yet mismanagement, pollution and naturally uneven distribution means not everyone has
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access to them. The surface or crust of the Earth is made up of large mobile plates called tectonic
plates. The movement of these plates accounts for the uneven distribution of minerals, landforms
and phenomena such as volcanoes and earthquakes. Many of the natural resources we use everyday
are minerals, which are naturally occurring substances, and can be metals or nonmetals. Mining is
used to extract metals, and varies in technique depending on the desired mineral and its location.
Regardless of mining type, retrieving minerals from the Earth's crust is extremely damaging.
Management of all of Earth's resources is our responsibility.
What to Expect
Lab: Tragedy of the Commons
Discussion: Natural Resources Committee Email
Assignment: Rare Earth Elements Video
FRQ: Plate Tectonics
Test: Renewable and Non-renewable Resources and Coal Mining
Key Terms
Natural resources - naturally occurring materials with use value.
Renewable - can be remade or reused in a time period usable easily within a human lifespan
Non-renewable - cannot be replenished in a human lifespan and are being used up faster
that they can be remade by natural processes
Tragedy of the Commons - term coined by Garrett Hardin in 1968 to illustrate the
degradation of the environment that can occur when there is open and uncontrolled access
to resources
Plate Tectonics - a model of the Earth's surface where it is composed of several large plates
that move relative to each other
Earthquake - geological event caused by seismic waves measurable at the Earth's surface
Volcano - landform created by the upward movement of magma
Minerals - naturally occurring elements and/or inorganic chemical compounds
Ore - minerals located in the earth's crust
Ore deposits - deposits of minerals in high enough concentrations to be worth being mined
Surface mining - types of mining where ore deposits are close to the surface or surface is
moved to expose deposits
Subsurface mining - or underground mining where deposits are deep within the Earth's
surface
Sustainability - management of natural resources and the environment that allows the
restoration of resources and ecosystems to retain functionality
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Reclamation - basic remediation of land after the closing of a mine with goal of mitigating
the impact of mining
Richter scale -a formerly used base 10 logarithmic scale of the ratio of the amplitude of
seismic waves to quantify the energy released by earthquakes.
Moment magnitude scale (MMS) - the current scale used to measure the size of
earthquakes, notably larger quakes in magnitude between 3 and 7
Epicenter - the point on the Earth's surface above the origin (or focus) of an earthquake
Focus - or hypocenter is the origin of an earthquake's energy release
Rare earth elements - seventeen elements with similar properties and tend to be dispersed
and not in economically valuable deposits. Many have highly valued technological
applications.
Acid mine drainage - highly acidic water that drains from mining sites (notably coal mines)
often entering water supplies and causing environmental damage
Natural Resources
Be sure to watch Lego Planet Earth: Natural Resources, located in the sidebar.
Renewable Resources
Renewable resources can be renewed as they are used. An example is timber, which comes from
trees. New trees can be planted to replace those that are cut down. Sunlight is a renewable
resource. It seems we will never run out of that! What are some other renewable resources?
Just because a resource is renewable, it doesn't mean we should use it carelessly. If we aren't
careful, we can pollute resources. Then they may no longer be fit for use. Water is one example. If
we pollute a water source it may not be usable for drinking, bathing or any other type of use. We
can also overuse resources that should be renewable. In this case the resources may not be able to
recover. For example, fish are renewable resources. That's because they can reproduce and make
more fish. But water pollution and overfishing can cause them to die out if their population becomes
too low.
Nonrenewable Resources
Some resources can't be renewed. At least, they can't be renewed fast enough to keep up with use.
Fossil fuels are examples. It takes millions of years for them to form. We are using them up much
more quickly. Elements that are used to produce nuclear power are other examples. For example,
uranium is fairly rare on land, so sooner or later it will run out.
Supplies of nonrenewable resources are shrinking. This makes them harder to get. Oil is a good
example. Oil reserves beneath land are running out. So oil companies have started to drill for oil far
out in the ocean. This costs more money. It's also more dangerous.
Tragedy of the Commons

Read the section in your textbook about the Tragedy of the Commons.
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Tragedy of the Commons refers to the depletion of a shared resource by individuals who act
independenly and rationally according to their own self interest. They deplete the resource despite
the knowledge that the depletion is contrary to the group's best long term interest. This phrase was
first coined by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968 in a paper titled "The Tragedy of the Commons"
pubished in the journal Science.
An example Hardin referred to in his paper involved a group of cattle herders sharing grazing rights
on a common parcel of land. It was in each herder's self interest to put all of his cows on the
common land even though the quality of the land was depleted for all of the farmers through
overgrazing. The farmer got an individual benefit while the burden of the consequences was shared
by the group. If each farmer makes this same choice, the common land will be depleted or destoryed
to the detriment of all. A more modern example of this problem is overfishing in the world's oceans.
Fortunately, there are strategies that can be used to ensure the long-term survival of a resource in
spite of the natural tendency toward exploitation. These are incentives, privatization,
communication, and education. With these solutions in hand, strategies can be devised to help
protect common resources in the environment and work toward sustainable resource use.
Use of Natural Resources

Sustainable use of both renewable and nonrenewable resources is critical to the long-term survival
of the human population. Humans must accept responsibility of caring for a fragile planet with a
growing population.
Watch this video to look at sustainable use of natural resources.
Management of Natural Resources
Read over this PowerPoint about management of resources. Download and complete this chart to
use as a resource as you read through the PowerPoint (this chart is also available in the sidebar).
Gross Domestic Product and Natural Resources

Natural resource use varies from area to area in the United States, and varies significantly from
country to country. Overall, per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a good indicator of the
resource use of a country. Certainly there are many other factors to consider when evaluating a
country's resource demand, but the standard of living and the per capita GDP are key factors.
Read over the following PDF file from the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS), Population and natural resources.
Consider the following questions before moving on to the discussion board
1. What does per capita mean?
2. What countries have the highest consumption rates, developed or developing?
3. What countries are more likely to manage their natural resource use, developed or
developing?
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4. How might some types of natural resources be used differently in developed countries when
compared to developing countries?
Discussion: Natural Resources Committee Email

Go to the website for the Natural Resources Committee and select one of the
subcommittees.
Read over the Hot Topics on the subcommittee page you selected, and compose an email
to one of the representatives. Your email should address concerns you have on the topic and or
suggestions for possible solutions. In your "email" include a logical and well-supported discussion of
the topic(s) of concern. Additional resource: National Resources Defense Counsel
Earth's Dynamic Surface
Minerals like all natural resources are not evenly distributed in the Earth's surface. Many reasons
account for this disparity, but a significant reason is the constant movement of the tectonic plates
that make up the surface of the planet.
Watch this video about the fundamentals of the theory of continental drift. (Note: This video may
take a while to load)
How Plates Move

Convection within the Earth's mantle causes the plates to move. Mantle material is heated above
the core. The hot mantle rises up toward the surface (see image below). As the mantle rises, it cools.
At the surface, the material moves horizontally away from a mid-ocean ridge crest. The material
continues to cool. It sinks back down into the mantle at a deep sea trench. The material sinks back
down to the core. It moves horizontally again, completing a convection cell.
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Plates move for two reasons. Upwelling mantle at the mid-ocean ridge pushes plates outward. Cold
lithosphere sinking into the mantle at a subduction zone pulls the rest of the plate down with it.
Seafloor spreading takes place as plates move apart from each other at a mid-ocean ridge. Mantle
convection drives seafloor spreading.
Watch the following video: (Note: this video may take a while to load)
Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent from which the material from a magma chamber escapes. This may include lava,
rock fragments, ash, and gases. Volcanic eruptions can come from many types of structures. Most
people think of volcanoes as large, peaky cones. But volcanoes can be large and broad, or tiny little
cones. Volcanic eruptions can come from fractured domes, a vent in the ground, or from a giant hole
in the ground.
Where They Are
Volcanoes are a vibrant manifestation of plate tectonics processes. Volcanoes are common along
convergent and divergent plate boundaries. They are also found within lithospheric plates at
hotspots. Wherever mantle is able to melt, volcanoes are likely to be the result.
Watch the video in the sidebar about earthquakes before moving on to the reading section.
Earthquake!
An earthquake is sudden ground movement. This movement is caused by the sudden release of the
energy stored in rocks. An earthquake happens when so much stress builds up in the rocks that the
rocks break. An earthquake's energy is transmitted by seismic waves.
Causes of Earthquakes
Almost all earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. All types of plate boundaries have earthquakes.
Convection within the Earth causes the plates to move. As the plates move, stresses build. When the
stresses build too much, the rocks break. The break releases the energy that was stored in the rocks.
The sudden release of energy is an earthquake. During an earthquake the rocks usually move several
centimeters. Rarely, they may move as much as a few meters.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Earthquakes at convergent plate boundaries mark the location of the subducting lithosphere. The
motion of the lithosphere as it plunges through the mantle causes the quakes. At greater depths, the
plate heats up enough to deform plastically.
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A cross section of earthquake epicenters. The depth outlines the subducting plate. There are
shallow, intermediate, and deep earthquakes.
Ocean-Ocean: Japan
Earthquakes in Japan are caused by ocean-ocean convergence. The Philippine Plate and the Pacific
Plate subduct beneath oceanic crust on the North American or Eurasian plates. This complex plate
tectonics situation creates a chain of volcanoes, the Japanese islands, and as many as 1,500
earthquakes annually.
Mining & Mineral Resources

When you use a roll of aluminum foil or some baby powder, you probably don't think about how the
products were made. You may not even know that those products are from minerals! We use
minerals in many everyday items. Minerals have to be located, removed from the ground, and
refined before they can be made into the products.
Ore Deposits
A rock that contains important minerals is called an ore. The concentration of valuable minerals in an
ore may be high or low.
Certain places on Earth are more likely to have certain ores. Geologists search for the places that
might have ore deposits. For example, if you want copper you need to look at regions with a
particular geology. Copper is often found where hot fluids came off of a magma intrusion. Aluminum
is found in intensely weathered soils in tropical areas. Some of the valuable deposits may be hidden
underground. Some may be at the surface.
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To find a mineral deposit, geologists study the geology of a lot of places. They then go to a spot
where that type of mineral deposit could be found. They test the properties of the soil and rocks.
They look at the chemistry and the physical properties. They determine if a mineral deposit is
nearby.
After a mineral deposit is found, geologists determine how big it is. They may drill holes. They will
test the chemistry of the rock from the holes. Using this information, they will outline the deposit on
a map. This will allow them to determine the size and the concentration of ore minerals. The
geologists then calculate the total amount of valuable minerals they think are in the deposit. The ore
will only be mined if it is profitable. Only if it is profitable, is a mineral deposit called an ore deposit .
Mining
Mining in Australia
Can't get enough information about mining? Watch this video about gold mining and the abundant
resources in Australia. Click HERE.
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After watching the video, check your comprehension by reviewing these questions and checking the
answers with yours.
1. What is the Superpit? ANSWER
2. How large is the Superpit? ANSWER
3. How is gold extracted from this mine? ANSWER
4. About how much gold will be extracted from the truckload of rock? ANSWER
5. What is Australia's rank in gold mining? ANSWER
6. What minerals is Australia the leading country for? ANSWER
7. What other resources is Australia rich in? ANSWER
Ore Extraction
When the ore leaves the mine it is not yet a useful material. Most ores are a combination of metal
and other elements. The rocks are full of valuable minerals. They also contain rock that isn't
valuable, which is called waste rock. The valuable minerals must be separated from the waste rock.
To separate the ore from the waste rock, first the rocks are crushed. Then the minerals are
separated out of the ore. There are a few methods for doing this:
heap leaching: the addition of chemicals, such as cyanide or acid, to remove ore. This is
often done at very high temperatures
flotation: the addition of a compound that attaches to the valuable mineral and floats.
smelting: roasting rock at a temperature greater than 900oC. This causes it to segregate into
layers. The valuable minerals are then extracted. This requires a lot of energy.
Extracting metal from rock is so energy-intensive that it's much better to recycle. We use over 80
billion aluminum cans each year. If all of these cans were recycled, we would save the energy in 2
billion gallons of gasoline!
Mining can do a lot of damage to a region. Mining companies are now supposed to return the land
to its natural state when they are done. Sometimes this works really well. It's hard to tell there was a
mine here!
Mining and the Environment
Mining provides people with many resources they need. But mining can be hazardous to the
environment. For surface mines, miners clear the land of soil and plants. Nearby lakes and streams
may be inundated with sediment. The mined rock may include heavy metals. These also enter the
sediment and water. Removing metals from rock may involve toxic chemicals. Acid flow from a mine
site will change the chemistry of a nearby stream or lake.
Land Reclamation
U.S. law states that once mining is complete the land must be restored to its natural state. This
process is called reclamation. A pit may be refilled with dirt. It may be filled with water to create a
lake. The pits may be turned into landfills. Underground mines may be sealed off or left open as
homes for bats. The land is reshaped. Native plants are planted.
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Mine Pollution
Mining can cause pollution. Chemicals released from mining can contaminate nearby water sources.
The image below shows water that is contaminated from a nearby mine. The United States
government has mining standards to protect water quality.
The General Mining Law of 1872

Environmentally, mining is a disastrous process that has only recently been subjected to regulation.
Abandoned mines pose continued hazards and recent legislature has forced mining companies to
reclaim the land. The General Mining Law of 1872 placed no requirements on restoration or land
previously used for mining and so the land was often left derelict and dangerously polluted.
Environmental laws passed in the last forty years have reduced the freedom of the original act,
which was created to encourage business expansion and revenue for a growing economy.
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
Watch this video about some of the environmental consequences AMD from an abandoned coal
mine in Kentucky's Daniel Boone National Forest. This video focuses on the biological issues, and the
reading that follows explains the chemistry that causes it.
Final Assessment
FRQ: Plate Tectonics
As the world's population increases and availability of new arable land decreases, providing
sufficient food for
the world's human population is becoming increasingly difficult. The table below shows the area of
land needed
to feed the world's population from 1900 projected to the year 2060.
a) On the graph below, plot the data from the table above and draw a smooth curve.
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(b) Assume that the maximum arable land area on Earth is 4.00 billion hectares. Using the smooth
curve that
you created above, determine the year in which the human population is likely to run out of arable
land for
agriculture.
(c) Soil quality is a critical factor in agriculture. Identify TWO physical and/or chemical properties of
soils and describe the role of each property in determining soil quality.
(d) Describe TWO viable strategies for reducing the amount of land needed for agriculture.
(e) One problem that can result from agriculture is soil salinization.
(i) Describe how salinization occurs.
(ii) Describe one method to prevent or remediate soil salinization.
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Geology, Soil, and Land Management

We live on a dynamic Earth that is constantly changing above and below the surface. As we
ride on giant tectonic plates that are driven by the power of nuclear decay within Earth' s
core, we are also exposed to the power of our Sun that drives all the surface processes. The
combination of these perpetual forces creates the environment where we live and on which
we depend.
Essential Questions
1. What is the rock cycle?
2. How are the main three of types of rock formed?
3. What is soil?
4. How is soil formed?
5. What are the causes of soil loss?
6. How can grazing lands be effectively managed?
7. How can overgrazing damage land?
8. What causes desertification?
9. What methods best limit soil erosion?
10. What methods can restore soil fertility?
Module Minute
Under our feet, the crust of the Earth moves on a layer of magma, flowing rock; the
combination of this movement and the power of the Sun continuously forms, destroys and
reforms rock. This process is known as the rock cycle and is the foundation of surface
geology. Soil is a renewable resource that is a product of the rock cycle and a fundamental
requirement of life on land. Land covers less than 30% of the planet, and arable and fertile
soil is only a small percentage of this fraction of our planet. Therefore, management of soil,
is critical both because of its importance in supporting terrestrial producers, and, though
renewable, it takes a long time to form.
What to Expecct
VLab: Rocks and Minerals

Assignment: Soil Threats Summary
Lab: Soil Quality
Discussion: Soil Salinity Causes and Solutions
FRQ: Geology, Soil, and Land Management
Test: Geology, Soil, and Land Management
Key Terms
Gully erosion- type of erosion where significant amounts of materials are removed
through channels usually due to heavy rainfall or flooding
Rill erosion - type of erosion where materials (sediment) are removed in small flow
paths
Salinization- accumulation of soluble salts in soil usually due to improper
irrigation leading to decreased soil fertility
Sheet erosion- type of erosion where materials are removed in a thin layer most
common with land with little vegetation
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Rock cycle - a continuous process where rocks are created, changed from one type
to another and destroyed
Igneous- one of the three main types of rock characterized by its formation from
melting and cooling
Sedimentary- one of the three main types of rock characterized by its formation by
the weathering of any exposed rock type, deposition and cementation
Metamorphic- one of the three main types of rock characterized by its formation by
heat and pressure
Cementation - gluing together of rocky particles doing the formation of sedimentary
rock
Waterlogging - soil condition where all pore space is filled and soil is unusable for
agriculture
Soil triangle- a graphic tool used to determine soil type by percentage of each of the
three particle types
Pore space- the space between soil particles that cane be filled with air or water
Permeability- soil characteristic that is the measure of how easily water to move
downward trough it
Silt- one of three main soil particles, the middle sized one with a diameter of less
0.05 and greater than 0.002 millimeters
Sand- one of three main soil particles, the largest with a diameter from 0.005 to 2
millimeters
Clay- one of three main soil particles, the smallest with a diameter of less than 0.002
millimeters
Soil horizons- horizontal layers of soil with distinct characteristics
Humus- the organic portion of soil composed of partially decayed plant and animal
matter often the top layer.
Desertification- the development of desert conditions in formerly fertile regions
secondary to human activities like deforestation, overgrazing and poor agricultural
practices.
Chemical weathering - the breakdown of rock through any several different
chemical processes, which include oxidation, carbonation, solution, hydrolysis, and
hydration
Physical weathering (or mechanical)- the breakdown of rock not due to chemical
processes but a physical processes such as pressure release, thermal expansion,
crystal formation and the freeze thaw cycle
Biological weathering- the breakdown of rock secondary to the actions or products
of living organisms such as plant roots, animal activity and production of organic
acids from bacteria and fungi to animal waste.
The Rock Cycle or the Geologic Cycle

Watch the following video by clicking below:
Introduction
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Each of these types
is part of the rock cycle. Through changes in conditions one rock type can become another
rock type. Or it can become a different rock of the same type.
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What Are Rocks?

A rock is a naturally formed, non-living earth material. Rocks are made of collections of
mineral grains that are held together in a firm, solid mass
How is a rock different from a mineral? Rocks are made of minerals. Rocks are identified
primarily by the minerals they contain and by their texture. Each type of rock has a distinctive
set of minerals. A rock may be made of grains of all one mineral type, such as quartzite.
Much more commonly, rocks are made of a mixture of different minerals. Texture is a
description of the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains.
1. Are the two samples below same rock type?
2. Do they have the same minerals?
3. The same texture?
Sample
Minerals
Texture
Formation
plagioclase,
Crystals,
hornblende,
visible to
naked eye
pyroxene
Magma
plagioclase, Crystals
erupted
hornblende, are tiny or and
pyroxene
microscopic cooled
quickly
Magma
cooled
slowly
Rock
Type
Diorite
Andesite
As seen in table above, these two rocks have the same chemical composition and contain
mostly the same minerals, but they do not have the same texture. Sample 1 has visible
mineral grains, but Sample 2 has very tiny or invisible grains. The two different textures
indicate different histories. Sample 1 is a diorite, a rock that cooled slowly from magma
(molten rock) underground. Sample 2 is an andesite, a rock that cooled rapidly from a very
similar magma that erupted onto Earth's surface.
Three Main Categories of Rocks

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Rocks are classified into three major groups according to how they form. Rocks can be
studied in hand samples that can be moved from their original location. Rocks can also be
studied in outcrop , exposed rock formations that are attached to the ground, at the location
where they are found.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from cooling magma. Magma that erupts onto Earth's surface is lava.
The chemical composition of the magma and the rate at which it cools determine what rock
forms as the minerals cool and crystallize.
Igneous Rock: Basalt
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form by the compaction and cementing together of sediments , broken
pieces of rock-like gravel, sand, silt, or clay. Those sediments can be formed from the
weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks. Sedimentary rocks also include chemical
precipitates , the solid materials left behind after a liquid evaporates.
Sedimentary Rock: Shale
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when the minerals in an existing rock are changed by heat or
pressure within the Earth.
Metamorphic Rock: Gneiss
Let's explore the different rock types by completing the Rock and Mineral virtual lab. You
may use the sources listed or any other sources you may find and have access to.
Download and complete the data sheet completely and in your own words
The Rock Cycle

Rocks change as a result of natural processes that are taking place all the time. Most
changes happen very slowly; many take place below the Earth's surface, so we may not
even notice the changes. Although we may not see the changes, the physical and chemical
properties of rocks are constantly changing in a natural, never-ending cycle called the rock
cycle .
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The concept of the rock cycle was first developed by James Hutton, an eighteenth century
scientist often called the "Father of Geology." Hutton recognized that geologic processes
have "no [sign] of a beginning, and no prospect of an end." The processes involved in the
rock cycle often take place over millions of years. So on the scale of a human lifetime, rocks
appear to be "rock solid" and unchanging, but in the longer term, change is always taking
place.
In the rock cycle, illustrated in the figure below, the three main rock types - igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic - are shown. Arrows connecting the three rock types show
the processes that change one rock type into another. The cycle has no beginning and no
end. Rocks deep within the Earth are right now becoming other types of rocks. Rocks at the
surface are lying in place before they are next exposed to a process that will change them.
Processes of the Rock Cycle

Several processes can turn
one type of rock into another
type of rock. The key
processes of the rock cycle
are crystallization, erosion
and sedimentation, and
metamorphism.
Crystallization
Magma cools either
underground or on the
surface and hardens into an
igneous rock. As the magma
cools, different crystals form
at different temperatures,
undergoing crystallization.
For example, the mineral
olivine crystallizes out of
magma at much higher
temperatures than quartz.
The rate of cooling determines how much time the crystals will have to form. Slow cooling
produces larger crystals.
Erosion and Sedimentation

Weathering wears rocks at the Earth's surface down into smaller pieces. The small
fragments are called sediments. Running water, ice, and gravity all transport these
sediments from one place to another by erosion . During sedimentation , the sediments are
laid down or deposited. In order to form a sedimentary rock, the accumulated sediment must
become compacted and cemented together.
Metamorphism
When a rock is exposed to extreme heat and pressure within the Earth but does not melt,
the rock becomes metamorphosed. Metamorphism may change the mineral composition
and the texture of the rock. For that reason, a metamorphic rock may have a new mineral
composition and/or texture.
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Rock Cycle Summary

The rock cycle is a continuous process with no beginning or end. Here are few clues to help
you remember the three types and how they are formed:
Igneous - actually means fire and these rocks form from the cooling of liquid rock
above (extrusive) or below (intrusive) the surface of the Earth. These rocks have
been made by fire.
Metamorphic - breaking down the word helps in remembering how this type of rock
is formed. Meta means after and morphic means shape change or transform. This
rock type has changed from one type to another by heat and pressure.
Sedimentary - perhaps the easiest type to remember, these rocks are formed from
the collection of sediment after weathering and erosion, that is compressed and
cemented over time.
What's up with Weathering?

Weathering is how rock is broken down, while erosion is how the rocky fragments move.
Weathering types include physical (often called mechanical), chemical and biological.
Physical Weathering
Physical weathering occurs when rock is broken down by any of several processes that does
not involve a chemical change in the rock. These processes include the freeze thaw cycle,
extrinsic crystal formation (such as salts), isolation and pressure.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in rock due exposure and the chemical changes in the rock
itself causing decay of the mineral matrix. Water plays a major role in chemical weathering.
Examples of chemical processes include oxidation of iron rich rocks, carbonation (limestone
is very susceptible), hydrolysis and hydration.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering occurs through the interaction of living organisms and rock. This
includes plant roots, lichens growing on and chemically decomposing the rocky substrate
and the movement of burrowing animals.
Self Assessment: Rock Cycle Summary

Download the Rock Cycle Summary sheet from the sidebar. Be sure to complete it and add
it to your notes for this module.
Soil
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How much of the Earth is covered with soil? Click HERE and read to find out. This handout
is also available in the sidebar.
Introduction
Without mechanical and chemical weathering working to break down rock, there would not
be any soil on Earth. It is unlikely that humans or most other creatures would be able to live
on Earth without soil. Wood, paper, cotton, medicines, and even pure water need soil. So
soil is a precious resource that must be carefully managed and cared for. Although soil is a
renewable resource, its renewal takes a lot of time.
Characteristics of Soil
Even though soil is only a very thin layer on Earth's surface over the solid rocks below, it is
the where the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere meet. Within the soil
layer, important reactions between solid rock, liquid water, air, and living things take place.
Soil is a complex mixture of different materials.
About half of most soils are inorganic materials, such as the products of weathered
rock, including pebbles, sand, silt, and clay particles.
About half of all soils are organic materials, formed from the partial breakdown and
decomposition of plants and animals. The organic materials are necessary for a soil
to be fertile. The organic portion provides the nutrients, such as nitrogen, needed for
strong plant growth.
In between the solid pieces, there are tiny spaces filled with air and water.
In some soils, the organic portion could be missing, as in desert sand. Or a soil could be
completely organic, such as the materials that make up peat in a bog or swamp. Soil is an
ecosystem unto itself. In the spaces of soil, there are thousands or even millions of living
organisms. Those organisms could be anything from earthworms, ants, bacteria, or fungi.
Climate
Scientists know that climate is the most important factor determining soil type because given
enough time, different rock types in a given climate will produce a similar soil. Even the
same rock type in different climates will not produce the same type of soil. This is true
because most rocks on Earth are made of the same eight elements and when the rock
breaks down to become soil, those elements dominate.
The same factors that lead to increased weathering also lead to greater soil formation.
More rain equals more chemical reactions to weather minerals and rocks. Those
reactions are most efficient in the top layers of the soil where the water is fresh and
has not yet reacted with other materials.
Increased rainfall increases the amount of rock that is dissolved as well as the
amount of material that is carried away by moving water. As materials are carried
away, new surfaces are exposed, which also increases the rate of weathering.
Increased temperature increases the rate of chemical reactions, which also increases
soil formation.
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In warmer regions, plants and bacteria grow faster, which helps to weather material
and produce soils. In tropical regions, where temperature and precipitation are
consistently high, thick soils form. Arid regions have thin soils.
Soil type also influences the type of vegetation that can grow in the region.
Watch the following video about the movement of water through soils by the USDA.
Rock Type
The original rock is the source of the inorganic portion of the soil. The minerals that are
present in the rock determine the composition of the material that is available to make soil.
Soils may form in place or from material that has been moved.
Residual soils form in place. The underlying rock breaks down to form the layers of
soil that reside above it. Only about one-third of the soils in the United States are
residual.
Transported soils have been transported in from somewhere else. Sediments can be
transported into an area by glaciers, wind, water, or gravity. Soils form from the loose
particles that have been transported to a new location and deposited.
Slope
The steeper the slope, the less likely material will be able to stay in place to form soil.
Material on a steep slope is likely to go downhill. Materials will accumulate and soil will form
where land areas are flat or gently undulating.
Mass Wasting
The steeper the slope, the more likely mass wasting events can occur taking soil, rock and
other materials downhill. These events are often triggered by seismic activity, deforestation
and or heavy precipitation. Examples of mass wasting include rockslides, landslides,
mudslides and avalanches.
Time
Soils thicken as the amount of time available for weathering increases. The longer the
amount of time that soil remains in a particular area, the greater the degree of alteration.
Biological Activity
The partial decay of plant material and animal remains produces the organic material and
nutrients in soil. In soil, decomposing organisms breakdown the complex organic molecules
of plant matter and animal remains to form simpler inorganic molecules that are soluble in
water. Decomposing organisms also create organic acids that increase the rate of
weathering and soil formation. Bacteria in the soil change atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates.
The decayed remains of plant and animal life are called humus, which is an extremely
important part of the soil. Humus coats the mineral grains. It binds them together into clumps
that then hold the soil together, creating its structure. Humus increases the soil's porosity
and water holding capacity and helps to buffer rapid changes in soil acidity. Humus also
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helps the soil to hold its nutrients, increasing its fertility. Fertile soils are rich in nitrogen,
contain a high percentage of organic materials, and are usually black or dark brown in color.
Soils that are nitrogen poor and low in organic material might be gray or yellow or even red
in color. Fertile soils are more easily cultivated.
Soil Texture and Composition

The inorganic portion of soil is made of many different size particles, and these different size
particles are present in different proportions. The combination of these two factors
determines some of the properties of the soil.
A permeable soil allows water to flow through it easily because the spaces between
the inorganic particles are large and well connected. Sandy or silty soils are
considered 'light' soils because they are permeable, water-draining types of soils.
Soils that have lots of very small spaces are water-holding soils. For example, when
clay is present in a soil, the soil is heavier, holds together more tightly, and holds
water.
When a soil contains a mixture of grain sizes, the soil is called a loam
Soil Texture Triangle

When soil scientists want to precisely determine soil type, they measure the
percentage of sand, silt, and clay. They plot this information on a triangular
diagram, with each size particle at one side ( Figure below). The soil type can
then be determined from the location on the diagram. At the top, a soil would
be clay; at the left corner, it would be sand, and at the right corner it would be
silt. Soils in the lower middle with less than 50% clay are loams.
Determine the soil types or percentage of particle type by using the Soil Texture Triangle
above. Work through each problem, and then double check your answer by clicking on
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answer. If you have any trouble using this chart, watch the video, Texture Triangle, in the
sidebar to help you.
1. What percentage of each of the three particles is silt? ANSWER
2. What type of soil is 18% clay, 17% silt, and 65% sand? ANSWER
3. What type of soil is 35% clay, 35% silt, and 30% sand? ANSWER
Soil Horizons and Profiles

A residual soil forms over many years, as mechanical and chemical weathering slowly
change solid rock into soil. The development of a residual soil may go something like this.
1. The bedrock fractures because of weathering from ice wedging or another physical
process.
2. Water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide seep into the cracks to cause chemical
weathering.
3. Plants, such as lichens or grasses, become established and produce biological
weathering.
4. Weathered material collects until there is soil.
5. The soil develops soil horizons , as each layer becomes progressively altered. The
greatest degree of weathering is in the top layer. Each successive, lower layer is
altered just a little bit less. This is because the first place where water and air come in
contact with the soil is at the top.
A cut in the side of a hillside shows each of the different layers of soil. All together, these are
called a soil profile (see images and diagram below).
Humus
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The O horizon, if present, is the top layer and is composed of decaying plant and animal
material or humus. Decomposers such as fungi and bacteria and detritivores like
earthworms and certain insects reside in this layer to speed up the break down of organic
matter. This provides nutrients and adds water-holding properties to soil increasing the
fertility and health of soil. Remember the O horizon is the source of "Organic" material in soil.
Topsoil
Called the A horizon, the topsoil is usually the darkest layer of the soil because it has the
highest proportion of organic material. The topsoil is the region of most intense biological
activity: insects, worms, and other animals burrow through it and plants stretch their roots
down into it. Plant roots help to hold this layer of soil in place. In the topsoil, minerals may
dissolve in the fresh water that moves through it to be carried to lower layers of the soil. Very
small particles, such as clay, may also get carried to lower layers as water seeps down into
the ground.
Subsoil
The B horizon or subsoil is where soluble minerals and clays accumulate. This layer is
lighter brown and holds more water than the topsoil because of the presence of iron and clay
minerals. There is less organic material.
C horizon
The C horizon is a layer of partially altered bedrock. There is some evidence of weathering
in this layer, but pieces of the original rock are seen and can be identified.
Not all climate regions develop soils, and not all regions develop the same horizons. Some
areas develop as many as five or six distinct layers, while others develop only very thin soils
or perhaps no soils at all.
Types of Soils
Although soil scientists recognize thousands of types of soil - each with its own specific
characteristics and name - let's consider just three soil types. This will help you to
understand some of the basic ideas about how climate produces a certain type of soil, but
there are many exceptions to what we will learn right now
How Does You Garden Grow?

Click HERE to explore the key nutrients present in soil to support plant growth. This file is
also avialable in the sidebar.
Self-Assessment: Soil Texture and Horizon Summary

Download the Soil Texture and Horizon Summary sheet from the sidebar. Complete it and
use it as part of your notes for this section.
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Threats to Soil
Why do we study soil?
Introduction
Before we move into the next lesson in this module, read over the following questions and
be certain you are able to answer all of these before moving on to the next lesson.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why is soil such an important resource?

What is needed in soil for it to be fertile and productive?
What are naturally occurring pollutants found in soil that can hinder plant growth?
Would soil mature faster from unaltered bedrock or from transported materials?
If soil erosion is happening at a greater rate than new soil can form, what will
eventually happen to the soil in that region?
6. What are some kinds of pollutants that could not easily be removed from soil?
Watch the folloiwng video to review the three types of water erosion that leads to soil loss
and the use of vegetative cover to help stop the loss.
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Erosion
Watch the following video about the types of erosion. Then complete the matching activity
below to see if you are able to identify the three types of erosion.
Desertification
Desertification is the rapidly increasing amount of formerly fertile land turning into desert.
The formation of deserts normally occurs due to climatic factors related to latitude and
precipitation in a region. Desertification is impacting semi arid regions secondary to human
activity. Areas susceptible to desertification tend to have sparser vegetation, irregular
precipitation patterns. These characteristics in combination with overgrazing, poor
agricultural techniques such as over cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation have
damaged and exposed sensitive soils, leading to further degradation and soil loss. Climate
change and extended droughts increase the sensitivity of these areas, as well.
Watch the following video by clicking below:
Overgrazing and Soil Compaction

Soil compaction occurs when soil loses the normal amount of pore space for the soil type,
which decreases water permeability. Decreased permeability leads to additional erosion and
loss of topsoil. This becomes an example of a positive feedback loop since, as topsoil is lost,
soil becomes more and more compacted with erosion eventually leading to exposure of
subsoil layers.
Human causes of soil compactions include the moving of heavy equipment over land from
contraction, farming and logging. Another significant cause of compaction is grazing of farm
animals, especially when soil is wet as it compresses far more easily.
Overgrazing is a significant cause of soil compaction, particularly in semi arid regions in
developing countries. Sensitive soils that are not allowed to recover from grazing lose the
vegetation that anchors the soil and become more and more compacted by repeated use.
Accelerated erosion results and compaction limits the ability of plant regrowth by the
diminished ability to both hold water and allow root growth.
Waterlogging
Waterlogging occurs when soil has so much water filling its pore space, it is unable to hold
oxygen. This lack of oxygen, although dependent on plant species, leads to anaerobic
conditions and decomposition of root tissue. Waterlogged soil can also produce nitrous
oxide, a greenhouse gas.
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Improper irrigation of crops, inadequate drainage of farmlands and soils high in clay are
vulnerable to waterlogging.
Deforestation
Soils in forests are the foundation for the health of the forest. Characteristics of soil are as
unique as the forests that grow in them and they depend on each other. For example, as
dense as tropical rain forests are with plant life, the soil is thin and nutrient poor due to the
constant leaching from heavy rainfall and the demands of plants growing in them. Removal
of trees, deforestation, exposes soil that was protected by the plants to wind and rain
accelerating erosion causing soil loss and filling local surface waters with sediment. Organic
material is lost first, then topsoil follows losing soil fertility and quantity.
Deforestation of slopes increases soil loss and can be a significant trigger to mass wasting
events. Deforestation is developing countries due to wood use for heating and cooking, has
led to increased flooding, landslides and loss of arable land. Both countries on the island of
Hispaniola, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, have significant land quality. Early on the
Dominican Republic realized the need to replace trees to maintain both the soil and the
climate, while unmonitored deforestation has left much of Haiti soil poor and susceptible to
flooding. The picture to the right shows the difference conservation has made. Haiti is on the
left side of the picture, the Dominican Republic is to the right.
Soil Pollution
Pollutants in soil can be organic or inorganic, water soluble or insoluble, naturally occurring
or anthropogenic but all impact the functionality of soil. Mining activities, industrial, domestic
and agricultural waste dumping, and pesticide and fertilizer use can all impact soil health.
Soil contaminants can enter water supplies, ground and surface, and prevent or impact soil
fertility. Further, many soil pollutants can be picked up by plants or cattle eating the plants
impacting the quality of food produced.
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Soil Management
Soil Conservation
Soil is only a renewable resource if it is carefully managed. Drought, insect plagues, or
outbreaks of disease are natural cycles of events that can negatively impact ecosystems and
the soil, but there are also many ways in which humans neglect or abuse this important
resource.
One harmful practice is removing the vegetation that helps to hold soil in place. Sometimes
just walking or riding your bike over the same place will kill the grass that normally grows
there. Land is also deliberately cleared or deforested for wood. The loose soils then may be
carried away by wind or running water. In many areas of the world, the rate of soil erosion is
many times greater than the rate at which it is forming. Soils can also be contaminated if too
much salt accumulates in the soil or where pollutants sink into the ground. There are many
practices that can protect and preserve soil resources. Adding organic material to the soil in
the form of plant or animal waste, such as compost or manure, increases the fertility of the
soil and improves its ability to hold onto water and nutrients. Inorganic fertilizer can also
temporarily increase the fertility of a soil and may be less expensive or time consuming, but
it does not provide the same long-term improvements as organic materials.
Deforestation
Agricultural practices such as rotating crops, alternating the types of crops planted in each
row, and planting nutrient rich cover crops all help to keep soil more fertile as it is used
season after season. Planting trees as windbreaks, plowing along contours of the field, or
building terraces into steeper slopes will all help to hold soil in place. No-till or low-tillage
farming helps to keep soil in place by disturbing the ground as little as possible when
planting.
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Food Production and Pesticides

Food production of the twentieth century was spurred on by the Green Revolution; this
movement significantly improved agricultural techniques - increasing yield and soon
industrialized food production was born. Unfortunately, with this new technology, also came
many negative environmental consequences. An early herald, biologist Rachel Carson and
her book Silent Spring sounded the warning of the dangers of unregulated pesticide use
leading to changes in legislation protecting environment. Although a result of both drought
and poor soil management, the devastation and soil lost during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s,
marked the need for proper soil conservation.
More recently, aquaculture and the Blue Revolution have led to the farming of aquatic plants
and animals, new food sources and new environmental consequences. The future demand
on agricultural production requires less pesticide use and an overall lower environmental
impact, but a continued growth of food production per unit area. Is this really possible? Some
increases in yield have been accomplished, in part, through the creation of transgenic
organisms, organisms with genes inserted to protect against dangers to crops like pests or
freezing temperatures. Perhaps the current hope for feeding our rapidly growing population
is the gene revolution.
Essential Questions
1. What is food security and why is it difficult to attain?
2. What environmental problems arise from industrialized food production?
3. How can we produce food more sustainably?
4. What agricultural methods best limit soil erosion?
5. What methods can restore soil fertility?
6. What types of agricultural methods tend to promote pest species?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of modern synthetic pesticides?
8. What are the laws and treaties that protect us from the harmful effects of pesticides?
9. What is integrated pest management (IPM)?
10. What problems are associated with chemical pesticides?
11. What are the pros and cons of the genetic modification of crops?
Module Minute
As the human population rapidly grows can we produce enough food to feed everyone? Can
we grow crops sustainably, so that both crop production and agricultural ecosystems remain
viable? Can we produce this food without seriously damaging other ecosystems that receive
the wastes of agriculture? Where crops have been sustainably produced, farming has not
changed local ecosystems. In most places, however, farming degrades soil; fertilizers and
pesticides affect soil, water, and downstream ecosystems. What are the solutions to feed the
world yet not destroy it by doing so? Making choices by eating locally and choosing
organically grown foods reduce the impact on the planet by using less fossil fuels and
decreasing the waste of packaging and pesticides. Biotechnology's use in agriculture is
another solution to lessen the negative consequences of agriculture and increase the food
supply, but its use is new and relatively untested. Where do we go from here?
What to Expect
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Discussion: Using Biotechnology to Identify Seafood

Lab: Virtual Transgenic Fly Lab
Assignment: Biotechnology Summary
FRQ: Food Production and Pesticides
Test: Food Production and Pesticides
Key Terms
Agroforestry - the combination of agriculture and forestry to create sustainable landuse systems, which take advantage of the interactive benefits from combining trees
and shrubs with crops and/or livestock.
Food security- the availability of food and routine access to it so that individuals'
are not suffering from or in fear of hunger
Genetically Modified organisms (GMOs)- organisms, including those that are food
sources, that have had their DNA directly altered usually by the addition of a desired
gene or genes using biotechnical techniques.
Green Revolution- the period history, between the 1940s to the 1970s, where
technology, policy and research significantly increased agricultural production and
the ability to feed the growing population
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)- the combination and application of agricultural
techniques to improve the efficacy of, decrease cost and have the least
environmental impact on the control of pests
Intercropping- the cultivation of two or more crops in the same field at the same
time to increase yield for the land and decrease pest issues
Malnutrition- the physical condition that is the result of an imbalanced diet lacking
key nutrients
Monoculture -agricultural method of growing a single crop over a large area, usually
over multiple years widely used as a part of industrial agriculture
Overnutrition- a type of malnutrition caused by the taking in of excessive calories
and nutrients often leading to obesity
Pesticide- an agent with the applied purpose to kill, prevent or deter an undesired
living organism or "pest" of some type
Polyculture- agricultural method of growing multiple crops in the same area and
includes both ancient and modern techniques
Polyvarietal cultivation - planting different varieties of the same crop
Rachel Carson - American marine biologist whose book Silent Spring raised
awareness of the human impact on the environment and help develop the
environmental movement
Subsistence Farming - traditional farming technique based on supplying the needs
of the farmer and family
Strip cropping- planting technique to prevent soil erosion by planting crops in strips
that are able to capture water
Undernutrition - the inadequate intake of calories/ nutrients potentially leading to
health consequences such as growth and development impairment and
Plantation agriculture- commercial tropical or subtropical agricultural system based
on the export of goods
Hydroponics- agricultural technique using water and nutrients instead of soil, to
grow plants
Slash and burn agriculture (also called swidden)- ancient subsistence agricultural
technique to increase soil fertility by burning existing plants before replanting the area
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Aquaculture- the farming of aquatic organisms in highly controlled conditions

DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)- early synthetic insecticide, an
organochlorine, that is highly persistent in the environment and has been banned in
the US since 1972 because of its biomagnification in birds of prey and potential
health risks to humans
Organic (farming and food)- food and agricultural techniques meeting specific
standards according to the USDA's requirements
Organic- compounds containing both carbon and hydrogen (may also contain other
elements, notably nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, potassium and oxygen)
Inorganic- compounds that do not contain both carbon and hydrogen
Transgenic- an organism that's genome contains an added gene or genes from a
different species
Genome - the entirety of the DNA of an organism, for example, the human genome
contains 46 chromosome
Arable- land capable of producing crops
Food Production and Nutrition Deficiencies

Agriculture to Feed the World
Agriculture is considered the most important human activity as it provides the majority of
food. Because of its importance, a significant percentage of the world's land area is used for
agriculture. Approximately 11% of the total land area of the world, excluding Antarctica, is
used for agriculture, this is an area about the size of South and North America combined.
Agricultural areas have become anthropogenic (human caused) ecosystems. When
considering that humans have been engaging in agriculture for thousands of years and the
exponential growth of the population, the impacts on the environment have been and will
continue to be a challenge to the human race.
Percentage of Arable Land per Country (2006 CIA World Factbook data)
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In reviewing the map above, you can see that the percentage of land in arable land, land
usable for agriculture, varies considerably among continents and countries. In the United
States, the availability is still fairly good. Often too good, so that farmers are paid not to grow
crops until there is a greater demand. Yet the growing human population and the use of
food crops for fuel may change this demand very quickly.
For more information on U.S. Farm Subsidies, click HERE.
Commercial Food Production

Producing food for the masses is highly dependent on the use of machinery and fossil fuels.
The farm with a windmill is not how most of our food is produced. It is a highly technological
process with many steps and players. There is a great separation between the farm and our
table, so much so that many Americans have no idea where there food comes from. CAFOs
(Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations) produce the majority of our animal products and
are far removed from the view of the average individual. And most elementary school
students could not identify that bread is made from a plant.
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations

Review the diagram below to see a simplified model of how most food gets to us in this
country.
The Green Revolution

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The green revolution is the name coined by William Gaud for the period after World War II
through the 1970s where there was a rapid development of new strains of crops with higher
yields, new agricultural technologies and a focus on the commercial production of food.
Another goal of the green revolution was to increase production to decrease global
starvation. The new hybrid strains that were developed during this time increased yields, but
also required greater use of fertilizers and much more water limiting their use in many
impoverished regions.
Read the article "Green Revolution Curse or Blessing" available in the sidebar. This article is
From International Food Policy Reserach Institute. Link is available by clicking on the icon to
the right.
Improved Irrigation
Irrigation, globally, has allowed crops to be grown where they were never grown before.
California provides a large range of crops with a very high economic value and depend on
an elaborate human created water supply and irrigation system. Better irrigation techniques
could continue to improve crop yield and reduce overall water use, as water demand is
greatest for agriculture. Unfortunately, the most efficient irrigation methods, like drip
irrigation, are also the most expensive and are unlikely to support the agriculture in countries
where there is the greatest need and hunger.
Use of Fertilizers
Traditionally, farmers combated the decline in soil fertility by using organic fertilizers, such as
animal manure. These have the advantage of improving both chemical and physical
characteristics of soil. Then the development of industrially produced fertilizers, commonly
called "chemical" or "artificial" fertilizers, was a major factor in the great increases in crop
production during the green revolution. A further advance was the development of the
industrial processes to convert molecular nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to nitrate that can
be used directly by plants. Artificial fertilizers have the benefit that nitrogen, phosphorus, and
other elements can be combined in proportions that are appropriate for specific crops and
specific locations.
What We Eat
There are over a half-million identified plant species on Earth but fewer than 3,000 are grown
as crops with only 150 species cultivated on a large scale. Most of the world's food is
provided by only 14 crop species. These crops are wheat, rice, maize (corn), potatoes,
sweet potatoes, manioc, sugarcane, sugar beet, common beans, soybeans, barley,
sorghum, coconuts, and bananas. The majority of the World's population gets most of their
calories from wheat, rice and maize. Further, most of the human population does not
routinely have access to high quality protein (meat).
New Crops
The development of new crops has been a continuing process in the history of agriculture.
As people spread around the world, new crops were discovered and transported from one
area to another. The process of introduction and development of new crops from wild plants
continues, and offers considerable potential. Although new crops are unlikely to replace
current crop species as major food sources in this century, there is great interest in new
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crops to increase production in marginal areas and to increase the production of nonfood
products, such as oils.
Food Insecurity
The world food supply is also greatly influenced by social disruptions and social attitudes,
which affect the environment and in turn affect agricultural supply. Social instability makes
sustained agricultural yields difficult, perhaps as much as negative changes in weather.
When the food supply is interrupted by diminished agriculture, social instability or limited
economic access, food insecurity follows.
Famine, prolonged and severe food shortages in a geographic region, has been a constant
of humanity regardless of food production, even since it has been at levels to prevent
it. Africa remains the continent with the most acute food shortages, due to adverse
weather, drought most notably, and social instability. Poverty limits access to food locally by
the cost and access, as well as globally as wealthy nations can always trade food regardless
of the consequences of weather.
Food insecurity leads to undernourishment, either obviously during famines, or through
malnourishment, which is often slower and hidden. The impairments of malnourishment can
lead to acute and chronic medical conditions and, perhaps the most insidious, lower
productivity. The chronic lack of adequate calories and or nutrients lends itself to many
significant and life threatening diseases, and the inability to be an effective and productive
member of society and the opportunity to move out of poverty. This becomes a perpetual
cycle that people are unable to move out of until they have continuous food security.
People "starve" in two ways: undernourishment and malnourishment. Undernourishment
results from a lack of sufficient calories in available food, so that one has little or no ability to
move or work and eventually dies from the lack of energy. Malnourishment results from a
lack of specific chemical components of food, such as proteins, vitamins, or other essential
chemical elements. Both are global problems.
Global Hunter Index (GHI) by Severity (2012)
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The supply of protein has been the major nutritional-quality problem. Eating animals
provides the easiest high quality protein food source for people, but depending on animals
for protein raises several questions of values, including many ecological ones. CAFOs
supply most of our protein, but some cultures rely on the ocean for their high quality protein.
For an anti-meat perspective watch PETA's video Meet your Meat or the Meatrix videos
series (available in the sidebar).
Self Assessment: Flash Cards

Complete a set of interactive flashcards by using Quizlet.com. Download the instruction and
vocabulary sheet from the sidebar and use these flashcards to help you study.
Global Malnutrition
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Sustainable Agriculture and Pesticides

Agriculture is both one of humanity's greatest triumphs and the source of some of its
greatest environmental problems. Agriculture uses the majority of freshwater and antibiotics,
plus it causes most of the land degradation, soil loss and loss of biodiversity. Pesticide use
causes air and water pollution and have ended up all over our planet. Fertilizers and runoff
from CAFOs causes eutrophication of surface waters leading to fish kills and dead zones.
Aquatic Dead Zones
Red circles on this map show the location and size of many of our planet's dead zones.
Black dots show where dead zones have been observed, but their size is unknown. It's no
coincidence that dead zones occur downriver of places where human population density is
high (darkest brown). Darker blues in this image show higher concentrations of particulate
organic matter, an indication of the overly fertile waters that can culminate in dead zones.
Sustainable Agricultural Methods

The methods listed and described below help minimize the impact of agriculture on the
environment. One of the chief goals of sustainable agriculture is the stewardship of land and
lesson our impact.
Additional information about sustainable agriculture can be found in the PDF by the USDA
below the chart.
Method
Description / Example
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Intercropping
The cultivation of two or more crops in the same field at the same time to
increase yield for the land and decrease pest issues, polyculture or
polyvarietal crops are examples.
Maintain Soil
Fertility
Protect soil nutrients and soil by preventing erosion, crop rotation, adequate
watering, tilling organic matter into soil including cove crops, manure, crop
residue or other nutrient rich organic material.
Limited tillage
Low on no tillage of soil prevents erosion and allows soil pest predators to
control pests by not disturbing their environment.
Managed
Grazing
Livestock rotation to new pastures to prevent compacting and overgrazing

of land. This allows regrowth of grazing materials as well.
Physical
Removal of
Weeds
Removal of competing crops reduces need for fertilizers and water.
Growing to
Sell Locally
This supports local economy, provides a fresher, more nutrient rich product
and significant reduced the use of transportation costs, packaging and use
of fossil fuels.
Use of
Alternative
Energy
Biodiesel can be produced and is cleaner burning and renewable when

compared with fossil fuel. Other forms of alternative energy can be used to
manage a farm and increase sustainability.
Cover Crops
Crops planted along with the desired crops with the purpose of protecting
soil, blocking aggressive competing weeds and holding in water.
Windbreaks
Trees or shrubs planted in rows to protect desired crop from damaging

winds and soil loss. Agroforestry is an example.
Management
of Water
Improvement of water delivery systems saves both water and money. It

helps protect soil quality and fertility. Drip irrigation systems are the most
efficient and the use of cover crops and mulch reduces the amount of water
used
Integrated
Pest
Management
A system of agriculture practices to produce the greatest possible crop yield

with the lowest environmental and economic impact.
Attracticing
Benefitical
Animals
Building nests or homes for animals that eat the problem pests. Like
encouraging bats and birds. Beneficial insects can be purchased and used
to control pest.
Strip Cropping
Planting technique to prevent soil erosion by planting crops in strips that are
able to capture water.
Terracing
Planting and grazing livestock so that soil quality is maintained on steep

grades, and water is retained.
Read the pdf available in the sidebar from the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) on Sustainable Agriculture.
Organic Agriculture
In the future, farming will have to be easier on the environment than in the past if agriculture
is to be widely sustainable and highly productive. Organic farming is often considered as one
of the solutions. Organic farming is typically considered to have three qualities: It is more like
natural ecosystems than monocultures; it minimizes negative environmental impacts; and
the food that results from it does not contain artificial compounds.
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Organic farming is growing faster than any other agricultural segment. The USDA began
certification of organic farming in 2002, and the requirements of the organic label are very
strict and what types of food that can be organic are limited. Yet, according the USDA's
Organic Accomplishments 2009 - 2012, it states that in 2011 the retail value of organic
industry grew 9.5% to $31.4 billion. What does it mean for a crop to be "organic?" Read the
information sheet from the USDA in the sidebar, "Organic Accomplishments."
Map (with key) of the United States showing what percentage of state farm
acreage was organic in 2007.
Why Pesticides?
Farmers' primary goals are to produce the greatest possible yield with the highest quality,
but pests are always finding ways to beat the farmer. Whether the "pests" are insects eating
the fruit, parasitic worms devastating root systems, or fungi decomposing stored crops postharvest this has been a battle throughout the history of agriculture. Before the Industrial
Revolution, farmers could do little to prevent pests and protect their crops except remove
them when they appeared or use farming methods that tended to decrease their numbers.
For example, slash-and-burn agriculture allows succession to take place. The greater
diversity of plants and the long time between the use of each plot reduces the density of
pests. Preindustrial farmers also planted aromatic herbs and other vegetation that repel
insects.
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Pesticides by name are intended to kill a pest, but few are pest specific. Unfortunately, most
pesticides kill much more than "target" organisms. The Cats of Borneo is a great real life
example of the consequences of the use of a nonspecific and persistent pesticide. The
earliest pesticides were simple inorganic compounds that were widely toxic. One of the
earliest was arsenic, an element toxic to all life (biocide), including people. It was certainly
effective in killing pests, but it killed beneficial organisms as well and was very dangerous to
use.
Later, petroleum based pesticides were developed and proved highly effective, but the
ecological consequences were significant and brought to light by Rachel Carson's Silent
Spring. The environmental movement grew from her exposing the impact of unregulated
pesticide use. The latest trend in pesticide development is evaluating biological and
ecological information, such as focusing on the pest's life cycle or looking to the environment
for naturally occurring enemies of the target pests.
Pesticide use has a lasting impact on the environment due to persistence in the
environment, impact on non-target species (including people), and air and water pollution.
DDT, a persistent petroleum based organochlorine pesticide, can be found in the tissues of
most Americans although it was banned in the US in 1972.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

In the simplest terms, integrated pest management (IPM) is a system of agriculture practices
to produce the greatest possible crop yield with the lowest environmental and economic
impact. Many of the practices are simple and long standing like crop rotation and timing to
minimal tillage to deter soil dwelling pests' movement.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), IPM means "Age-old, commonsense practices" are what many people associate with IPM. Today many growers no longer
apply pesticides to food on a regular basis regardless of whether or not there are insects,
weeds, or other pest problems. In some parts of the country, food is being marketed as IPM
food.
Some practices for preventing pest damage may include:
inspecting crops and monitoring crops for damage, and
using mechanical trapping devices, natural predators (e.g., insects that eat other
insects), insect growth regulators, mating disruption substances (pheromones), and if
necessary, chemical pesticides. The use of biological pesticides is an important
component of IPM.
In technical terms, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the coordinated use of pest and
environmental information with available pest control methods to prevent unacceptable
levels of pest damage by the most economical means and with the least possible hazard to
people, property, and the environment.
What you need to know about DDT

DDT (Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) Chemical Structure
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Be sure to look over the following resources concerning DDT:

1. The DDT Story by the Pesticide Action Network of North America
2. The History of DDT from the EPA
3. DDT Factsheet from the Pesticide Information Center. This factsheet discusses the
impact DDT has on humans and wildlife as well as the LD50 and half life of this
persistent chemical.
To wrap up the pesticide and DDT section of this unit, read over The Story of Silent Spring
and Rachel Carson's impact in laying the foundation of the environmentalist movement.
Links are located in the sidebar.
The Blue Revolution and Alternative Agriculture

Hydroponics
Some suggest that in the future we will rely increasingly on artificial agriculture, such as
hydroponics, which is the growing of plants in a fertilized water solution on a completely
artificial substrate in a protected environment, like a greenhouse. This alternative agricultural
technique is expensive and unlikely to be effective in areas where hunger and demand is the
greatest.
The first recorded use of hydroponics is in one of the seven wonders of the ancient world:
the Hanging Gardens of Babylon where, historians say, plants were grown in a steady
stream of water. Centuries later, U.S. troops stationed on infertile Pacific Islands during
World War II ate fresh fruits and vegetables produced by hydroponics.
Hydroponic systems reduce space requirements and growing time needed to produce a
crop. Since there is no soil involved, no tillage is necessary and there are no weeds to
contend with. The amount of chemicals needed is reduced, since biocontrol measures work
better in the controlled environment of a greenhouse and there are fewer pests.
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Environmental factors aren't a problem in greenhouses since lighting, temperature, humidity,

and irrigation can be controlled. Nutrients used for plant growth are recyclable, to be used
again and again. CONTENT SOURCE LINK
Greenhouse Agriculture
The sunny south of Spain offers more to the national economy than simply tourism. Over the
past 50 years, the small coastal plain (campo), some 30 kilometers southwest of the city of
Almera, has been intensively developed for agriculture. An estimated 20,000 hecatres of
extra-early market produce is grown in greenhouses in the Campo de Dalas, and it
accounts for over $1.5 billion in economic activity. The area has a dry, mild, Mediterranean
climate and is further sheltered on the north by the Sierra de Gador mountains. With just
slightly more than 200 millimeters of annual precipitation to support crop growth, the area
also relies on groundwater fed by small stream aquifers from the mountains to the north.
This image was taken with a digital camera by the crew of the International Space Station
near midday in early February. Note the dense, bright pattern of thousands of greenhouses
extending from the shoreline right up to the base of the mountains and even into some of the
smaller valleys. Salt pan operations can also be seen in the long coastal lagoons.
Before moving on to the next section, review and answer the following questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What are the advantages of growing food hydroponically?

How are water and nutrients readily available for plants growing without soil?
What are the challenges with using hydroponics to grow plants?
What advantages are there in using greenhouse agriculture?
What regional conditions would encourage the use of greenhouses as an important
agricultural technique?
The Blue Revolution or Aquaculture

Global Wild Caught Aquatic Organisms by Type (in million tons 1950 -2010)
229
Shrimp Farms in the Honduras 1987 to 1999
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The term "blue revolution" refers to the growth of aquaculture as an important and highly
productive agricultural activity. Aquaculture refers to all forms of active culturing or "farming"
of aquatic animals and plants, occurring in marine, estuarine or fresh waters.
Although aquaculture has long been practiced in China with freshwater fish have been
grown as food in managed ponds for thousands of years; only in the last few decades has
the practice of aquaculture become global.
The goal of aquaculture science is to develop aquatic systems where aquatic organisms can
be grown and harvested at high but sustainable rates, while not causing unnecessary and
unacceptable environmental damage. Aquaculture supports new sources for the growing
human population by augmenting the food supply and decreasing the demand for wild
caught fish, especially for overfished areas and species.
Global Fisheries: Wild vs. Farmed (in million tons 1950 - 2010)
Aquaculture 101 and its Impact on the Environment by NOAA
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Click HERE to learn more from NOAA.
Watch the video and read over the links below about mislabeled seafood. Then
generate a thoughtful post addressing how genetic testing of seafood can help manage our
food supply. Also, consider and discuss the following in your response:
Can mislabeling seafood affect people's health?

Can mislabeling complicate ecosystem management?
What does the evidence show about how often seafood products are
misrepresented?
Links:
1. Combating Seafood Fraud
2. Choosing Sustainable Fish
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3. Mislabeled Fish in Grocery Stores

4. Fish Testing
5. Whale Sushi
Genetically Modified Food

Have you ever eaten genetically engineered foods?
Most likely, yes. The majority of the corn in the United States is genetically engineered. Corn
syrup and high fructose corn syrup, which is formed when corn syrup undergoes a
transformation that adds high levels of fructose, are used to sweeten many things, like this
Coke.
Corn is also fed to the cows that provided this hamburger.
Biotechnology in Agriculture
Biotechnology is changing the genetic makeup of living things to make a useful product.
Biotechnology has led scientists to develop useful applications in agriculture and food
science. These include the development of transgenic crops. In transgenic crops, genes are
placed into plants to give the crop a beneficial trait.
Benefits include:
Improved yield from crops.
Increased resistance of crops to environmental stresses.
Increased nutritional qualities of food crops.
Improved taste, texture or appearance of food.
Reduced dependence on fertilizers, insecticides, and other chemicals.
GMO cultivation 2009 (millions of hectares; source: ISAAA)
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World GMO Production
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Go to the link below (the fly) and complete all parts of the Make Transgenic Flies
virtual lab. After completing all six sections and quizzes, click the quiz tab and print to PDF
your results. Then write out a detailed conclusion that includes a summary of the activity
including an overview of how a transgenic organism is created, and the potential benefits
and hazards of the use of this technology. Be sure to support your statements with facts and
examples and cite all resources used. Upload both the PDF lab quiz summary file and
conclusion documents to the transgenic fly lab according to your teacher's instructions.
To begin the virtual transgenic lab, click on the fly below.
Biotechnology and Crop Science

Crops are obviously dependent on environmental conditions. Drought can destroy crop
yields, as can too much rain and floods. But what if crops could be developed to withstand
these harsh conditions? Biotechnology will allow the development of crops containing genes
that will help them to withstand harsh conditions. For example, drought and salty soil are two
significant factors affecting how well crops grow. But there are crops that can withstand
these harsh conditions. Why? This is probably because of that plant's genetics. So scientists
are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions. They hope to identify and
isolate the genes that control these beneficial traits. The genes could then be transferred into
more desirable crops, with the hope of producing the same traits in those crops.
Thale cress (image shown right), a species of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), is a tiny
weed that is often used for plant research, because it is very easy to grow, and its DNA has
been mapped. Scientists have identified a gene from this plant, At-DBF2, which gives the
plant resistance to some environmental stresses. When this gene is inserted into tomato and
tobacco cells, the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold,
and heat far better than ordinary cells. If these results prove successful in larger trials, then
At-DBF2 genes could help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh
environments.
Self Review & Practice:

Watch the video on disabling plant genes in the sidebar and then answer the
questions that follow:
1. What approach do scientists use to disable genes in Arabidopsis?How does this
work? Be as specific and complete in your answer as you can.
2. What do scientists use to insert DNA into Arabidopsis? How does this work?
3. Can scientists insert whole genes into Arabidopsis? How is this situation useful for
agriculture? Explain your answer as fully as you can.
4. How are the Araidopsis mutants valuable to botanists in general?
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Download the following two documents to learn some of the pros and cons about
using biotechnology in agriculture then download and complete the lab summary sheet
available in the sidebar. Be sure to submit your completed assignment according to your
instructor's directions.
Genetically Modified Foods and Organisms

GMO Issues
Module Wrap-Up

Test: Food Production and Pesticides
Review
Now that you have completed the initial assessments for this module, review the lesson
material with the practice activities and extra resources. Then, continue to the next page for
your final assessment instructions.
Final Assessment
The major issues in modern agriculture include the use of genetically modified (GM) crops
and the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices. The following graph shows the
increase in the use of GM crops in both developing and industrialized countries from 1995 to
2004.
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(a) Reply to the following questions based on the data in the graph above.
(i) Calculate the increase in the area of land used for growing GM crops in developing
countries from 1999 to 2003. Express your answer as a percentage of the 1999 value.
(ii) Calculate the annual rate of increase in land area used for growing GM crops in
industrialized countries from 1997 to 1999.
(iii) Using the rate you calculated in part (ii), project the area of land that would have been
expected to be used for GM crops in industrialized countries in 2004.
(iv) Identify one likely cause for the difference between the projected land area for GM
crops in industrialized countries in 2004 and the actual land area for GM crops in
industrialized countries in 2004.
(b) Describe one environmental advantage and one environmental disadvantage of using
GM crops.
(c) Describe one economic advantage and one economic disadvantage of using GM crops.
(d) A healthy soil ecosystem is of primary importance in sustainable agriculture. Describe
TWO viable agricultural practices that farmers can use to maintain or improve soil quality.
(e) Identify and describe one environmental advantage and one economic advantage of
consuming locally grown produce.
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Toxicology and Human Health

Impacts of the environment on human health can be as obvious as the air you can see like
London's Great Smog of 1952 or as invisible as the mercury contaminated water of Japan's
Minamata Bay, but all have can profound and devastating consequences. Disease rarely
has a single cause and effect relationship with an environmental exposure; it is always a
reflection of exposure, tolerance, and the biological status of the organism. Toxins can enter
the human body in a variety of routes, as their types, sources and therefore the effects can
also vary. Human disease can be infectious or noninfectious, but are very often a reflection
of the environment and health status of the individual. Finally, since hazards to human health
can be found where we live, work and play, risk analysis, a system of evaluation, was
developed to protect us from potential environmental dangers.
Essential Questions
1. What are the types and characteristics of major groups of pollutants in environmental
toxicology?
2. Why is there controversy and concern about synthetic organic compounds such as
dioxin?
3. What is the dose-response concept and how does it relate to LD-50, TD-50, LC-50,
ED-50, ecological gradients, and tolerance?
4. How do the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification work and why are
they important in toxicology?
5. What is the importance of the threshold effect of environmental toxins?
6. What is the process of risk assessment in toxicology and how can it be used to
evaluate the risk to human health and life?
7. What controversial issues can develop with the use of risk assessment?
8. What is the Precautionary Principle and how does it apply to environmental health?
Module Minute
The environment in which we live and work has a large impact on our health and influences
our risk of disease. Exposure to chemicals, radiation, noise and other environmental factors
are important to consider when we look at our day to day life, as well as the consequences
of our choices from diet to occupation. Toxicology looks at the pollutants to medicines we
are exposed to, while establishing the linkage between exposures and disease outcomes
forms an important part of epidemiology. Both of these branches of science are critical for
informing science-based policy decisions and legislation to protect us and the environment.
What to Expect
Lab: Toxicology LD-50

Assignment: Toxin Types Graphic Organizer
Virtual Lab: Tobacco Smoke and Lung Development
Discussion: Environmental Health Issues
FRQ: Food Toxins
Test: Toxicology and Human Health
Key Terms
Epidemiologist- the study of the cause of human disease and associated patterns
Pandemic- global or large area spread of an infectious disease
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Precautionary Principle- when an activity or material poses potential threats to

human health or the environment, precautionary measures should always be taken
Risk Assessment- the process of determining potential negative environmental
health effects to people following exposure to toxic substances- 4 main parts: 1indetification 2- dose-response assessment 3- exposure assessment 4- risk
characterization
Dose response- the principle that the effect of a chemical on an individual depends
on the dose (or concentration) of that chemical
Lethal Dose 50 (LD-50)- dose that is toxic to 50% of the population
Bioaccumulation- the tendency for some materials to accumulate in biologic
tissues, notably in fat
Biomagnification (or biological magnification)- the tendency for some substances
to bioaccumulate (at nontoxic levels) and are found at much higher concentrations as
it moves up the food chain often with deleterious effects (i.e. DDT and mercury)
Toxicology- science focused on the study of toxins and their effect on living
organism
Acute- short term disease or exposure to a substance
Chronic- long term disease or exposure to a substance
Latent- present or potential to develop but not evident or active
Epidemic- locally focused rapid spread of infectious disease
Zoonosis- infectious disease that can be spreads between difference species of
animals, notably between humans and other animals (i.e. rabies)
Tolerance- ability to withstand stresses or exposure to toxic substance
Synergism- cooperative action of different substances when combined the effect is
far greater that the sum of each separately
Toxic- harmful, deadly or poisonous
Threshold- point in a system at which a change occurs, in toxicology any points
below do not show any effects or evidence of exposure
Ecologic gradient- a change in the relative abundance of a species or group of
species along a distant line or over an area
Human Health and the Environment

CAMI (Civil Aerospace Medical Institute) scientists conduct research to detect and measure
drugs, alcohol, toxic gases, and toxic industrial chemicals in victims of fatal aircraft accidents
as a contribution to the analysis of accident causation.
Disease is the result of internal disorder of an organism, most often due to an external
cause. Disease can be the result of infectious agents like viruses and bacteria, or noninfectious agents such as heart disease and sickle cell disease. The cause of many human
diseases or poor health can be linked directly or indirectly to the environment.
Health is often a reflection of our environment; in our industrialized society we are constantly
exposed to human-made chemicals including pesticides; additives in processed foods, such
as coloring and preservatives; genetic and chemical modification of food such additions or
artificial fats and sweeteners; exposure to tobacco smoke; exposure to air pollutants such as
ozone; exposure to chemicals in gasoline and household cleaners; and exposure to heavy
metals such as mercury or lead. Some of these exposures are routine in our culture, while
others are the result of intentional acts of poisoning or polluting. In 1956 in Japan, there was
an influx of patients with similar nervous system damage which was named Minamata
disease for the affected city. It was determined by 1963 that the cause of the disease was
methyl mercury poisoning from eating contaminated shellfish from the bay, and eventually
239
linked to the local production of acetaldehyde by the Chisso Company and the dumping of
waste into the nearby harbor.
Environmental disease is not only a condition of developed societies as even cultures who
have lived directly off the land suffered from the exposure to naturally occurring toxic
substances leading to health issues. Water, soil and air can hold naturally occurring hazards:
such as toxic metals in soil and water, poisonous outgassing of volcanos to pathogenic
organisms, and have these have always been a part of our world. The goal is to recognize
the sources and causes of potential human health risks present in the environment.
In toxicology, chemicals known to be toxic are studied and the risk evaluated. Pollution
refers to an environment or part of an environment that has been contaminated in some way
as to make it unusable or simply unclean. The methyl mercury in Minamata Bay was not
visible and the shellfish survived the contamination, but the people continuously exposed
suffered greatly and many of the children born to exposed mothers have profound birth
defects. Mercury is a toxic metal known to biomagnify in the food chain. Other toxins, when
present together, can magnify the effect; this is known as synergism and is important to
consider when looking at all factors in an environment.
As you move through this module, pay careful attention to the units. Often very small
amounts of toxic substances can have a dramatic impact. Please review the following units
before beginning the assignments in this lesson.
parts per million (ppm)

parts per billion (ppb)
In some toxicology studies, the units used are milligrams of toxin per kilogram of
body mass
Concentration may also be recorded as a percent. For example, 100 ppm (100
mg/kg) is equal to 0.01%
In water pollution, units of concentration for a pollutant may be milligrams per liter
(mg/L) or micrograms per liter (g/L).
Air pollutants are commonly measured in units such as micrograms of pollutant per
cubic meter of air (g/m3)
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Self-Assessment: Toxicology Problem Set

In this assessment, you will learn the basics about the impact on human health of toxins or
chemical hazards. Download the file from the sidebar that has the instructions and read all of
the information carefully. Then answer the questions on the site. Make sure that you are able
to answer these types of questions on your test.
Lab: Toxicology LD-50

Download and complete the lab activity available in the sidebar. You will analyze
data conducted from a lab to explain the concept of toxicity and understand how to
calculate the LD50 for a particular organism. Be sure to read the lab completely
before beginning your investigation. Be sure to submit your completed assignment
according to your teacher's instructions.
Types of Environmental Risks

Infectious Disease
Infectious disease is a normal part of our exposure to the environment. Bacteria, viruses,
fungi and protists are normally present in all environments and some can cause infectious
disease directly and other can produce deadly toxins. Viruses can infect every type of living
organism and tend to be very specific, yet are responsible for the largest number of
zoonoses, diseases able to spread between different species of animals, like rabies.
For more information about how pandemics spread, be sure to watch the video in the
sidebar.
Viruses and Human Disease

Viruses cause many human diseases. In addition to the flu and HIV, viruses cause rabies,
measles, diarrheal diseases, hepatitis, polio, cold sores and other diseases. Viral diseases
range from mild to fatal. One way viruses cause disease is by causing host cells to burst
open and die. Viruses may also cause disease without killing host cells. They may cause
illness by disrupting homeostasis in host cells.
Cold sores are caused by a herpes virus.

Some viruses live in a dormant state inside the body. This is called latency. For example, the
virus that causes chicken pox may infect a young child and cause the short-term disease
chicken pox. Then the virus may remain latent in nerve cells within the body for decades.
The virus may re-emerge later in life as the disease called shingles. In shingles, the virus
causes painful skin rashes with blisters (see image below ).
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Shingles is a disease caused by the same virus that causes chicken pox.
Some viruses can cause cancer. For example, human papillomavirus (HPV) causes cancer
of the cervix in females. Hepatitis B virus causes cancer of the liver. A viral cancer is likely to
develop only after a person has been infected with a virus for many years.
The Flu
Influenza, or flu, is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. Influenza
spreads around the world in seasonal epidemics. An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease
within a population of people during a specific time. Every year in the United States, about
200,000 people are hospitalized and 36,000 people die from the flu. Flu pandemics can kill
millions of people. A pandemic is an epidemic that spreads through human populations
across a large region (for example a continent), or even worldwide. Three influenza
pandemics occurred in the 20th century and killed tens of millions of people, with each of
these pandemics being caused by the appearance of a new strain of the virus. Most
influenza strains can be inactivated easily by disinfectants and detergents.
Emerging Viral Diseases

Modern modes of transportation allow more people and products to travel around the world
at a faster pace. They also open the airways to the transcontinental movement of infectious
disease vectors. One example of this occurring is West Nile Virus , which scientists believe
was introduced to the United States by an infected air traveler. With the use of air travel,
people are able to go to foreign lands, contract a disease and not have any symptoms of
illness until they get home, possibly exposing others to the disease along the way. Be sure
to watch the video in the sidebar to learn more about the Virus Crisis.
Often, new diseases result from the spread of an existing disease from animals to humans.
A disease that can be spread from animals to humans is called a zoonosis (pronounced zoo-nosis). When a disease breaks out, scientists called epidemiologists investigate the
outbreak, looking for its cause. Epidemiologists are like detectives trying to solve a crime.
The information epidemiologists learn is important to understand the pathogen, and help
prevent future outbreaks of disease.
A deadly strain of avian flu virus named H5N1 has posed the greatest risk for a new
influenza pandemic since it first killed humans in Asia in the 1990s. The virus is passed from
infected birds to humans. Fortunately, the virus has not mutated to a form that spreads
easily between people. Several lethal viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever have been
discovered, two of which are shown below. Ebola outbreaks have been limited mainly to
remote areas of the world. However, they have gained extensive media attention because of
the high mortality rate23 percent to 90 percentdepending on the strain. The primary
hosts of the viruses are thought to be apes in west central Africa, but the virus has also been
isolated from bats in the same region.
The Ebola virus (left), and Marburg virus (right), are viruses that cause hemorrhagic fevers
that can cause multiple organ failure and death.
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People get exposed to new and rare zoonoses when they move into new areas and
encounter wild animals. For example, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a
respiratory disease which is caused by the SARS coronavirus. An outbreak in China in 2003
was linked to the handling and consumption of wild civet cats sold as food in a market. In
2005, two studies identified a number of SARS-like coronaviruses in Chinese bats. It is likely
that the virus spread from bats to civets, and then to humans. Be sure to watch the video on
Zoonotic (pronounced zo-o-notic) diseases in the sidebar.
Noninfectious Diseases
Noninfectious Diseases are diseases that are not caused by a pathogenic agent, and cannot
be transferred from one person to another. There are many types and are caused by many
different environmental factors and or genetics. These diseases can be due to nutritional
deficiency or lifestyle. These diseases are not transmissible, but genetic diseases are often
passed down from parents to their children.
Environmental Toxins
The following are major groups of toxins. Research and know the impact, sources of and
examples of all of them by using your text and any additional resources, including the ones
in the sidebar. After your research, complete the assignment below.
Heavy metals
Carcinogens
Teratogens
Neurotoxins
Mutagens
Irritants
Hormonally Active Agents {(HAA) Endocrine or Hormone disruptors}
Sensitizers (allergens)
Persistent organic Pollutants (POPs)
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Assignment: Toxin Types Graphic Organizer
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Select four of the above groups of environmental toxins, and download and
complete the graphic organizer from the sidebar. Fill in all parts of the graphic
organizer as the instructions state and submit the completed assignment according
to your instructor's directions. Please note that you are responsible for knowing the
basics about all of the environmental toxin types.
Effects of Environmental Toxins

Smog Effects on Human Health
On a smoggy day, you're breathing garbage. No different from tossing trash out of a car
window with no intention of picking it up, we spew trash into the air as we drive, as we heat
our homes, and as we manufacture goods. Would we tolerate all this trash if it were in our
houses laying on the ground?
Human health suffers in locations with high levels of air pollution.
Pollutants and their Effects

Different pollutants have different health effects:
Lead is the most common toxic material and is responsible for lead poisoning.
Carbon monoxide can kill people in poorly ventilated spaces, such as tunnels.
Nitrogen and sulfur-oxides cause lung disease and increased rates of asthma,
emphysema, and viral infections such as the flu.
Ozone damages the human respiratory system, causing lung disease. High ozone
levels are also associated with increased heart disease and cancer.
Particulates enter the lungs and cause heart or lung disease. When particulate levels
are high, asthma attacks are more common. By some estimates, 30,000 deaths a
year in the United States are caused by fine particle pollution.
Human Illnesses from Air Pollution

Many but not all cases of asthma can be linked to air
pollution. During the 1996 Olympic Games, Atlanta,
Georgia, closed off their downtown to private
vehicles. This action decreased ozone levels by
28%. At the same time, there were 40% fewer
hospital visits for asthma. Can scientists conclude
without a shadow of a doubt that the reduction in
ozone caused the reduction in hospital visits? What
could they do to make that determination?
Among patients who are diagnosed with lung
cancer, 15% of them have never smoked. This rate
is currently increasing. One study showed that the
risk of being afflicted with lung cancer increases
directly with a person's exposure to air pollution. The
study concluded that no level of air pollution should
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be considered safe. Exposure to smog also increased the risk of dying from any cause,
including heart disease.
One study found that in the United States, children develop asthma at more than twice the
rate of two decades ago and at four times the rate of children in Canada. Adults also suffer
from air pollution-related illnesses that include lung disease, heart disease, lung cancer, and
weakened immune systems. The asthma rate worldwide is rising 20% to 50% every decade.
COPD or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a consequence of
smoking and or routine or chronic exposure to respiratory toxins. This
category of noninfectious disease, which includes emphysema and
chronic bronchitis, is caused by permanent changes to lung tissue. See
image below.
Be sure to watch the video, Acknowledging the Link Between Air Pollution and Health
available in the sidebar.
Virtual Lab: Tobacco Smoke and Lung Development

You are going to complete a virtual lab "Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Lung
Development Activity" after reading through the Lung Toxicology Problem Set. In
this activity, you will collect and analyze scientific data from an experiment
performed by scientists at the Southwest Environmental Health Sciences Center.
All of the instructions and URLs are in the document available in the sidebar. To conclude
this activity you will compose a formal lab report by following the instructions in the
document, and submit the completed activity according to your instructor's directions.
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Pollutants - Our Toxic Environment

Environmental toxins can have many acute (short term- that can include death) and or
chronic (long term) consequences on human health as shown in the image below.
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General Effects of Pollutants

Almost every part of the human body can be affected by some pollutant, infectious agent or
toxic chemical. For example, lead and mercury affect the nervous system; arsenic, the skin;
carbon monoxide, the cardiovascular system; beryllium, the kidneys and fluoride, the bones.
Dose response is a measure of
when a chemical has an appreciable
effect in an organism. An example of
a dose response curve is shown in
the image below. It is generally
observed that the greater the dose,
the greater the response to a
chemical (up to a certain point). This
is how much exposure to a medicine,
pesticide or other toxin is considered
safe or effective.
The effects of every chemical
(including routine medicines) differ
greatly among and between species.
For example, the kinds of vegetation
that can live nearest to a toxic source are often small plants with relatively short lifetimes as
their adaptions are for survival in harsh and highly variable environments. Farther from the
toxic source, trees may be able to survive. Changes in vegetation and other organisms with
distance from a toxic substance define the ecological gradient for the toxin and the
environment.
NIMBY
NIMBY is an acronym meaning not in my backyard, and it is a characteristic response to
perceived potentially negative changes in our environment. NIMBY may be a response to
building public housing or a new landfill. Education and affluence are key to whether a
community is able to prevent these changes, but often toxins are routinely released into our
environment without our realizing. The satellite image below shows a landfill in northern
Georgia in the middle of several large subdivisions. It is literally in the backyards of many of
these houses.
NIMBY Self-Assessment
Investigate the following websites which are databases for known, point source pollutants, in
our environment. Most just require your zip code. For this activity, visit the sites listed below
and locate local toxins in your backyard and their sources. Remember our homes are often
the source for many toxins from pesticides and radon to lead based paint in older homes.
Scorecard (The Pollution Information Site)

EPA's My Environment
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Risk Assessment
Be sure to watch the video "Estimating Health Risk - The Basics" on risk assessment in
the sidebar. After watching the video, click HERE and download the brochure from the
sidebar.
Risk assessment framework is often known as the Red Book Paradigm.
Risk assessment is a series of steps intended to identify and evaluate possible hazards to
human health. The process includes where uncertainties are clearly considered and
presented and involves a multidisciplinary effort. The risk assessment framework that is
most commonly practiced follows the "Red Book" paradigm, which was circulated by the
National Research Council in 1983.
Risk assessment is completed in a logical fashion that includes the following steps:
(1) Problem formulation
(2) Hazard identification
(3) Dose response relationships
(4) Exposure assessment
(5) Risk characterization
Risk characterization is the culmination of the other steps. Here factors such as
socioeconomic level, lifestyle and potential exposure are considered. The Precautionary
Principle may apply here, when a material poses potential threats to human health or the
environment, precautionary measures should always be taken. Often public warnings and
sometimes legislation may actually precede solid scientific evidence of risk in these cases.
Yet the goal of risk assessment to protect human health through increased knowledge and
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education, correct analysis of possibility of exposure/illness and the generation of protective

legislature.
Discussion: Environmental Health Issues

From NIH Environmental Health Science.
Then download the Environmental Health Topics brochure A to Z.
Select one of the issues on the NIH Environmental Health Science A to Z list. Use the
information in the brochure and the links in the sidebar.
Include the following in your post:
Name and description of topic

Human health consequences (briefly describe)
Describe the environmental links or causes of the human health issue (include which
parts of the world having the greatest problem)
Briefly describe possible prevention of exposure
FRQ: Food Toxins

Write complete answers to the questions. Check your understanding by reviewing the
answer key in the sidebar.
Read the editorial below and answer the questions that follow.
249
a) On the basis of the article above, indicate one human activity that releases mercury into
the environment. Describe how mercury is transported from that source and enters aquatic
systems, often hundreds of miles away.
b) Describe TWO ways that the amount of mercury released into the environment from the
source in part (a) could be reduced.
c) Explain why there are greater health risks associated with eating large predatory fish,
such as tuna and sea bass, than from eating small nonpredatory fish.
d) Identify a toxic metal other than mercury that has a negative impact on human health and
describe how it is introduced into the environment. Describe an acute sublethal effect on
humans that results from exposure to this metal.
Air Pollution and Climate Change

Earth's atmosphere is a vibrant and
dynamic part of our planet.
Exchange between biotic and abiotic
features and the atmosphere is
constantly taking place. Aerobic
respiration and photosynthesis as
well as evapotranspiration, nitrogen
fixation, combustion and many,
many other processes are always
occurring.
Unfortunately, some natural and
anthropogenic events that take place
in the atmosphere impact its quality
and result in air pollution. Further, air
pollution impacts human health,
damages cultural and natural structures and is accelerating global climate change. The
atmosphere is so much more than "air," so its complex role on Earth should be understood,
and its quality carefully monitored and protected.
Essential Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What gases are used and expelled by photosynthesis and respiration?

Where can the largest concentration of ozone be found and what value does it have?
What are the characteristics of Earth's atmosphere?
How does the atmosphere moderate Earth's temperature?
What are the two major atmospheric gases (in the troposphere) and what roles do
they play?
6. Why does more solar radiation of all wavelengths come into the exosphere than
reaches Earth's surface?
7. How does photochemical smog differ from other types of air pollution?
8. How are primary and secondary pollutants different?
9. What is the effect of an increase in particulates on the environment?
10. What are the effects of ground level ozone?
11. Where does most of the acid rain fall and what damage can it do?
12. What is the difference between weather and climate?
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13. Why is average global temperature the most important value when talking about
climate change?
14. What are the signs of climate change that are currently measurable?
Module Minute
Our atmosphere's job is far more complex than the air we breathe- it helps create weather, it
protects us from harmful radiation, it is the location for light shows like the aurora borealis,
and it helps maintain the livable temperatures on our planet. Air pollution occurs naturally
from volcanic eruption and forest fires, but we have become the greatest contributors to this
degradation, primarily from the burning of fossil fuels. Even our indoor environment is filled
with toxic air pollutants often of our own doing. Air pollution's impact can range from being a
minor irritant to deadly, yet we are also finding that it is impacting our global climate. The
consequences for these global changes are many and far reaching.
What to Expect
Assignment: Layers of the Atmosphere

Lab: Air Quality
Discussion: Mobile vs. Point vs. Nonpoint Source and Primary vs. Secondary Air
Pollutants
FRQ: Air Pollution and climate Change
Test: Air Pollution and Climate Change
Key Terms
Humidity- measurement of atmospheric water vapor

Ozone layer- thick layer of ozone gas present in the stratosphere
Ground layer ozone- ozone produced in the troposphere secondary to
photochemical reactions
Particulates- larger suspended particles present in the atmosphere
Greenhouse effect- the phenomena where heat is trapped in the atmosphere by
greenhouse gasses after the Sun's radiation is absorbed and reradiated as infrared
radiation
Greenhouse gases - gasses capable of absorbing infrared radiation in the
atmosphere
Polar amplification- effect that as global temperature rise, there are greater
increases at the poles
Acid rain (precipitation)- precipitation with a lower than normal pH (normal rain is
slightly acidic) due to air pollutants (SOx and NOx) combining with atmospheric water
Air quality standards- measureable levels of air pollution that mark acceptable
levels over a certain time period
Atmospheric inversion - atmospheric phenomena where warmer air is above cooler
air that restricts air circulation
Coal gasification- process that converts high sulfur coal to a gas to remove sulfur
Criteria pollutants- six pollutants considered harmful to public health and the
environment as determined by the EPA through the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards
Global dimming- the reduction of incoming solar radiation due to reflection by
suspending atmospheric particles (like clouds)
Photochemical smog- series of reactions forming secondary pollutants due to
automobile exhaust in the presence of sunlight
Primary pollutants- pollutants directly released into the environment
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Scrubbing- process that removes sulfur from gasses released form coal burning
power plants
Secondary pollutants- pollutants produced from the reaction between primary
pollutants and other environmental conditions
Characteristics of the Atmosphere

Energy from the Sun
Most of the energy that reaches the Earth's surface comes from the Sun (see Figure). About
44% of solar radiation is in the visible light wavelengths, but the Sun also emits infrared,
ultraviolet, and other wavelengths.
Ultraviolet
Of the solar energy that reaches the outer atmosphere, ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths have
the greatest energy. Only about 7% of solar radiation is in the UV wavelengths. The three
types are:
UVC: the highest energy ultraviolet, does not reach the planet's surface at all.
UVB: the second highest energy- is also mostly stopped in the atmosphere.
UVA: the lowest energy, travels through the atmosphere to the ground.
Infrared
The remaining solar radiation is the longest wavelength, infrared. Most objects radiate
infrared energy, which we feel as heat.
Some of the wavelengths of solar radiation traveling through the atmosphere may be lost
because they are absorbed by various gases (see Figure ). Ozone completely removes
UVC, most UVB, and some UVA from incoming sunlight. O2, CO2, and H2O also filter out
some wavelengths.
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Atmospheric gases filter some wavelengths of incoming solar energy. Yellow shows the
energy that reaches the top of the atmosphere. Red shows the wavelengths that reach sea
level. Ozone filters out the shortest wavelength UV and oxygen filters out most infrared.
Did life evolve to match the atmosphere or is the fit just coincidence?
Life as we know it would not survive if there were no ozone layer to protect it from high
energy ultraviolet radiation. Most life needs oxygen to survive. Nitrogen is also needed,
albeit in a different form from that found in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases keep the
temperature moderate so that organisms can live around the planet. Life evolved to match
the conditions that were available and to some extent changed the atmosphere to suit its
needs.
Composition of Air
Several properties of the atmosphere change with altitude, but the composition of the natural
gases does not. The proportions of gases in the atmosphere are everywhere the same, with
one exception. At about 20 km to 40 km above the surface, there is a greater concentration
of ozone molecules than in other portions of the atmosphere. This is called the ozone layer .
Nitrogen and Oxygen

Nitrogen and oxygen together make up 99% of the planet's atmosphere. Nitrogen makes up
the bulk of the atmosphere, but is not involved in geological or biological processes in its
gaseous form. Nitrogen fixing is described in "Concept Life on Earth." Oxygen is extremely
important because it is needed by animals for respiration. The rest of the gases are minor
components but sometimes are very important (see Figure below).
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Nitrogen and oxygen make up 99% of the atmosphere;

carbon dioxide is a very important minor component.
Water Vapor
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. Humidity varies from place to place and
season to season. This fact is obvious if you compare a summer day in Atlanta, Georgia,
where humidity is high, with a winter day in Phoenix, Arizona, where humidity is low. When
the air is very humid, it feels heavy or sticky. Dry air usually feels more comfortable. When
humidity is high, water vapor makes up only about 4% of the atmosphere.
Where around the globe is mean atmospheric water vapor higher and where is it lower (see
Figure )? Why? Higher humidity is found around the equatorial regions because air
temperatures are higher and warm air can hold more moisture than cooler air. Of course,
humidity is lower near the polar regions because air temperature is lower.
Mean winter atmospheric water vapor in the Northern Hemisphere when temperature and
humidity are lower than they would be in summer.
Greenhouse Gases
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Remember that greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere. Important natural
greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone. CFCs and
some other man-made compounds are also greenhouse gases.
Be sure to watch the following video about CFCs and the ozone layer.
Particulates
Some of what is in the atmosphere is not gas. Particles of dust, soil, fecal matter, metals,
salt, smoke, ash, and other solids make up a small percentage of the atmosphere and are
called particulates. Particles provide starting points (or nuclei) for water vapor to condense
on and form raindrops. Some particles are pollutants.
What Is the Atmosphere?

Earth's atmosphere is a thin blanket of gases and tiny particles together called air. We are
most aware of air when it moves and creates wind. Earth's atmosphere, along with the
abundant liquid water at Earth's surface, are the keys to our planet's unique place in the
solar system. Much of what makes Earth exceptional depends on the atmosphere. For
example, all living things need some of the gases in air for life support. Without an
atmosphere, Earth would likely be just another lifeless rock.
Be sure to watch the following video about the atmosphere:
Let's consider some of the reasons we are lucky to have an atmosphere:
1. Gases Indispensable for Life on Earth

Without the atmosphere, Earth would look a lot more like the Moon. Atmospheric gases,
especially carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), are extremely important for living
organisms. How does the atmosphere make life possible? How does life alter the
atmosphere?
2. Photosynthesis
In photosynthesis , plants use CO2 and create O2. Photosynthesis is responsible for nearly
all of the oxygen currently found in the atmosphere.
The chemical reaction for photosynthesis is:
3. Respiration
By creating oxygen and food, plants have made an environment that is favorable for
animals. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert sugar into food energy they can use.
Plants also go through respiration and consume some of the sugars they produce.
The chemical reaction for respiration is:
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How is respiration similar to and different from photosynthesis? They are approximately the
reverse of each other. In photosynthesis, CO2 is converted to O2 and in respiration, O2 is
converted to CO2.
Chlorophyll indicates the presence of photosynthesizing plants as does the

vegetation index.
4. Crucial Part of the Water Cycle

As part of the hydrologic cycle, water spends a lot of time in the atmosphere, mostly as
water vapor. The atmosphere is an important reservoir for water.
5. Ozone Makes Life on Earth Possible

Ozone is a molecule composed of three oxygen atoms, (O3). Ozone in the upper
atmosphere absorbs high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun. This
protects living things on Earth's surface from the Sun's most harmful rays. Without ozone for
protection, only the simplest life forms would be able to live on Earth. The highest
concentration of ozone is in the ozone layer in the lower stratosphere.
6. Keeps Earth's Temperature Moderate

Along with the oceans, the atmosphere keeps Earth's temperatures within an acceptable
range. Without an atmosphere, Earth's temperatures would be frigid at night and scorching
during the day. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere. Important greenhouse
gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone.
7. Provides the Substance for Waves to Travel Through

The atmosphere is made of gases that take up space and transmit energy. Sound waves are
among the types of energy that travel though the atmosphere. Without an atmosphere, we
could not hear a single sound. Earth would be as silent as outer space (explosions in movies
256
about space should be silent). Of course, no insect, bird, or airplane would be able to fly,
because there would be no atmosphere to hold it up.
How does the atmosphere resemble a greenhouse?

To extend the growing season, many farmers use greenhouses. A greenhouse traps heat so
that days that might be too cool for a growing plant can be made to be just right. Similar to a
greenhouse, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keep Earth warm.
The Greenhouse Effect

The exception to Earth's temperature being in balance is caused by greenhouse gases. But
first the role of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere must be explained.
Greenhouse gases warm the atmosphere by trapping heat. Some of the heat that radiates
out from the ground is trapped by greenhouse gases in the troposphere. Like a blanket on a
sleeping person, greenhouse gases act as insulation for the planet. The warming of the
atmosphere because of insulation by greenhouse gases is called the greenhouse effect (see
Figure ). Greenhouse gases are the component of the atmosphere that moderate Earth's
temperatures.
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The Earth's heat budget shows the amount of energy coming into and going out of the
Earth's system and the importance of the greenhouse effect. The numbers are the amount of
energy that is found in one square meter of that location.
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases include CO2, H2O, methane, O3, nitrous oxides (NO and NO2), and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). All are a normal part of the atmosphere except CFCs. The table
shows how each greenhouse gas naturally enters the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Gas
Where It Comes From
Carbon dioxide
Respiration, volcanic
eruptions,
decomposition of plant
material; burning of
fossil fuels
Methane
Decomposition of plant
material under some
conditions, biochemical
reactions in stomachs
Nitrous oxide
Produced by bacteria
Ozone
Atmospheric
processes
Chlorofluorocarbons
Not natrually occurring;

made by humans
Different greenhouse gases have different abilities to trap heat. For example, one methane
molecule traps 23 times as much heat as one CO2 molecule. One CFC-12 molecule (a type
of CFC) traps 10,600 times as much heat as one CO2. Still, CO2 is a very important
greenhouse gas because it is much more abundant in the atmosphere.
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Human Activity and Greenhouse Gas Levels

Human activity has significantly raised the levels of many of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Methane levels are about 2
1/2 times higher as a result of human activity. Carbon dioxide has
increased more than 35%. CFCs have only recently existed.
What do you think happens as atmospheric greenhouse gas levels
increase? More greenhouse gases trap more heat and warm the
atmosphere. The increase or decrease of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere affect climate and weather the world over. Be sure to
watch the following video from NASA.
The Layers of Earth's Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere includes the closest layer, the troposphere, where we live and weather
occurs, but also includes outer layers that each have specific characteristics.
Complete the following assignment to explore the layers of Earth's atmosphere.

You will be creating a graph using Excel (or other similar program) of the
temperature changes that occur in the atmosphere. Complete directions are
available in the sidebar. When you have completed your work, be sure to submit it
according to your teacher's instructions.
259
Types of Air Pollution and their Sources

People have euphemisms for smog; sometimes it's fog, sometimes it's haze. It's hard to
know sometimes whether the air is full of something natural, like water vapor, or something
man-made, like ozone. But in cities like this the air is often being marred by air pollution.
Air Quality
Pollutants include materials that are naturally occurring but are added to the atmosphere so
that they are there in larger quantities than normal. Pollutants may also be human-made
compounds that have never before been found in the atmosphere. Pollutants dirty the air,
change natural processes in the atmosphere, and harm living things.
Problems with Air Quality

Air pollution started to be a problem when early people burned wood for heat and cooking
fires in enclosed spaces such as caves and small tents or houses. But the problems became
more widespread as fossil fuels such as coal began to be burned during the Industrial
Revolution.
Smog
Air pollution became a crisis in the developed nations in the mid-20th century. Coal smoke
and auto exhaust combined to create toxic smog that in some places caused lung damage
and sometimes death. In Donora, Pennsylvania, in October 1948, 20 people died and 4,000
became ill when coal smoke was trapped by an inversion.
In London in December 1952, the "Big Smog" killed 4,000 people over five days. Many
thousands more likely died of health complications from the event in the next several
months.
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog, a different type of air pollution, first became a problem in Southern
California after World War II. The abundance of cars and sunshine provided the perfect
setting for a chemical reaction between some of the molecules in auto exhaust or oil refinery
emissions and sunshine (see image). Photochemical smog consists of more than 100
compounds, most importantly ozone.
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Smog over Los Angeles as viewed from the Hollywood Hills
The Clean Air Act

The terrible events in Pennsylvania and London, plus the recognition of the hazards of
photochemical smog, led to the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970 in the United States.
The act now regulates 189 pollutants. The six most important pollutants regulated by the Act
are ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and the
heavy metal lead. Other important regulated pollutants include benzene, perchloroethylene,
methylene chloride, dioxin, asbestos, toluene, and metals such as cadmium, mercury,
chromium, and lead compounds.
What is the result of the Clean Air Act? In short, the air in the United States is much cleaner.
Visibility is better and people are no longer incapacitated by industrial smog. However,
despite the Act, industry, power plants, and vehicles put 160 million tons of pollutants into
the air each year. Some of this smog is invisible and some contributes to the orange or blue
haze that affects many cities.
Regional Air Quality

Air quality in a region is not just affected by the amount of pollutants released into the
atmosphere in that location but by other geographical and atmospheric factors. Winds can
move pollutants into or out of a region and a mountain range can trap pollutants on its
leeward side. Inversions commonly trap pollutants within a cool air mass. If the inversion
lasts long enough, pollution can reach dangerous levels.
Pollutants remain over a region until they are transported out of the area by wind, diluted by
air blown in from another region, transformed into other compounds, or carried to the ground
when mixed with rain or snow.
The table below lists the smoggiest cities in 2011: eight of the 10 are in California. Why do
you think California cities are among those with the worst air pollution?
The state has the right conditions for collecting pollutants including mountain ranges that
trap smoggy air, arid and sometimes windless conditions, agriculture, industry, and lots and
lots of cars.
Smoggiest U.S. Cities, 2011
Rank
City, state
Los Angeles, California
Bakersfield, California
Visalia-Porterville, California
Fresno, California
Sacremento, California
Hanford, California
San Diego, California
Houston, Texas
261
Merced, California
10
Charlotte, North Carolina
In the picture above, the smoke is stuck between two layers of air. The bottom layer is more
dense than the top layer, so there is no mixing between the two layers. In winter, an
(atmospheric) inversion traps all of the pollutants that are emitted into the air over a region.
Types of Air Pollution

The two types of air pollutants are primary pollutants, which enter the atmosphere directly,
and secondary pollutants, which form from a chemical reaction.
1. Primary Pollutants
Some primary pollutants are natural, such as volcanic ash. Dust is natural but exacerbated
by human activities; for example, when the ground is torn up for agriculture or development.
Most primary pollutants are the result of human activities, the direct emissions from vehicles
and smokestacks. Primary pollutants include:
Carbon oxides include carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) (see Figure
below). Both are colorless, odorless gases. CO is toxic to both plants and animals.
CO and CO2 are both greenhouse gases.
High CO2 levels are found in major metropolitan areas and along the major interstate
highways.
Nitrogen oxides are produced when nitrogen and oxygen from the atmosphere come
together at high temperatures. This occurs in hot exhaust gas from vehicles, power
plants, or factories. Nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are greenhouse
gases. Nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain.
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Sulfur oxides include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3). These form when
sulfur from burning coal reaches the air. Sulfur oxides are components of acid rain.
Particulates are solid particles, such as ash, dust, and fecal matter. They are
commonly formed from combustion of fossil fuels, and can produce smog.
Particulates can contribute to asthma, heart disease, and some types of cancers.
Particulates from a brush fire give the sky a strange glow in Arizona.
Lead was once widely used in automobile fuels, paint, and pipes. This heavy metal
can cause brain damage or blood poisoning.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are mostly hydrocarbons. Important VOCs
include methane (a naturally occurring greenhouse gas that is increasing because of
human activities), chlorofluorocarbons (human-made compounds that are being
phased out because of their effect on the ozone layer), and dioxin (a byproduct of
chemical production that serves no useful purpose, but is harmful to humans and
other organisms).
2. Secondary Pollutants
Any city can have photochemical smog, but it is most common in sunny, dry locations. A rise
in the number of vehicles in cities worldwide has increased photochemical smog. Nitrogen
oxides, ozone, and several other compounds are some of the components of this type of air
pollution.
Photochemical smog forms when car exhaust is exposed to sunlight. Nitrogen oxide is
created by gas combustion in cars and then into the air. In the presence of sunshine, the
NO2 splits and releases an oxygen ion (O). The O then combines with an oxygen molecule
(O2) to form ozone (O3). This reaction can also go in reverse: Nitric oxide (NO) removes an
oxygen atom from ozone to make it O2. The direction the reaction goes depends on how
much NO2 and NO there is. If NO2 is three times more abundant than NO, ozone will be
produced. If nitric oxide levels are high, ozone will not be created.
The brown color of the air behind the Golden Gate Bridge is typical of California cities,
because of nitrogen oxides.
Ozone is one of the major secondary pollutants. It is created by a chemical reaction that
takes place in exhaust and in the presence of sunlight. The gas is acrid-smelling and whitish.
Warm, dry cities surrounded by mountains, such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, and Denver, are
especially prone to photochemical smog. Photochemical smog peaks at midday on the
hottest days of summer. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas.
How come we don't see emissions like this too often anymore?
This photo of a power plant was taken before emission control equipment was added.
Emissions are down since laws have been enacted to protect the air.
Causes of Air Pollution
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Most air pollutants come from burning fossil fuels or plant material. Some are the result of
evaporation from human-made materials. Nearly half (49%) of air pollution comes from
transportation, 28% from factories and power plants, and the remaining pollution from a
variety of other sources.
1. Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are burned in most motor vehicles and power plants. These nonrenewable
resources are the power for nearly all manufacturing and other industries. Pure coal and
petroleum can burn cleanly and emit only carbon dioxide and water, but most of the time
these fossil fuels do not burn completely and the incomplete chemical reactions produce
pollutants. Few sources of these fossil fuels are pure, so other pollutants are usually
released. These pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
hydrocarbons.
In large car-dependent cities such as Los Angeles and Mexico City, 80% to 85% of air
pollution is from motor vehicles. Ozone, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxides come from
vehicle exhaust. Auto exhaust, like the one in the picture to the right, means that the fuel is
not burning efficiently.
Click HERE to see the relative amounts of CO2 released by different fossil fuels.
A few pollutants come primarily from power plants or industrial plants that burn coal or oil.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a major component of industrial air pollution that is released
whenever coal and petroleum are burned. SO2 mixes with H2O in the air to produce sulfuric
acid (H2SO4).
Mercury is released when coal and some types of wastes are burned. Mercury is emitted as
a gas, but as it cools, it becomes a droplet. Mercury droplets eventually fall to the ground. If
they fall into sediments, bacteria convert them to the most dangerous form of mercury:
methyl mercury. Highly toxic, methyl mercury is one of the metal's organic forms.
2. Biomass Burning
Fossil fuels are ancient plants and animals that have been converted into usable
hydrocarbons. Burning plant and animal material directly also produces pollutants. Biomass
is the total amount of living material found in an environment. The biomass of a rainforest is
the amount of living material found in that rainforest.
The primary way biomass is burned is for slash-and-burn agriculture . The rainforest is
slashed down and then the waste is burned to clear the land for farming. Biomass from other
biomes, such as the savannah, is also burned to clear farmland. The pollutants are much the
same as from burning fossil fuels: CO2, carbon monoxide, methane, particulates, nitrous
oxide, hydrocarbons, and organic and elemental carbon. Burning forests increases
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by releasing the CO2 stored in the biomass and also
by removing the forest so that it cannot store CO2 in the future. As with all forms of air
pollution, the smoke from biomass burning often spreads far and pollutants can plague
neighboring states or countries.
Particulates result when anything is burned. About 40% of the particulates that enter the
atmosphere above the United States are from industry and about 17% are from vehicles.
Particulates also occur naturally from volcanic eruptions or windblown dust. Like other
pollutants, they travel all around the world on atmospheric currents.
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3. Evaporation
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) enter the atmosphere by evaporation. VOCs evaporate
from human-made substances, such as paint thinners, dry cleaning solvents, petroleum,
wood preservatives, and other liquids. Naturally occurring VOCs evaporate off of pine and
citrus trees. The atmosphere contains tens of thousands of different VOCs, nearly 100 of
which are monitored. The most common is methane, a greenhouse gas (see image).
Methane occurs naturally, but human agriculture is increasing the amount of methane in the
atmosphere.
Methane forms when organic material decomposes in an oxygen-poor environment. In the

top image, surface methane production is shown. Stratospheric methane concentrations in
the bottom image show that methane is carried up into the stratosphere by the upward flow
of air in the tropics.
4. Mercury Pollution
Mercury is released into the atmosphere when coal is burned (see Figure). But breathing the
mercury is not harmful. In the atmosphere, the mercury forms small droplets that are
deposited in water or sediments.
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Historic increases of mercury in the atmosphere as shown in the graph

above:
1. blue is volcanic eruptions;
2. brown, purple, and pink are human-caused.
3. red shows the effect of industrialization on atmospheric mercury
Acid Rain
What made the pits in the gargoyle to the left? ANSWER
Acid rain is caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxides emanating from power plants or metal
refineries. The smokestacks have been built tall so that pollutants don't sit over cities.
Tall smokestacks, like those to the right, allow the emissions to rise high into the atmosphere
and travel up to 1,000 km (600 miles) downwind.
As they move, these pollutants combine with water vapor to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
The acid droplets form acid fog, rain, snow, or they may be deposited dry. Most typical is
acid rain (see diagram below).
Pollutants are deposited dry or in precipitation
pH and Acid Rain

Acid rain water is more acidic than normal rain water. Acidity is measured on the pH scale.
Lower numbers are more acidic and higher numbers are less acidic (also called more
alkaline). Natural rain is somewhat acidic, with a pH of 5.6; acid rain must have a pH of less
than 5.0. A small change in pH represents a large change in acidity: rain with a pH of 4.6 is
10 times more acidic than normal rain (with a pH of 5.6). Rain with a pH of 3.6 is 100 times
more acidic.
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pH scale with several common examples (note the pH of pure rain)

A pH scale goes from 0 to 14; numbers are shown with the pH of some common
substances. A value of 7 is neutral. The most concentrated acids are at the low end of the
scale and the most concentrated bases are at the high end.
Regions with a lot of coal-burning power plants have the most acidic rain. The acidity of
average rainwater in the northeastern United States has fallen to between 4.0 and 4.6. Acid
fog has even lower pH with an average of around 3.4. One fog in Southern California in 1986
had a pH of 1.7, equal to toilet-bowl cleaner.
In arid climates, such as in Southern California, acids deposit on the ground dry. Acid
precipitation ends up on the land surface and in water bodies. Some forest soils in the
northeast are five to ten times more acidic than they were two or three decades ago. Acid
droplets move down through acidic soils to lower the pH of streams and lakes even more.
Acids strip soil of metals and nutrients, which collect in streams and lakes. As a result,
stripped soils may no longer provide the nutrients that native plants need.
Indoor Air Pollution

Download and read the document from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBL)
about indoor air quality (available in the sidebar). You can explore this link, as well, for
additional information.
Lab: Air Quality

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The intent of this lab activity is to observe and graphically analyze actual air pollution data,
and to explore the sources and impacts of some key pollutants. Complete the Air Quality Lab
after downloading the instructions from the sidebar. Be sure to submit your finished
assignment according to your teacher's instructions.
Consequences of Air Pollution

Did you ever see a sky without contrails?
In the three days after the terrorists attacks on September 11, 2001, jet airplanes did not fly
over the United States. Without the gases from jet contrails blocking sunlight, air
temperature increased 1C (1.8F) across the United States. This is just one of the effects
air pollution has on the environment.
Smog Effects on the Environment

All air pollutants cause some damage to living creatures and the environment. Different
types of pollutants cause different types of harm.
Particulates
Particulates reduce visibility. In the western United States, people can now ordinarily see
only about 100 to 150 kilometers (60 to 90 miles), which is one-half to two-thirds the natural
(pre-pollution) range on a clear day. In the East, people can only see about 40 to 60
kilometers (25-35 miles), about one-fifth the distance they could see without any air pollution
( see image below ).
Smog in New York City

Particulates reduce the amount of sunshine that reaches the ground, which may reduce
photosynthesis. Since particulates form the nucleus for raindrops, snowflakes, or other forms
of precipitation, precipitation may increase when particulates are high. An increase in
particles in the air seems to increase the number of raindrops, but often decreases their size.
By reducing sunshine, particulates can also alter air temperature as mentioned above.
Imagine how much all of the sources of particulates combine to reduce temperatures. What
affect might this have on global warming?
Ozone
Ozone damages some plants. Since ozone effects accumulate, plants that live a long time
show the most damage. Some species of trees appear to be the most susceptible. If a forest
contains ozone-sensitive trees, they may die out and be replaced by species that are not as
easily harmed. This can change an entire ecosystem, because animals and plants may not
be able to survive without the habitats created by the native trees.
Some crop plants show ozone damage (see image at right - the spots on the leaf are due to
ozone damage). When exposed to ozone, spinach leaves become spotted. Soybeans and
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other crops have reduced productivity. In developing nations, where getting every last bit of
food energy out of the agricultural system is critical, any loss is keenly felt.
What would have happened if CFCs had not been phased out?
Had CFCs not been phased out, by 2050 there would have been 10 times more skin cancer
cases than in 1980. The result would have been about 20 million more cases of skin cancer
in the United States and 130 million cases globally.
Reducing Ozone Destruction

One success story in reducing pollutants that harm the atmosphere concerns ozonedestroying chemicals. In 1973, scientists calculated that CFCs could reach the stratosphere
and break apart. This would release chlorine atoms, which would then destroy ozone. Based
only on their calculations, the United States and most Scandinavian countries banned CFCs
in spray cans in 1978.
More confirmation that CFCs break down ozone was needed before more was done to
reduce production of ozone-destroying chemicals. In 1985, members of the British Antarctic
Survey reported that a 50% reduction in the ozone layer had been found over Antarctica in
the previous three springs.
Be sure to watch the following video about Ozzy Ozone:
The Montreal Protocol

Two years after the British Antarctic Survey report, the "Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer" was ratified by nations all over the world.
The Montreal Protocol controls the production and consumption of 96 chemicals that
damage the ozone layer. Hazardous substances are phased out first by developed nations
and one decade later by developing nations. More hazardous substances are phased out
more quickly. CFCs have been mostly phased out since 1995, although were used in
developing nations until 2010. Some of the less hazardous substances will not be phased
out until 2030. The Protocol also requires that wealthier nations donate money to develop
technologies that will replace these chemicals.
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Ozone levels over North America decreased between 1974 and 2009. Models of the future
predict what ozone levels would have been if CFCs were not being phased out. Warmer
colors indicate more ozone.
Since CFCs take many years to reach the stratosphere and can survive there a long time
before they break down, the ozone hole will probably continue to grow for some time before
it begins to shrink. The ozone layer will reach the same levels it had before 1980 around
2068 and 1950 levels in one or two centuries. Be sure to download the handout from the
sidebar from the EPA celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Montreal Protocol.
Oxides
Oxide air pollutants also damage the environment. NO2 is a toxic, orange-brown colored gas
that gives air a distinctive orange color and an unpleasant odor. Nitrogen and sulfur-oxides
in the atmosphere create acids that fall as acid rain.
Lichen get a lot of their nutrients from the air so they may be good indicators of changes in
the atmosphere such as increased nitrogen. In Yosemite National Park, this could change
the ecosystem of the region and lead to fires and other problems.
Pollutants and their Effects

Human health suffers in locations with high levels of air pollution.
Different pollutants have different health effects:
Lead is the most common toxic material and is responsible for lead poisoning.
Carbon monoxide can kill people in poorly ventilated spaces, such as tunnels.
Nitrogen and sulfur-oxides cause lung disease and increased rates of asthma,
emphysema, and viral infections such as the flu.
Ozone damages the human respiratory system, causing lung disease. High ozone
levels are also associated with increased heart disease and cancer.
Particulates enter the lungs and cause heart or lung disease. When particulate levels
are high, asthma attacks are more common. By some estimates, 30,000 deaths a
year in the United States are caused by fine particle pollution.
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Why can't the children in Punta Arenas go outside in the spring?

Children in Punta Arenas, Chile, the world's most southern city, look forward to spring as
much as anyone who lives through a frigid, dark winter. But some years, the children are
instructed not to go outside because the ozone hole has moved north and the UV radiation is
too high.
Ozone Depletion
At this point you might be asking yourself, "Is ozone bad or is ozone good?" There is no
simple answer to that question: It depends on where the ozone is located (see diagram
below).
In the troposphere, ozone is a pollutant.

In the ozone layer in the stratosphere, ozone screens out high energy ultraviolet
radiation and makes Earth habitable.
(1) Solar energy breaks apart oxygen molecules into two oxygen atoms. (2) Ozone forms
when oxygen atoms bond together as O3. UV rays break apart the ozone molecules into one
oxygen molecule (O2) and one oxygen atom (O). These processes convert UV radiation into
heat, which is how the Sun heats the stratosphere. (3) Under natural circumstances, the
amount of ozone created equals the amount destroyed. When O3 interacts with chlorine or
some other gases the O3 breaks down into O2 and O and so the ozone layer loses its ability
to filter out UV.
How Ozone is Destroyed

Human-made chemicals are breaking ozone molecules in the ozone layer.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the most common, but there are others, including halons,
methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform. CFCs were once widely used
because they are cheap, nontoxic, nonflammable, and non-reactive. They were used as
spray-can propellants, refrigerants, and in many other products.
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Once they are released into the air, CFCs float up to the stratosphere. Air currents move
them toward the poles. In the winter, they freeze onto nitric acid molecules in polar
stratospheric clouds (PSC) (image below). In the spring, the sun's warmth starts the air
moving, and ultraviolet light breaks the CFCs apart. The chlorine atom floats away and
attaches to one of the oxygen atoms on an ozone molecule. The chlorine pulls the oxygen
atom away, leaving behind an O2 molecule, which provides no UV protection. The chlorine
then releases the oxygen atom and moves on to destroy another ozone molecule. One CFC
molecule can destroy as many as 100,000 ozone molecules.
PSCs form only where the stratosphere is coldest, and are most common above Antarctica
in the wintertime. PSCs are needed for stratospheric ozone to be destroyed.
The Ozone Hole

Ozone destruction creates the ozone hole where the layer is dangerously thin. As air
circulates over Antarctica in the spring, the ozone hole expands northward over the southern
continents, including Australia, New Zealand, southern South America, and southern Africa.
UV levels may rise as much as 20% beneath the ozone hole. The hole was first measured in
1981 when it was 2 million square km (900,000 square miles). The 2006 hole was the
largest ever observed at 28 million square km (11.4 million square miles). The size of the
ozone hole each year depends on many factors, including whether conditions are right for
the formation of PSCs.
The September 2006 ozone hole, the largest observed (through 2011). Blue and purple
colors show particularly low levels of ozone.
Ozone Loss in the North

Ozone loss also occurs over the North Polar Region, but it is not enough for scientists to call
it a hole. Why do you think there is less ozone loss over the North Pole area? The region of
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low ozone levels is small because the atmosphere is not as cold and PSCs do not form as
readily. Still, springtime ozone levels are relatively low. This low moves south over some of
the world's most populated areas in Europe, North America, and Asia. At 40oN, the latitude
of New York City, UV-B has increased about 4% per decade since 1978. At 55oN, the
approximate latitude of Moscow and Copenhagen, the increase has been 6.8% per decade
since 1978.
Effects of Ozone Loss

Ozone losses on human health and environment include:
Increases in sunburns, cataracts (clouding of the lens of the eye), and skin cancers.
A loss of ozone of only 1% is estimated to increase skin cancer cases by 5% to 6%.
Decreases in the human immune system's ability to fight off infectious diseases.
Reduction in crop yields because many plants are sensitive to ultraviolet light.
Decreases in phytoplankton productivity. A decrease of 6% to 12% has been
measured around Antarctica, which may be at least partly related to the ozone hole.
The effects of excess UV on other organisms is not known.
Whales in the Gulf of California have been found to have sunburned cells in their
lowest skin layers, indicating very severe sunburns. The problem is greatest with light
colored species or species that spend more time near the sea surface.
When the problem with ozone depletion was recognized, world leaders took action. CFCs
were banned in spray cans in some nations in 1978. The greatest production of CFCs was in
1986, but it has declined since then. This will be discussed more in the next lesson.
Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain takes a toll on ecosystems. Plants that are exposed to acids become weak and are
more likely to be damaged by bad weather, insect pests, or disease. Snails die in acid soils,
so songbirds do not have as much food to eat. Young birds and mammals do not build
bones as well and may not be as strong. Eggshells may also be weak and break more
easily.
Acid rain has killed trees in this forest in the Czech Republic (right).
As lakes become acidic, organisms die off. No fish can live if the pH drops below 4.5.
Organic material cannot decay, and mosses take over the lake. Wildlife that depend on the
lake for drinking water suffer population declines.
Crops are damaged by acid rain. This is most noticeable in poor nations where people can't
afford to fix the problems with fertilizers or other technology.
Acid rain damages cultural monuments like buildings and statues. These include the U.S.
Capitol and many buildings in Europe, such as Westminster Abbey.
Carbonate rocks neutralize acids and so some regions do not suffer the effects of acid rain
nearly as much. Limestone in the Midwestern United States protects the area. One reason
that the northeastern United States is so vulnerable to acid rain damage is that the rocks are
not carbonates.
Because pollutants can travel so far, much of the acid rain that falls hurts states or nations
other than ones where the pollutants were released. All the rain that falls in Sweden is acidic
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and fish in lakes all over the country are dying. The pollutants come from the United
Kingdom and Western Europe, which are now working to decrease their emissions. Canada
also suffers from acid rain that originates in the United States, a problem that is also
improving. Southeast Asia is experiencing more acid rain between nations as the region
industrializes.
Discussion: Mobile vs. Point vs. Nonpoint source and Primary

vs. Secondary Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are coming at us from all directions- our cars, geologic events, even
plants all contribute to degradation of air quality. One of the big ideas is to evaluate
the sources and then determine how to control them at the source.
You will select one of the two following categories:
mobile / point / nonpoint air pollution

primary / secondary air pollutants.
Then your job is to become an air pollution detective.

Your post(s) should include all of the following:
First- thoroughly describe your examples including the sources (see details below)
and feel free to include images, videos, and cited facts to support and explain.
Second - create a plan to reduce this pollutant(s)
Third- analyze and look for flaws in the descriptions and plans of two classmates'
posts.
Use this resource to start if you choose mobile/point/nonpoint air pollution and select one
air pollutant that can be generated by a mobile, nonpoint and point source. Be sure to
include basic info in the subject line of your initial post.
Use this resource to start if you choose primary/ secondary air pollutants and find a
primary pollutant and a secondary pollutant that is generated, at least in part, by the primary
one. Be sure to explain and include the chemistry of the formation of the secondary pollutant
and the basic info about your investigation in the subject line of your initial post.
Climate Change
What's the weather like?
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If someone across country asks you what the weather is like today, you need to consider
several factors. Air temperature, humidity, wind speed, the amount and types of clouds, and
precipitation are all part of a thorough weather report.
What is Weather?
All weather takes place in the atmosphere, virtually all of it in the lower atmosphere. Weather
describes what the atmosphere is like at a specific time and place. A location's weather
depends on:
air temperature
air pressure
fog
humidity
cloud cover
precipitation
wind speed and direction
All of these characteristics are directly related to the amount of energy that is in the system
and where that energy is. The ultimate source of this energy is the Sun.
Weather is the change we experience from day to day. Weather can change rapidly.
What is Climate?
Although almost anything can happen with the weather, climate is more predictable. The
weather on a particular winter day in San Diego may be colder than on the same day in Lake
Tahoe, but, on average, Tahoe's winter climate is significantly colder than San Diego's .
Winter weather at Lake Tahoe doesn't much resemble winter weather in San Diego even
though they're both in California.
Climate is the long-term average of weather in a particular spot. Good climate is why we
choose to vacation in Hawaii in February, even though the weather is not guaranteed to be
good! A location's climate can be described by its air temperature, humidity, wind speed and
direction, and the type, quantity, and frequency of precipitation.
The climate for a particular place is steady, and changes only very slowly. Climate is
determined by many factors, including the angle of the Sun, the likelihood of cloud cover,
and the air pressure. All of these factors are related to the amount of energy that is found in
that location over time.
What is the human cost of warmer temperatures?

Many lands are marginal for farming. When rainfall is normal or high, the lands can produce.
When rainfall is low, no crops grow. Drought makes marginal lands unsuitable for farming.
Drought can also make good lands more difficult to farm. These changes will increase as
temperatures warm.
Causes of Global Warming

The average global temperature has been rising since the end of the Pleistocene, with some
ups and downs, of course. Rising temperatures are natural for this time period. But natural
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causes cannot explain all the warming that's been happening. There is some other factor at
work.
Recent global warming is due mainly to human actions. The actions involve releasing
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Remember that greenhouse gases keep the
atmosphere warm? And that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas? When you burn fossil
fuels, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. The more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, the better the atmosphere can trap heat. In other words, an increase in
greenhouse gases leads to greater greenhouse effect. The result is increased global
warming. Pictured below is the increase in carbon dioxide since 1960 (see graph below).
How much more carbon dioxide was in the air in 2010 than in 1960?
Burning forests also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Other human activities
release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. For example, growing rice and raising
livestock both produce methane.
Effects of Global Warming

There are already many effects of global warming being seen. As Earth has gotten warmer,
sea ice has melted. This has raised the level of water in the oceans (see graph below).
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The overall trend in sea level since 1870 - it has risen about 9 inches.
Be sure to watch the following video on climate change from NASA.
The extent of Arctic sea ice in summer has been decreasing rapidly. The ice pictured below
is the sea ice minimum in 2011 (see image below). The yellow line is the median minimum
ice extent for 1979-2000.
The sea ice minimum for 2011 was the second lowest on record.
Other effects of global warming include more extreme weather. Earth now has more severe
storms, floods, heat waves, and droughts than it did just a few decades ago. Many living
things cannot adjust to the changing climate. Coral reefs in many parts of the world are
struggling to survive. Species are moving uphill where temperatures are cooler. Those at the
top of the mountain are being run off. Migration and egg-laying behaviors in birds are off of
their normal. There are many more examples of the effects of changing climate.
Increasing Temperatures
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While temperatures have risen since the end of the Pleistocene, 10,000 years ago, this rate
of increase has been more rapid in the past century, and has risen even faster since 1990.
The 12 warmest years on record have all occurred since 2001, and the 20 warmest years
have occurred since 1987 through 2011. (see graph below). The 2000s were the warmest
decade yet.
Recent temperature increases show how much temperature has risen since the Industrial
Revolution began.
Annual variations aside, the average global temperature increased about 0.8oC (1.5oF)
between 1880 and 2010, according to the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NOAA. This
number doesn't seem very large.
Why is it important? CLICK HERE
Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The United States has long been the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, with about 20% of
total emissions in 2004. As a result of China's rapid economic growth, its emissions
surpassed those of the United States in 2008. However, it's also important to keep in mind
that the United States has only about one-fifth the population of China. What's the
significance of this? The average United States citizen produces far more greenhouse gas
emissions than the average Chinese person.
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Do polar bears belong in garbage dumps ?
Changes due to warmer temperatures are becoming more visible. The Arctic is covered with
ice less of the year, so polar bears can't hunt and are raiding garbage dumps for food.
Extreme weather events are becoming more common as weather becomes stranger. Sea
level is rising, which is a problem during storms.
Global Warming
With more greenhouse gases trapping heat, average annual global temperatures are rising.
This is known as global warming. Be sure to watch Global warming - How Humans are
Affecting our Planet from NASA in the sidebar. This video discusses the basics of global
warming science.
Changes Due to Warming Temperatures

The following images show changes in the Earth and organisms as a result of global
warming.
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(a) Breakup of the Larsen Ice Shelf in Antarctica in 2002 was related to climate warming in
the region. (b) The Boulder Glacier has melted back tremendously since 1985. Other
mountain glaciers around the world are also melting.
Permafrost is melting and its extent decreasing. There are now fewer summer lakes in
Siberia.
The timing of events for species is changing. Mating and migrations take place earlier in the
spring months. Species that can are moving their ranges uphill. Some regions that were
already marginal for agriculture are no longer arable because they have become too warm
or dry.
Click HERE to see Modeled Climate-Induced Glacier Change in Glacier National Park, 18502100:
1. What are the two major effects being seen in this animation?
2. Glaciers are melting and vegetation zones are moving uphill. If fossil fuel use
exploded in the 1950s, why do these changes begin early in the animation?
3. Does this mean that the climate change we are seeing is caused by natural
processes and not by fossil fuel use?
4. How can the spread of human disease be affected by climate change?
Be sure you are able to answer these questions before moving on to the test for this unit.
NASA know your Earth...
Module Wrap-Up
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Lab: Air Quality
Discussion: Mobile vs. Point vs. Nonpoint Source and Primary vs. Secondary Air
Pollutants
FRQ: Air Pollution and Climate Change
Test: Air Pollution and Climate Change
Review
Final Assessment
FRQ: Air Pollution and Climate Change
Read the article below from the Fremont Free Press and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Support Councilwoman Smith's statement that nitrogen-based fertilizers cause other
environmental problems by describing one such problem.
(b) Identify a nitrogen-containing primary pollutant that contributes to the formation of
photochemical smog. Describe how that primary pollutant forms and explain why
Councilman Budd was wrong.
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(c) Identify one secondary pollutant that is a component of photochemical smog and
describe the following.
(i) How the secondary pollutant forms
(ii) ONE human health effect of the pollutant
(iii) ONE environmental effect of the pollutant
(d) Earth's natural nitrogen cycle occurs in several steps. Describe one chemical
transformation that occurs in the natural nitrogen cycle and discuss the importance of that
transformation to an ecosystem.
Water Pollution and Water Treatment

"Water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink," is a line from The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, but could very well apply to the availability of fresh
water in many developing and water poor countries. Water is an amazing and renewable
resource, but the growing population and years of mismanagement have stressed the supply
of fresh water. Our planet's surface may be covered mostly in water, yet most is undrinkable
salt water. Because of the seemingly endless source of water, it has been wasted and
polluted. Humans have always followed the principle of the solution to pollution is dilution
from human waste to industrial effluent, and so the consequences are that both fresh and
salt water reserves have been severely compromised at our hands.
Essential Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
How will changing climate affect the availability and distribution of water?
How do human activities affect the occurrence of droughts?
How do so many people live with so little water?
Why do people use so much more water than they used to?
Why don't localities and people use water in the most efficient way, rather than
sometimes in wasteful ways?
6. Globally, how many people do not have access to water that is safe for drinking and
washing?
7. What is the toll of waterborne diseases?
8. What are the indicators of water quality?
9. What type of pollutants do urban areas create?
10. How do pollutants enter the groundwater?
11. How do agricultural practices cause water pollution?
12. What causes land subsidence and where are the places where this is a problem?
13. How can heat be a pollutant and what damage can it cause?
14. How is wastewater treated?
15. Is keeping water from becoming polluted easier, less expensive, and safer than
cleaning it after it is polluted?
16. What can individuals do to protect water quality?
17. What is the purpose of the Clean Water Act?
Module Minute
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Water is a necessity of life and essential part of many abiotic processes,

yet we actively waste and pollute it. Our watery planet may seem like it
has an endless supply, but pollution is taking its toll on the quality and
availability of this life giving compound. Humankind has always struggled
with the consequences of water contamination on health from infectious
agents and animal waste to metals and salts. The impact of dumping
human waste into the water supply has been long known but continues to
be a health issue and solutions are still being developed. Water management, treatment and
purification are global issues that must be addressed to ensure a continued supply of safe
water for the growing human population and for the organisms with which we share this
planet.
What to Expect
Lab: Surf your watershed

VLab: How can water pollution be detected?
Discussion: The Great Pacific Trash Dump
Lab: The Poop on the Poop: Wastewater Treatment
FRQ: Ground Water Pollutants
Test: Water Pollution and Water Treatment
Key Terms
Hydrological cycle- natural cycle of water on our planet where it moves from place
to place in different states
Groundwater discharge- water released from a groundwater source
Groundwater recharge- water entering groundwater source
Withdrawal- removal of water from any surface or ground water source for some
purpose
Consumptive water use- water use that is lost to the ecosystem after withdrawal
Non-consumptive water use- water use that is recycled in the ecosystem after
withdrawal
Water table- top level of groundwater source
Eutrophication- the change of a body of surface water due to the natural of cultural
additional of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) leading to negative events such as
phytoplankton blooms and hypoxia
Desalination- the removal of salts from seawater for use as fresh
Watershed (drainage basin)- area of land where precipitation runs off into streams,
rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. It is a land feature that can be identified by tracing a line
along the highest elevations between two areas on a map, often a ridge.
Subsidence- a dropping of the land surface as a result of ground water being
pumped, a virtually an irreversible process
Greywater- wastewater from clothes washing machines, showers, bathtubs, hand
washing, lavatories and sinks
Thermal pollution- a reduction in water quality caused by increasing its
temperature, often due to disposal of waste heat from industrial or power generation
processes
Reservoir- storage location for a substance (like water)
Residence time- average length of time a substance spends in a reservoir
Effluent- water that flows from a sewage treatment plant after it has been treated.
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Our Water World

What do you know about fresh water? - start out this lesson by completing the Freshwater
101 quiz by National Geographic found HERE.
Water, water everywhere. But how much of it is useful?
Earth is the water planet. From space, Earth is a blue ball, unlike any of the other planets in
our solar system. Life, also unique to Earth of the planets in our solar system, depends on
this water. While there's a lot of salt water, a surprisingly small amount of it is fresh water.
Distribution of Water
Earth's oceans contain 97% of the planet's water. That leaves just 3% as fresh water, water
with low concentrations of salts. Most fresh water is trapped as ice in the vast glaciers and
ice sheets of Greenland.
How is the 3% of fresh water divided into different reservoirs? How much of that water is
useful for living creatures? How much for people?
A storage location for water such as an ocean, glacier, pond, or even the atmosphere is
known as a reservoir. A water molecule may pass through a reservoir very quickly or may
remain for much longer. The amount of time a molecule stays in a reservoir is known as its
residence time.
Watch this video by NASA to explore out watery world.
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This animation shows the mean precipitation, globally, over a year. Compare the
different parts of the planet and the precipitation. What does it mean for life there?
Will water cause the next war?

Wars have been fought over oil, but many people predict that the next war will be fought
over water. Certainly, water is becoming scarcer.
Water Distribution
Water is unevenly distributed around the world. Large portions of the
world, such as much of northern Africa, receive very little water relative to
their population (Figure below). The map shows the relationship between
water supply and population by river basin.
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Blue means there is a lot of river water for each person who lives in the river basin. Salmon
pink means there is very little river water for each person who lives in the river basin.
Over time, there will be less water per person within many river basins as the population
grows and global temperatures increase so that some water sources are lost. In 2025, many
nations, even developed nations, are projected to have less water per person than now
(Figure below).
The same map but projected into 2025.
Water Shortages
Water scarcity is a problem now and will become an even larger problem in the future as
water sources are reduced or polluted and population grows. In 1995, about 40% of the
world's population faced water scarcity ( Figure below). Scientists estimate that by the year
2025, nearly half of the world's people won't have enough water to meet their daily needs.
Nearly one-quarter of the world's people will have less than 500 m3 of water to use in an
entire year. That amount is less water in a year than some people in the United States use in
one day.
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Water supply compared to population.
Droughts
Droughts occur when a region experiences unusually low precipitation for months or years (
Figure below). Periods of drought may create or worsen water shortages.
Human activities can contribute to the frequency and duration of droughts. For example,
deforestation keeps trees from returning water to the atmosphere by transpiration; part of the
water cycle becomes broken. Because it is difficult to predict when droughts will happen, it is
difficult for countries to predict how serious water shortages will be each year.
Extended periods with lower than normal rainfall cause droughts.
Effect of Changing Climate

Global warming will change patterns of rainfall and water distribution. As the Earth warms,
regions that currently receive an adequate supply of rain may shift. Regions that rely on
snowmelt may find that there is less snow and the melt comes earlier and faster in the
spring, causing the water to run off and not be available through the dry summers. A change
in temperature and precipitation would completely change the types of plants and animals
that can live successfully in that region.
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Water Scarcity
Water scarcity can have dire consequences for the people, the economy, and the
environment. Without adequate water, crops and livestock dwindle and people go hungry.
Industry, construction, and economic development is halted, causing a nation to sink further
into poverty. The risk of regional conflicts over scarce water resources rises. People die from
diseases, thirst, or even in war over scarce resources.
California's population is growing by hundreds of thousands of people a year, but much of
the state receives as much annual rainfall as Morocco. With fish populations crashing, global
warming, and the demands of the country's largest agricultural industry, the pressures on
our water supply are increasing.
Conflicts Over Water

As water supplies become scarce, conflicts will arise between the individuals or nations that
have enough clean water and those that do not (Figure below). Some of today's greatest
tensions are happening in places where water is scarce. Water disputes may add to tensions
between countries where differing national interests and withdrawal rights have been in
conflict. Just as with energy resources today, wars may erupt over water.
The projection suggests there may not be enough fresh water; the nations in brown may not
be able to afford to supply their citizens with fresh water.
Water disputes are happening along 260 different river systems that cross national
boundaries. Some of these disputes are potentially very serious. International water laws,
such as the Helsinki Rules, help interpret water rights among countries.
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Lab: Surf Your Watershed

Download the lab from the sidebar. Follow the directions provided and submit
your completed assignment according to your teacher's instructions.
Types of Water Pollution and their Sources

What do you see in this photo?
The Ganges River is sacred to the people of India. It is also a major source of water for
drinking and bathing for millions of people. An estimated 400 million people are affected by
pollution in the Ganges. What can be done to protect a water body that has so much
pressure placed on it?
Scarcity of Safe Drinking Water

The water that comes out of our faucets is safe because it has gone through a series of
treatment and purification processes to remove contaminants. Those of us who are fortunate
enough to always be able to get clean water from a tap in our home may have trouble
imagining life in a country that cannot afford the technology to treat and purify water.
Pollution
Many people in the world have no choice but to drink from the same polluted river where
sewage is dumped. One-fifth of all people in the world, more than 1.1 billion people, do not
have access to safe water for drinking, personal cleanliness, and domestic use. Unsafe
drinking water carries many pathogens, or disease-causing agents such as infectious
bacteria, toxic chemicals, radiological hazards, and parasites.
Waterborne Disease
Waterborne disease caused by unsafe drinking water is the leading cause of death for
children under the age of five in many nations and a cause of death and illness for many
adults. About 88% of all diseases are caused by drinking unsafe water. Throughout the
world, more than 14,000 people die every day from waterborne diseases, such as cholera,
and many of the world's hospital beds are occupied by patients suffering from a waterborne
disease.
Dracunculiasis, commonly known as Guinea Worm, is contracted when a person drinks the
guinea worm larvae.
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International aid can sometimes help to provide safe drinking water to people in regions
where none is available. Sometimes wells are drilled to avoid contaminated surface waters.
Boys avoid guinea worm disease by drinking through a specially designed straw.
Is polluted water like this only seen in developing nations?

There is certainly polluted water in developed nations, but that water is cleaned and purified
before it is put in taps and sent to people's homes. Pollutants come from a variety of
sources.
Freshwater and ocean pollution are serious global problems that affect the availability of safe
drinking water, human health, and the environment. Waterborne diseases from water
pollution kill millions of people in underdeveloped countries every year.
Sources of Water Pollution

Water pollution contributes to water shortages by making some water sources unavailable
for use. In underdeveloped countries, raw sewage is dumped into the same water that
people drink and bathe in. Even in developed countries, water pollution affects human and
environmental health.
Water pollution includes any contaminant that gets into lakes, streams, and oceans. The
most widespread source of water contamination in developing countries is raw sewage. In
developed countries, the three main sources of water pollution are described below.
Municipal Pollution
Wastewater from cities and towns contains many different contaminants from many different
homes, businesses, and industries. Contaminants come from:
Sewage disposal (some sewage is inadequately treated or untreated).

Storm drains.
Septic tanks (sewage from homes).
Boats that dump sewage.
Yard runoff (fertilizer and herbicide waste).
Municipal and agricultural pollution.
Large numbers of sewage spills into San Francisco Bay are forcing cities, water agencies
and the public to take a closer look at wastewater and its impacts on the health of the bay.
Industrial Pollution
Factories and hospitals spew pollutants into the air and waterways (Image below). Some of
the most hazardous industrial pollutants include:
Radioactive substances from nuclear power plants and medical and scientific
sources.
Heavy metals, organic toxins, oils, and solids in industrial waste.
Chemicals, such as sulfur, from burning fossil fuels.
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Oil and other petroleum products from supertanker spills and offshore drilling
accidents.
Heated water from industrial processes, such as power stations.
Industrial Waste Water: Polluted water coming from a factory in Mexico. The different colors
of foam indicate various chemicals in the water and industrial pollution.
Agricultural Pollution
Runoff from crops, livestock, and poultry farming carries contaminants such as fertilizers,
pesticides, and animal waste into nearby waterways (Image below). Soil and silt also run off
farms. Animal wastes may carry harmful diseases, particularly in the developing world.
The high density of animals in a factory farm means that runoff from the area is full of
pollutants.
Fertilizers that run off of lawns and farm fields are extremely harmful to the environment.
Nutrients, such as nitrates, in the fertilizer promote algae growth in the water they flow into.
With the excess nutrients, lakes, rivers, and bays become clogged with algae and aquatic
plants. Eventually these organisms die and decompose. Decomposition uses up all the
dissolved oxygen in the water. Without oxygen, large numbers of plants, fish, and bottomdwelling animals die.
Fertilizer makes things grow. How could it cause a dead zone?

Fertilizer from farms and yards carried from the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico
creates an enormous dead zone, where algae use up all the oxygen and nothing else can
live. The largest, in 2002, was about 22,000 square kilometers (8,400 mi2).
Ocean Pollution
Most ocean pollution comes as runoff from land and originates as agricultural, industrial, and
municipal wastes. The remaining 20% of water pollution enters the ocean directly from oil
spills and people dumping wastes directly into the water. Ships at sea empty their wastes
directly into the ocean, for example.
In some areas of the world, ocean pollution is all too obvious.
Coastal pollution can make coastal water unsafe for humans and wildlife. After rainfall, there
can be enough runoff pollution that beaches must be closed to prevent the spread of
disease from pollutants. A surprising number of beaches are closed because of possible
health hazards each year.
A large proportion of the fish we rely on for food live in the coastal wetlands or lay their eggs
there. Coastal runoff from farm waste often carries water-borne organisms that cause
lesions that kill fish. Humans who come in contact with polluted waters and affected fish can
also experience harmful symptoms. More than one-third of the shellfish-growing waters of
the United States are adversely affected by coastal pollution.
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A National Geographic video, "Why the Ocean Matters," has beautiful footage and a brief
introduction to some of the problems facing the seas:
Dead Zones
Fertilizers that run off of lawns and farm fields are extremely harmful to the environment.
Nutrients, such as nitrates, in the fertilizer promote algae growth in the water they flow into.
With the excess nutrients, lakes, rivers, and bays become clogged with algae and aquatic
plants. Eventually these organisms die and decompose. Decomposition uses up all the
dissolved oxygen in the water. Without oxygen, large numbers of plants, fish, and bottomdwelling animals die.
Every year dead zones appear in lakes and nearshore waters. A dead zone is an area of
hundreds of kilometers of ocean without fish or plant life.
The Mississippi is not the only river that carries the nutrients necessary to cause a dead
zone. Rivers that drain regions where human population density is high and where crops are
grown create dead zones all over the world (Figure below).
Dead zones off the coasts. Red dots show the location and size of the dead zone; black
circles show the location but the size is unknown. Darker blue regions of the oceans indicate
that organic particulates are high and may lead to a dead zone.
How Pollutants Enter Groundwater

Groundwater pollutants are the same as surface water pollutants: municipal, agricultural,
and industrial. Groundwater is more susceptible to some sources of pollution. For example,
irrigation water infiltrates into the ground, bringing with it the pesticides, fertilizers, and
herbicides that were sprayed on the fields. Water that seeps through landfills also carries
toxins into the ground. Toxic substances and things like gasoline are kept in underground
storage tanks; more than 100,000 of the tanks are currently leaking and many more may
develop leaks.
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Filtered Water
Groundwater is a bit safer from some types of pollution than surface water from some types
of pollution because some pollutants are filtered out by the rock and soil that water travels
through as it travels through the ground, or once it is in the aquifer. But rock and soil can't
get out everything, depending on the type of rock and soil and on the types of pollutants. As
it is, about 25% of the usable groundwater and 45% of the municipal groundwater supplies in
the United States are polluted.
Pollutant Plume
When the pollutant enters the aquifer, contamination spreads in the water outward from the
source and travels in the direction that the water is moving. This pollutant plume may travel
very slowly, only a few inches a day, but over time can contaminate a large portion of the
aquifer. Many wells that are currently in use are contaminated. In Florida, for example, more
than 90% of wells have detectible contaminants and thousands have been closed.

Download the lab document from the sidebar and follow all the instructions. Be sure to
complete all activities found HERE.
Consequences of Water Pollution
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Eutrophication
Read the following report from USGS concerning Nutrients in the Nation's Water.
Reducing Water Pollution

Water pollution can be reduced in two ways:
Keep the water from becoming polluted.

Clean water that is already polluted.
Clean Water Act

Keeping water from becoming polluted often requires laws to be sure that people and
companies behave responsibly. In the United States, the Clean Water Act gives the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to set standards for water quality for
industry, agriculture, and domestic uses. The law gives the EPA the authority to reduce the
discharge of pollution into waterways, finance wastewater treatment plants, and manage
runoff. Since its passage in 1972, more wastewater treatment plants have been constructed
and the release of industrial waste into the water supply is better controlled.
The United Nations and other international groups are working to improve global water
quality standards by providing the technology for treating water. These organizations also
educate people in how to protect and improve the quality of the water they use (Image
below).
Scientists control water pollution by sampling the water and studying the pollutants that are
in the water.
What Can You Do?

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What can individuals do to protect water quality?
Find approved recycling or disposal facilities for motor oil and household chemicals.
Use lawn, garden, and farm chemicals sparingly and wisely.
Repair automobile or boat engine leaks immediately.
Keep litter, pet waste, leaves, and grass clippings out of street gutters and storm
drains.
How Society Can Conserve Water

Water consumption per person has been going down for the past few decades. There are
many ways that water conservation can be encouraged. Charging more for water gives a
financial incentive for careful water use. Water use may be restricted by time of day, season,
or activity. Good behavior can be encouraged; for example, people can be given an
incentive to replace grass with desert plants in arid regions.
This colorful adobe house in Tucson, Arizona is surrounded by native cactus, which needs
little water to thrive.
How You Can Conserve Water

As human population growth continues, water conservation will become increasingly
important globally, especially in developed countries where people use an enormous amount
of water. What are some of the ways you can conserve water in and around your home?
Avoid polluting water so that less is needed.

Convert to more efficient irrigation methods on farms and in gardens.
Reduce household demand by installing water-saving devices such as low-flow
shower heads and toilets.
Reduce personal demand by turning off the tap when water is not being used and
taking shorter showers.
Engage in water-saving practices: for instance, water lawns less and sweep rather
than hose down sidewalks.
Marine Trash
Trash from land may end up as trash in the ocean, sometimes extremely far from land.
Some of it will eventually wash ashore, possibly far from where it originated.
Sources of Trash
Although people had once thought that the trash found everywhere at sea was from ships, it
turns out that 80% is from land. Some of that is from runoff, some is blown from near shore
landfills, and some is dumped directly into the sea.
The 20% that comes from ships at sea includes trash thrown overboard by large cruise ships
and many other vessels. It also includes lines and nets from fishing vessels. Ghost nets,
nets abandoned by fishermen intentionally or not, float the seas and entangle animals so
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that they cannot escape. Containers sometimes go overboard in storms. Some noteworthy
events, like a container of rubber ducks that entered the sea in 1992, are used to better
understand ocean currents. The ducks went everywhere!
Makeup of Trash
About 80% of the trash that ends up in the oceans is plastic. This is because a large amount
of the trash produced since World War II is plastic. Also many types of plastic do not
biodegrade, so they simply accumulate. While many types of plastic photodegrade that is,
they break up in sunlight this process only works when the plastics are dry. Plastic trash
in the water does break down into smaller pieces, eventually becoming molecule-sized
polymers. Other trash in the oceans includes chemical sludge and materials that do
biodegrade, like wood.
Toxic Chemicals
Some plastics contain toxic chemicals, such as bisphenol A. Plastics can also absorb
organic pollutants that may be floating in the water, such as the pesticide DDT (which is
banned in the U.S. but not in other nations) and some endocrine disruptors.
Effect on Organisms
Marine birds, such as albatross, or animals like sea turtles, live most of their lives at sea and
just come ashore to mate. These organisms can't break down the plastic and they may
eventually die. Boats may be affected. Plastic waste is estimated to kill 100,000 sea turtles
and marine mammals annually, but exact numbers are unknown.
Plastic shopping bags are extremely abundant in the oceans. If an organism accidentally
ingests one, it may clog digestion and cause starvation by stopping food from moving
through or making the animal not feel hungry.
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Trash from the lands all around the North Pacific is caught up in currents. The currents bring
the trash into the center of the North Pacific Gyre. Scientists estimate that it takes about six
years for trash to move from west coast of North America to the center of the gyre. The
concentration of trash increases toward the center of the gyre.
While recognizable pieces of garbage are visible, much of the trash is tiny plastic polymers
that are invisible but can be detected in water samples. The particles are at or just below the
surface within the gyre. Plastic confetti-like pieces are visible beneath the surface at the
gyre's center.
The size of the garbage patch is unknown, since it can't be seen from above. Some people
estimate that it's twice the size of continental U.S, with a mass of 100 million tons.
Effect on Organisms
In some areas, plastics have seven times the concentration of zooplankton. This means that
filter feeders are ingesting a lot of plastics. This may kill the organisms or the plastics may
remain in their bodies. They are then eaten by larger organisms that store the plastics and
may eventually die. Fish may eat organisms that have eaten plastic and then be eaten by
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people. This also exposes humans to toxic chemicals that the fish may have ingested with
the plastic.
There are similar patches of trash in the gyres of the North Atlantic and Indian oceans. The
Southern Hemisphere has less trash buildup because less of the region is continent.
Discussion: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Develop a plan to investigate and remediate the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. In your plan
include and explain all of the following:
Sources of garbage
Environmental consequences of ocean trash
Description of location of "Patch"
Clear plan of action to remove and remediate
Critical response to two classmates' plans
Be sure to investigate the following sources for additional information:

FAQ at NOAA about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
NOAA Garbage Patches
NOAA Marine Debris Patches
Watch THIS VIDEO for more information
Waste Water Treatment

Water Treatment
The goal of water treatment is to make water suitable for such uses as drinking, medicine,
agriculture, and industrial processes.
People living in developed countries suffer from few waterborne diseases and illness,
because they have extensive water treatment systems to collect, treat, and redeliver clean
water. Many underdeveloped nations have few or no water treatment facilities.
Wastewater contains hundreds of contaminants, such as suspended solids, oxygendemanding materials, dissolved inorganic compounds, and harmful bacteria. In a wastewater
treatment plant, multiple processes must be used to produce usable water:
Sewage treatment removes contaminants, such as solids and particles, from

sewage.
Water purification produces drinking water by removing bacteria, algae, viruses,
fungi, unpleasant elements such as iron and sulfur, and man-made chemical
pollutants.
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The treatment method used depends on the kind of wastewater being treated and the
desired end result. Wastewater is treated using a series of steps, each of which produces
water with fewer contaminants.
Lab Activity: The Poop on the Poop - Wastewater Treatment

Download and complete The Poop on the Poop: Wastewater Treatment lab activity.
Follow all directions in the file and submit it according to your teacher's instructions when
complete. The links and files needed for the activity are embedded in the assignment and
are also found below.
Wastewater Treatment Plant Virtual Tour
EPA What Happens After the Flush
EPA Treat Protecting Waterways
EPA Ozone in Water Treatment
Module Wrap-Up
Lab: Surf your watershed

Discussion: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Lab: The Poop on the Poop - Wastewater Treatment
FRQ: Groundwater Pollutants FRQ
Test: Water Pollution and Water Treatment
Review
Final Assessments
FRQ: Groundwater Pollutants
Read the Fremont Examiner article below and answer the questions that follow.
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(a) Identify ONE component of the sewage that is targeted for removal by primary treatment
and ONE component of the sewage that is targeted for removal by secondary treatment.
(b) For EACH of the pollutants that you identified in part (a), describe how the pollutant is
removed in the treatment process.
(c) Explain how sewage treatment plants create the solid waste problem that Dr. Goodwin
mentioned in the article.
(d) Two common methods of disposing of solid waste from sewage treatment plants are
transporting it to a
landfill or spreading it onto agricultural lands. Describe an environmental problem associated
with EACH of these methods.
(e) The final step in sewage treatment is disinfection. Identify ONE pollutant that is targeted
during disinfection
and identify ONE commonly used method of disinfection.
(f) Identify ONE United States federal law that requires monitoring the quality of the treated
sewage that is discharged into the Fremont River.
Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and

Sustainability
Controversy will always be a part of environmental ethics and in the creation of
environmental policy. The Tragedy of the Commons teaches us that regulation of our natural
resources is vital for both its protection and to regulate fair distribution and conservation.
Group and individual perspectives vary from very anthropocentric to where all living things
have equal rights and value, with the median view being that of stewardship that makes us
responsible for caring for and managing the Earth. But as a species, are we really able to
understand enough to effectively manage the planet? Do we have the foresight to be
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effective stewards? History has shown that that the multifaceted aspects of nature have
been overlooked many times in the past. And thus, our pursuit to control our environment
has failed and left us wanting. What does the future hold for us on Earth in the short and
long term?
Essential Questions
1. What are the different types of value?
2. What are the worldviews and how do they differ in philosophy?
3. What is your worldview and how can you support it?
4. What services does nature provide for us?
5. What is the value of natural capital?
6. How does nature remedy environmental issues?
7. How do communities become sustainable?
8. How are the struggles of urban areas different in achieving sustainability?
9. What is a lifestyle of voluntary simplicity?
10. How and why have environmental policies been created?
11. What are the main environmental statutes and how are they implemented?
Module Minute
Who is in charge of Earth? Are we, as humans, able to successfully manage and allocate
the resources on our planet? History says no, and growing water shortages and global
pollution are further indicators of our lack of control. The economics of natural capital are so
poorly represented that few realize their monetary value, as well as their life value. Whether
it is bees pollinating our crops or the ocean as a sink for excess carbon dioxide, the planet is
well able to care for itself.
The individual or groups' worldviews determine how these natural resources are perceived
and who is responsible for them, these ideologies vary greatly. Then these philosophies are
translated and environmental legislation is created in an attempt to protect the environment
and ourselves.
What to Expect
Project: Environmental Statutes and Treaties

Discussion: Environmental Legislature-what works and what do we need?
FRQ: Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability
Test: Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability
Key Terms
Anthropocentric- thinking or philosophy that is human centered

Biocentric- thinking or philosophy that is life centered
Atomistic- thinking or philosophy that is individual focused
Ecocentric- thinking or philosophy that is Earth focused
Instrumental (utilitarian) view- perspective based on usefulness to humans
Intrinsic (inherent) value- perspective based on value due only to its existence
Sustainability- Sustainability creates and maintains the conditions under which
humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, that permit fulfilling the social,
economic and other requirements of present and future generations. (Definition from
the EPA)
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Natural Capital, Ecosystem Services, and

Environmental Worldviews
Public Service Functions of Nature
A complicating factor in our perception of maintaining clean air and water is that ecosystems
do some of this without our help, and have done so since before the Industrial Revolution.
Forests absorb particulates, salt marshes convert toxic compounds to nontoxic forms,
wetlands and organic soils treat sewage. These are called the public service functions of
nature. For example, it is estimated that bees pollinate $20 billion worth of crops in the
United States. The cost of pollinating these crops by hand would be exorbitant, so a pollutant
that eliminated bees would have large indirect economic consequences. We rarely think of
this benefit of bees. Recently, however, an outbreak of bee parasites in the United States
reduced the abundance of bees, bringing this once-intangible factor to public attention.
All living creatures and natural ecosystems perform public service functions for us, carrying
out tasks important for our survival that would be extremely expensive for us to accomplish
by ourselves. For example, bees pollinate millions of flowers important for food production,
timber supply, and aesthetics.
As another example, bacteria fix nitrogen in the oceans, lakes, rivers, and soils. The cost of
replacing this function in terms of production and transport of artificially produced nitrogen
fertilizers would be immense, but again we rarely think about this activity of bacteria.
Bacteria also clean water in the soil by decomposing toxic chemicals. The atmosphere
performs a public service by acting as a large disposal site for toxic gases. For instance,
carbon monoxide is eventually converted to nontoxic carbon dioxide either by inorganic
chemical reactions or by bacteria.
Only when our environment loses a public service function do we usually begin to recognize
its economic benefits. Then, what had been accepted as an economic externality (indirect
cost) suddenly may become a direct cost.
People have attempted to estimate the dollar value of public service functions. At this time,
we have to consider these estimates only rough approximations, as the value is difficult to
measure. Public service functions of living things that benefit human beings and other forms
of life have been estimated to provide between $3 trillion and $33 trillion per year.
Economists refer to the ecological systems that provide these benefits as natural capital.
Environmental Worldviews
Global Issues: Bearing the Costs and Living

Sustainably
Who Pays?
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Global environmental problems make us more aware of the public service functions of the
environment of our planet and of life around us, as well as raising new economic questions.
An important case in point is the possibility of global warming. The problem is that our
technological society is adding carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere that have the potential to warm the climate. The direct solution is to decrease
the release of these gases, but to do so would require a worldwide decrease in the burning
of fossil fuels. Although most of the production of greenhouse gases today is from the
industrial nations, in the future the developing nations, especially China and India, will
contribute large quantities of these gases. So who accepts responsibility and who makes the
needed changes?
The Cradle-to-Cradle Approach of Sustainability
Living More Sustainably

There are four guiding principles for living more sustainably
a.
b.
c.
d.
Respect earth and life and all its diversity

Care for life with understanding, love, and compassion
Build societies that are free, just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful
Secure earth's bounty and beauty for present and future generations
Another major component of sustainable living is simplicity. Some affluent people in

developed countries are adopting a lifestyle of voluntary simplicity. Voluntary simplicity is
doing and enjoying more with less by learning to live more simply.
In order to make the planet a better place we must realize that individuals make a difference.
Most of the environmental progress we have made, during the last few decades, occurred
because individuals banded together and educated others regarding matters in which we
can do better. For success, we need hope, a positive vision of the future, and commitment to
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making the world a better place to live. There is also a point to be made that many people
are resistant to living sustainably because it runs counter to their fashion sensibilities.
However, as shown by the Tesla Roadster below (a fully electric car), environmental
sustainability and fashion are not necessarily an either/or proposition.
How do we Acheive a Goal? Environmental Policy

How does a society achieve an environmental goal, such as preservation and use of a
resource or reduction of a pollutant? Any society has several methods to achieve such
goals. Means to implement a society's policies are known among economists as policy
instruments. These include moral suasion (i.e. persuading people by talk, publicity, and
social pressure); direct controls, which include regulations; market processes, which affect
the price of goods and include taxation of various kinds, subsidies, licenses, and deposits;
and government investments, which include research and education. Society also has
administrative mechanisms to ensure that the policy instruments chosen actually function.
Project: Environmental Statutes and Treaties Project

Review your textbook and relevant links in the sidebar to complete this project. You will
download and complete the chart, which has been started for you. Be sure to include
adequate details in your own words as you work through this project. You will be selecting
one of the examples to investigate in more detail, so keep this in mind as you investigate
these examples of environmental legislation.
Submit your project when complete.
The Economic Importance of the Environment

In the mid-1990s, the United States spent about $115 billion a year, about 2% of the nation's
gross national product, to deal with pollution. The defense budget was only two and a half
times larger. Present costs are closer to $170 billion, including amounts spent by
consumers, corporations, and government. This total is much greater than the $6 billion
budget of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Though costly, cleaning our environment has economic benefits. Populations subject to high
levels of certain pollutants (people in inner cities, for example) have lower average life
expectancies and higher incidences of certain diseases. Particulate air pollution in U.S. cities
contributes to 60,000 deaths annually, and 2% to 9% of total mortality in cities is associated
with particulate air pollution. By the year 2010, amendments to the Clean Air Act passed by
Congress in 1990 would prevent 23,000 premature deaths in the United States, 1.7 million
asthma attacks, and more than 60,000 hospital admissions due to respiratory problems. The
value of the benefits from these amendments is estimated to be $110 billion in 2010, while
the costs are estimated to be $27 billion. And these are from amendments alone.
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Environmental decision-making often involves analysis of tangible and intangible factors. A

mudslide that results from altering the slope of land is an example of a tangible factor; the
beauty of the slope before the mudslide and its ugliness afterward is an example of an
intangible factor. Of the two, the intangibles are obviously more difficult to deal with because
they are hard to measure and to value economically. One task of environmental economics
is to develop methods for evaluating intangibles that provide good guidelines, are easy to
understand, and are quantitatively credible. Not an easy goal!
Discussion: Environmental Legislature-what works and

what do we need?
After you complete the Environmental Statutes and Treaties Project; select one of
the examples of environmental legislature and create a short video, PowerPoint,
Glogster, Smore or other approved media tool to demonstrate understanding through a
presentation.
Points to include in your presentation
Your environmental law example cited in subject line (do not repeat law)
Relevant images
Original draft date and amendments
Whether it is International or National
Successes and strengths
Failures and weaknesses
Suggestions for improvements
Cite all sources used (required to earn credit)
Module Wrap-Up
Project: Environmental Statutes and Treaties

Discussion: Environmental Legislature-what works and what do we need?
FRQ: Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability
Test: Environmental Worldvies, Ethics, and Sustainability
Review
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Final Assessment
FRQ: Enironmental Worldview, Ethics, and Sustainability
Some scientists estimate that by 2025 over 60 percent of the global human
population will live in urban areas.
Urban residents experience a variety of problems related to the physical
environment.
(a) Describe how the temperature of urban areas like Atlanta, Philadelphia, and Chicago
differs from that of surrounding rural areas.
(b) Identify and describe TWO differences between urban and surrounding rural areas that
contribute to the
temperature difference between them.
(c) Urban areas typically have levels of air pollution that are significantly higher than those
found in
surrounding rural areas. Identify a characteristic of the urban microclimate that leads to
higher levels of air
pollution and describe how that characteristic contributes to the increase.
(d) Identify and describe TWO actions that local governments in urban areas could take to
reduce outdoor air
pollution.
(e) Identify and describe TWO ways in which the local hydrologic cycle of urban areas differs
from that of
nearby rural areas.
Essential Questions and Introduction

1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the major types of air pollution? Give some examples of each.
How do primary and secondary pollutants differ from one another?
What is meant by the term thermal inversion? What causes this to occur?
What are some of the primary health effects of air pollution on humans and other
organisms?
5. Why is indoor air pollution a bigger problem today than it once was?
6. How is acid precipitation formed?
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7. Describe some measures taken by governments to reduce acid precipitation.

8. How do cellular respiration and photosynthesis work together to maintain stable
levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
9. What are the 5 layers of the atmosphere? Describe their relative locations.
10. How is the ozone layer beneficial to humans and other organisms?
11. What factors are contributing to the hole in the ozone layer?
12. How do weather and climate differ from one another?
13. Describe five factors that affect climate.
14. Describe the key difference between the greenhouse effect and global warming?
15. What types of human activities have an impact on global warming?
16. What are some actions that can be taken to slow or even stop global warming?
Introduction:
In this module you will have an opportunity to take an in-depth look at both natural and
anthropogenic sources of air pollution and the earth's atmosphere. You will explore the
major types of air pollution, how air pollution is formed, and the various effects that air
pollution has on humans, other organisms, and the environment. In addition, you will
discover the difference between the greenhouse effect and global warming and how human
activities are contributing to global climate change. Finally, you will have an opportunity to
learn about various actions taken by governments to reduce air pollution and the effects of
air pollution on the environment.
Instruction: Concept 1
Air Pollution
Teachers' Domain, Arctic Haze, published September 10, 2008, retrieved on March 19, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ean08.sci.ess.earthsys.arctichaze/
What Causes Air Pollution?

Air Pollution occurs when harmful substances end up in the air in unhealthy levels. This is
very often the result of human activities but can also come from natural sources. Pollution
that comes from sources related to human activities are said to come from anthropogenic
sources.
Types of Air Pollution

There are two main categories of pollutants: primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutants are put directly into the air by humans. The five main categories of
primary pollutants are as follows:
1. Carbon monoxide: produced by incomplete burning of fossil fuels, interferes with
body's ability to carry oxygen
2. Nitrogen oxide: formed when fuels burn at temperatures over 538C, contributes to
respiratory infections, lung disease, and possibly cancer
3. Sulfur dioxide: formed by chemical reactions between sulfur and oxygen, contributes
to acid rain
4. Volatile organic compounds: formed by organic chemicals that vaporize easily,
contribute to formation of smog and can cause serious health problems like cancer
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5. Particulate matter: tiny particles of liquid or solid matter (ex. smoke), can cause
respiratory problems and cancer
Secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants come in contact with other primary
pollutants or with naturally occurring substances and a chemical reaction occurs. One
example of a secondary pollutant is ozone.
Major Sources of Air Pollution
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Motor vehicles are one major source of anthropogenic air pollution. Currently, approximately
35% of air pollution comes from motor vehicles. In an effort to reduce air pollution from motor
vehicles congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970. This act gives the EPA authority to
regulate automobile emissions. The Clean Air Act is responsible for the elimination of lead in
gas and the use of catalytic converters in cars.
Industry is another important source of anthropogenic air pollution. Industrial Air Pollution
comes mostly from industries that burn fossil fuels (ex. electric power plants, petroleum
refineries, auto and airplane manufacturing plants). The Clean Air Act requires many
industries to use pollution control devises.
Many times anthropogenic sources of air pollution result in what are called thermal
inversions. This is abnormal because normally air temperatures decrease with height.
Thermal inversions trap pollution near the Earth's surface. This can lead to the formation of
smog which reduces visibility.
To learn more about different types of air pollutants and to further explore how air pollution
can result in thermal inversions click on the image to the right.
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As a follow-up activity go to the assignments page of this module and access the
assignment entitled "LAB: Air Pollution." After completing this lab you will write a formal lab
report using the format explained in the introductory unit of this course.
Your instructor will inform you on how to submit this assignment.
The Effects of Air Pollution on Humans and the Environment
Effects on Human Health
Exposure by
humans to air
pollutants can
lead to a number
of serious health
conditions. Two
of these
conditions that
are normally not
fatal but are
serious none-theless are chronic
bronchitis and
asthma. Both of
these conditions
cause persistant
inflammation of the bronchial linings which can eventually make breathing difficult. Chronic
bronchitis and asthma are caused by particulate matter, oxides and acids of sulfur and
nitrogen. Two conditions that are much more serious and can ultimately develop as a result
of exposure to air pollutants are emphysema and lung cancer. Nonsmokers that live in cities
are 3-4 times more likely to develop lung cancer than nonsmokers in rural areas.
To view an interactive production of the impact that air pollution has on your lungs click on
the image above. After accessing the website click on the link "view an interactive
production" directly under the image on the page.
Indoor Air Pollution
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Due to improvements in
building techniques and
insulation as well as an
increase in the number of
chemicals used in the
manufacturing process
indoor air pollution can
sometimes be worse than
outdoor pollution. Indoor air
pollution comes from plastics
and other industrial pollutants
found in carpets, building
materials, paints, cleaning
products, and furniture (just
to name a few sources). A
condition referred to as sickbuilding syndrome occurs in
buildings with particularly
poor air quality. The best
strategy for preventing sick building syndrome is to ventilate buildings well. Radon gas is
another significant source of indoor air pollution. Radon gas is generally most concentrated
in porous soils overlying rocks that contain uranium and can lead to cancer. Smokers who
are regularly exposed to radon gas are at a particularly high risk of developing lung cancer
as a result of a synergistic relationship. Another example of two factors that have a
synergistic relationship are asbestos and smoking.
The image on the left illustrates the various sources from which indoor air pollution can
originate.
Acid Precipitation
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Acid precipitation is highly acidic precipitation that results from the burning of fossil fuels.
When fossil fuels are burned sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides are released into the
atmosphere. These compounds then come into contact with atmospheric oxygen and water
vapor and sulfuric acid and nitric acid are formed.
Acid precipitation causes a great deal of harm to ecosystems. First, it can kill aquatic plants,
fish and other animals. Acid precipitation causes aluminum to leach out of the soil. The
aluminum then accumulates on the gills of fish which causes them to slowly suffocate. Acid
shock results when large amounts of acidic water flows into rivers, lakes or ponds as a result
of snow or ice melting in warmer weather. Acid shock can kill entire populations of fish. In
order to offset the effects of the acid precipitation powdered lime can be added to smaller
bodies of fresh water. Unfortunately, often it is not possible to spread enough lime to offset
damage done to lakes.
Government Actions to Reduce Acid Precipitation

Acid precipitation is hard to control because it is a global problem. The Helsinki Declaration,
enacted in 1985, requires countries to cut sulfur oxide emissions by 30%. Although this was
a good idea in theory, the Helsinki Declaration was only signed by 18 nations and the U.S.
was not one of them. The Sophia Protocol, enacted in 1988, required a reduction in nitrogen
oxide emissions. The Sophia Protocol was initially signed by 27 nations and the U.S. was
not included among the original 27. The U.S. finally signed the Sophia Protocol in 1989.
Question for Thought:

Radon is a radioactive element. The symbol for radon is Rn and the atomic number is 86.
Radon is an extremely toxic, colorless gas. Radon comes from the radioactive decay of
radium and is used in cancer treatment; however, radon is also the second leading cause of
lung cancer in the United States.
Click on the links below to read and learn more about radon.
About Geology: http://geology.about.com/od/geophysics/a/aboutradon.htm
High Radon: http://eande.lbl.gov/IEP/high-radon/FAQ.htm
As you know, healthcare is a major political issue. You have been appointed to the
Presidential Advisory Board on Residential Housing. It is your job to determine if the threat of
radon poses a significant enough health risk to require all houses in the U.S. be tested and
treated if necessary. Provide a rationale for your opinion.
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The Atmosphere and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. The atmosphere is composed
of:
78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% water vapor, argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, and other gases
The atmosphere that now exists on Earth was slowly formed by living organisms. The
Earth's atmosphere did not always have enough oxygen to sustain life. Photosynthesis and
cellular respiration work together to keep CO2 levels constant. Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration are essentially the opposite of one another.
Layers of the Atmosphere

The earth's atmosphere is composed of five layers.
1. Troposphere: surface of Earth to 10 km above
surface, contains ~90% of all the Earth's gases,
where most weather occurs
2. Stratoshpere: 10 km above surface to 50 km
above surface, contains the ozone layer
3. Mesosphere: 50 km above surface to 80 km
above surface
4. Thermosphere: 80 km above surface to 500 km
above surface
5. Exosphere: >500 km above surface, merges with
outer space
To learn more about the layers of the atmosphere click on
the image to the right.
The Ozone Shield
Teachers' Domain, Ozone Hole, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 19, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.ozonehole/
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Ozone, the molecule that makes up the ozone layer, is made up of 3 oxygen atoms (O3).
The ozone layer absorbs most of the UV light from the sun. The first signs of the thinning
ozone layer over the South Pole appeared in 1979. By 1997 ozone levels over the Canadian
artic had decreased by 45%. This allows more UV light to hit the surface of the Earth which
can cause damage to all living organisms.
Thinning of the ozone layer is caused by substances that are reffered to as ozone eaters.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are one type of ozone eater because they break apart in the
Earth's stratosphere and destroy ozone molecules. Most developed countries have banned
the use of CFCs and a fund has been established to help developing countries switch to
CFC alternatives. In addition, many other substances that destroy the ozone have also been
banned.
You might be thinking to yourself...why can't ozone produced by pollution be used to repair
the ozone hole? This is because ozone is very chemically reactive so ozone produced by
pollution breaks down or combines with other substances long before it reaches the
stratosphere to replace ozone that is being destroyed.
The the image below represents the progressive growth of the hole in the ozone layer over
actarctica.
assignment entitled "Atmospheric Ozone Hole Tour."
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Weather and Climate
"Climate is what you expect. Weather is what you get."
-Mark Twain
The Difference Between Weather and Climate

Weather describes short-term changes in various factors in the troposphere such as amount
of sunlight, barometric pressure, cloud cover, precipitation, humidity, and temperature in a
given place at a given time. Climate, on the other hand, describes the long-term physical
characteristics of the troposphere in a given place. Climate is determined by analyzing
weather patterns over a long period of time. The two primary factors that are used to
describe the climate of a region are precipitation and temperature.
Factors that Influence Climate

There are five primary factors that affect climate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Latitude
Large Bodies of Water
Air Circulation Patterns
Altitude
Topography
Latitude and Climate
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Latitude, or distance from the equator, is one of the primary factors that affects the
temperature of a region, and therefore the climate. REMEMBER: climate is determined
primarily by precipitation and temperature.
Latitude has a large impact on solar insolation because as latitude increases the angle of
incidence decreases. The planet is categorized into three climate zones according to
latitude.
1. Tropical zone: occurs between 23.5 south latitude and 23.5 north latitude forming a
belt around the earth just above and below the equator. On the equator the angle of
incidence is 90 as the sun is perpendicular to the surface of the earth. Therefore, the
tropical zone remains warm year round with very little seasonal variation.
2. Temperate zone: occurs between 23.5 and 66.5 north and south latitude forming
two belts, one north of the equator and one south of the equator. In this zone the
average angle of incidence is approximately 45. Although temperature remains
relatively moderate in this zone there are definite seasonal variations between
summer and winter.
3. Polar zone: occurs from 66.5north to the North Pole and from 66.5south to the
South Pole. In this zone the average angle if incidence is approximately 15
Due to the tilt of the Earth's axis, the angle at which the sun's rays hit the surface of the
Earth change as the Earth orbits the sun.
Northern hemisphere: tilted away from the sun during the winter thereby receiving
less solar energy and tilted towards the sun during the summer months thereby
receiving more solar energy.
Southern hemisphere: tilted toward the sun during the winter thereby receiving more
solar energy and tilted away from the sun during the summer months thereby
receiving less solar energy.
Teachers' Domain, Global View of the Seasons, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 23, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.eiu.seawifs/
Large Bodies of Water and Climate
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Large bodies of water help to moderate the climate of the Earth for a number of reasons.
Water has a higher specific heat than land. Therefore, the temperature of water changes
much more slowly than the temperature of land. Large bodies of water continuously circulate
replacing warm water near the surface with cooler water from greater depths. Ocean current
temperatures have an impact on heat being absorbed and released by the air. For example,
the warm Gulf Stream current that travels north from the equator causes northwestern
Europe to have a high average temperature relative to the latitude of the region. Circulation
of ocean currents carries warm water from the equator to higher latitudes warming the air as
they move north and south toward the poles. The colder water from higher latitudes then
circulates back toward the equator cooling the air.
Air Circulation Patterns and Climate

There are three properties of air that lead to the impact of air circulation patterns on climate:
1. Warm air rises and cools as it rises
2. Cool air sinks and warms as it sinks
3. Warm air holds more water vapor than cold air
Differences in solar insolation at different latitudes result in areas of high and low pressure in
the troposphere. These variations in air pressure create wind currents that circulate solar
energy around the globe. At higher latitudes air is cool/cold and dense forming areas of high
pressure. At lower latitudes air is warm and less dense forming areas of low pressure.
Circulation of air currents has a large impact on weather conditions such as temperature,
cloud cover, and precipitation. In areas of low pressure air rises and cools causing water
vapor in the air to condense. Therefore, these regions receive a lot of precipitation. In the
region between about 20 and 30 degrees latitude dry air sinks and warms. Therefore, these
regions receive little precipitation. In regions between about 45 and 60 degrees latitude cold
air from the poles meets warm air from the equator. This causes water vapor in the warm air
to condense resulting in belts of precipitation in these regions. In areas of high pressure air
remains cold and dry. Therefore, these regions receive little precipitation.
Teachers' Domain, Ocean Temperatures and Climate Patterns, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 19, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.oceancur/
Altitude and Climate

Altitude has an impact on climate as a result of the three distinct properties of air. Since air
cools as it rises and warms as it sinks areas at higher altitudes are colder than areas at
lower altitudes. In addition, since warm air holds more water vapor than cold air the air at
high altitudes is normally very dry and there is little to no precipitation.
Topography and Climate

Topographical features such as mountain ranges can have an impact on climate by
influencing how air masses travel and the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed or
reflected.
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assignment entitled "LAB: Angle of Incidence and Solar Insolation." After completing this lab
you will write a formal lab report using the format explained in the introductory unit of this
course.
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
Natural Processes that Change Climate
Climate is continuously changing and there are a number of natural processes that change
climate such as volcanic eruptions, ocean circulation, plate tectonics, earth's orbital motions,
and solar activity. Volcanoes emit ash, dust, and sulfur, which are often referred to as
aerosols, into the atmosphere. This affects the amount of sunlight reflected back into space,
which can cause the earth's temperatures to fluctuate. Changes in the ocean's water
currents can cause short-term climate variations. The moving of plate tectonics can have
long term effects on climate. Mountains forming as a result of movement of the tectonic
plates cool the climate by removing carbon dioxide from the air. The Earth's orbit as well as
the earth's tilt change over time which can also have an effect on global climate. The Earth's
orbit rotates between being more and less elliptical. This affects the distance from the sun,
which then changes climate. On average, the amount of solar radiation given off by the sun
increases over time. The presence or absence of sunspots can have a short term impact on
climate.
Teachers' Domain, Earth System: El Nio, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 19, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.eselnino/
Maintenance of Global Climate

Global climate is largely maintained by the greenhouse effect. The Greenhouse Effect is a
natural process in which solar radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
thereby warming the Earth's atmosphere and surface. To further explore the greenhouse
effect click on the following links.
EPA: Climate Change and the Greenhouse Effect
Earthguide Animation: The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
Absorption of small quantities of radiation is good, because it provides the warmth needed
on Earth for living organisms to survive. Without the greenhouse effect the average
temperature of the earth would be between -15C and -20 C. If greenhouse gases absorb
too much radiation the result is an acceleration or enhancement of the greenhouse effect
which could cause an increase in the average temperature of the earth.
Teachers' Domain, Global Warming: Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 19,
2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/phy03.sci.ess.watcyc.co2/
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Human Impacts on Global Climate: Global Warming
Global warming is an increase in average global temperatures as a result of an increase in

the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities. Since the
industrial revolution scientists have seen a drastic increase in the concentrations of many
greenhouses, most notably CO2 and CH4. Scientists make predictions about future effects of
global warming by using climate models. Climate models are complex computer programs
that include temperature, precipitation, as well as other variables affecting temperature.
Climate models are simply an estimate, because scientists couldn't possibly include all
information.
Global warming is a self-perpetuating cycle. This means that once it has begun it is very
difficult to stop or even slow down. Warmer land surface area causes higher evaporation,
which then causes an increase of water vapor. In addition, warmer land surface area causes
an increase in air temperature. Higher air temperatures also cause ice caps to melt, which
then causes more solar radiation to reach the Earth. In addition, warmer air temperatures
cause an increase in the average temperature of large bodies of water. This accelerates the
melting of glacial ice. The melting of ice caps and glaciers leads to further warming of air and
ocean temperatures.....
Mineral and Energy Resources
Essential Questions and Introduction

Essential Questions
1. What are the four main types of ore mineral resources?
2. How can mineral resources be categorized according to their availability and
usefulness?
3. When would surface mining be most appropriately used for mineral extraction?
Subsurface mining?
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4. What are some methods of surface and subsurface mining?

5. How does mining impact the environment?
6. Are there any methods of mineral extraction that are environmentally better than the
others? Why or why not?
7. In our society do we rely more heavily on renewable or nonrenewable resources?
8. List and describe four examples of nonrenewable resources.
9. List and describe five examples of renewable resources.
10. How are solid wastes different from hazardous wastes? How are they similar?
11. Describe the criteria that are used to determine is a substance should be classified
as a hazardous waste?
12. How are municipal wastes different from wastes from mining, manufacturing, and
agriculture?
13. How are solid wastes disposed of?
14. How are hazardous wastes disposed of?
Introduction
This module will explore various types of mineral resources that humans use, how those
mineral resources are formed, methods that are used to extract and refine mineral
resources, and the effect that extraction of mineral resources has on the environment. In
addition, this module presents an in depth look at both nonrenewable and renewable energy
resources that humans rely on to meet daily energy needs and the environmental impact of
practices that are currently used to meet global energy demand. We will discuss the types of
energy resources that are most widely used today and alternative energy sources that may
be further developed to better meet future energy demands. Finally, this module covers the
two main categories of waste generated by our society, what distinguishes the two main
types from one another, and common waste management strategies.
Mineral Resources
Mineral Resources on Earth
Teachers' Domain, Minerals in Our Environment, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on April 8, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.mineralenv/
The earth's crust is made of up a variety of solid inorganic compounds and elements that
humans often use as resources. These elements and compounds are referred to as
minerals. All minerals that are valuable to humans and therefore economically desirable for
extraction are collectively called ore minerals. There are four main types of ore mineral
resources:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fossil fuels
Nonmetallic minerals
Metallic minerals
Minerals that are composed of a combination of metallic and nonmetallic
Mineral resources can also be organized into four main categories:

1. Identified resources
2. Reserves
3. Undiscovered reserves
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4. Other resources
Formation of Mineral Deposits

One way that mineral resources can be formed is as a result of igneous processes. Igneous
rock processes produce important metallic minerals such as gold, silver, copper, mercury,
lead, platinum, and nickel as well as chromite, magnetite, and platinum. Mineral deposits can
also form as a result of the movement of hydrothermal solutions. Hydrothermal solutions
consist of hot water under the surface of the earth that contains dissolved minerals. As
magma cools it collects near the top of the magma chamber. Some of the fluid then moves
into fractures in rocks filling the fractures. As the mineral containing solution solidifies within
the fractures it forms ore deposits called veins. Gold, silver, and mercury can be formed by
hydrothermal solutions. Placer deposits are another source of mineral resources. Placer
deposits form when eroded heavy minerals settle away from moving water while less dense
materials remain in the water. Some of the most common sites of placer deposits are bends
of streams, cracks, and depressions. The last main source of mineral resources is referred
to as an evaporite. As flowing surface waters move across land they pick up salts that
dissolve and are eventually carried to oceans or lakes. As the water in these bodies of water
evaporates, the salt evaporites are left behind. Some examples of evaporite minerals are
halite and gypsum.
Extraction of Mineral Deposits

Although mineral resources can be extracted using a multitude of different techniques there
are two main categories of mining practices: surface mining and subsurface mining.
Surface mining practices are responsible for the extraction of approximately 90% of non-fuel
mineral resources and 60% of the coal that is currently mined in the United States. In this
type of mining overburden is removed and discarded as a waste product. Surface mining is
usually done in one of four different ways:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Open-pit mining
Strip mining
Contour strip mining
Mountaintop removal
Subsurface mining practices are used when mineral resources are far below the surface of
the earth. The most common method of subsurface mining is referred to as room and pillar
mining. This type of mining involves cutting networks of open areas (or rooms) into
horizontal layers of coal. The roof of the mine is supported by solid pillars of coal that are left
in place for structural stability. Another method, called solution mining, can be used for
subsurface mineral resources that are soluble in water. In solution mining hot water is forced
into the ore followed by compressed air. The air causes the solution of hot water and
dissolved mineral ores to rise to the surface.
The processes of extracting, refining, and using mineral resources have profoundly negative
impacts on the environment. Mining leaves the land scarred and disrupts or even destroys
ecosystems. In addition, wastes that are generated in the process or producing the end
product contain toxins that are carried to both surface and ground water supplies as well as
emitted into the atmosphere. Although subsurface mining disturbs considerable less land
than does surface mining and produces less waste, it is also far more dangerous and
expensive. In an attempt to lessen the negative impact that mining has on the environment
the federal government passed the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.
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This requires mining companies that operate in the United States to reclaim most surfacemined land.
Questions for Thought:

Use the flash interactive "Minerals in Our Environent" on the lesson content page to
answer the following questions:
1. What is the most common mineral/material found in items in the bathroom? Did this surprise
you? Find five additional products in your home or school that are made using this mineral?
2. How many minerals are required to make a computer? Why do you think this is?
3. What is the most common mineral/material found in items in the kitchen? Did this surprise
you? Find five additional products in your home or school that are made using this mineral?
4. Contemplate the amount of mining and drilling that is required in order to provide all of these
minerals that are commonly found in our environment? What does this tell you about the
mining industry?
Answer all of the above questions in complete sentences.
Nonrenewable Energy
Teachers' Domain, Snapshot of US Energy Use, published September 26, 2003, retrieved on April 8, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.eco.energyuse/
Types of Energy Resources

There are two
types of energy
resources:
renewable and
nonrenewable
resources.
Renewable
resources are
resources that can
be replenished
over fairly short
amounts of time.
Nonrenewable
resources, on the
other hand, are resources that take millions or billions of years to be replenished. The
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energy that we use every day in the course of our daily lives can be generated using
renewable resources or nonrenewable resources. Currently, the vast majority of energy is
generated using nonrenewable resources. There are two main types of nonrenewable
energy: energy that comes from the burning of fossil fuels and nuclear energy.
Energy From Fossil Fuels

Fossil Fuels are
hydrocarbons that
have been formed
from the organic
remains of
prehistoric plants
and animals and can
be used as a source
of energy. The three
types of fossil fuels
are coal, oil, and
natural gas.
Coal
Coal is a solid fossil
fuel that forms when
plant materials are
transformed over
millions of years by heat and pressure. Coal is mostly carbon with small amounts of sulfur
and mercury.
Coal goes through four stages of development becoming harder and denser with each
stage:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Peat
Lignite
Bituminous coal
Anthracite
Coal is the world's most abundant fossil fuel but it is not as versatile as oil and natural gas.
Given current consumption rates there is enough coal in China and the U.S. to last
approximately 300 years. Coal produces about half of the electricity in the U.S. but the
burning of coal has a severe environmental impact.
Coal is extracted from underground mines which is detrimental to the environment and is
very dangerous for the miners. Burning coal pollutes the air with sulfur oxide, which in turn
causes sulfuric acid to eventually fall to the ground in the form of acid precipitation. In
addition, the burning of coal produces large amounts of carbon dioxide. Currently, over onethird of annual CO2 emitted globally comes from the burning of coal.
Natural Gas
Natural Gas is formed from plants and animals that were buried deep within the ocean floor.
Natural gas is often found above crude oil reservoirs and is composed primarily of methane.
Although natural gas is a valuable energy resource, it is often wasted when it is burned off
as a by-product of oil drilling. Roughly 20% of the natural gas used in the U.S. is imported,
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primarily from Canada. Natural gas is a versatile fossil fuel which could be used in fuel
powered vehicles in place of gasoline with some engine modifications. When burned, natural
gas produces less CO2 per unit of energy than either oil or coal. Since natural gas is still
relatively abundant it is likely that use of natural gas will increase. Given current
consumption rates scientists estimate that present supplies of natural gas should last the
world approximately 200 years.
Oil
Oil is a highly
viscous liquid
that can be
separated into oil
for heating,
gasoline, and
asphalt. There
are three
geological
processes that
ultimately led to
the existence of
oil:
1. Organic
materials
were
buried by
sediments faster than they were able to decay.

2. Sea floors containing these sediments were subjected to the right amount of
pressure and heat to turn the organic material into oil.
3. Over time, oil collected in porous limestone or sandstone and was capped off by
shale or silt which kept it from escaping.
Although oil is a very versatile fossil fuel: when it is burned CO2 is released into the
atmosphere which contributes to global warming. The U.S. is the world's largest user of oil
using approximately 25% of all oil extracted annually. The U.S. imports over 60% of all oil
used and many scientists predict that by 2020 we will be importing 70-80% of oil used in this
country. Geologists have not reached an agreement on how much oil has not yet been
discovered and how much oil remains in current reserves. Although scientists do not know
how much oil remains, our presently known reserves are becoming economically depleted.
Tar Sands and Oil Shale are thought to one day make a great substitute for crude oil and
natural gases. Tar Sands are mixtures of clay and sand with water as well as tar called
bitumen. Deposits of tar sands can occur in sands, sandstones, shales, and limestone.
Mining tar sand has considerable environmental effects. It requires large amounts of water
as well as land. The contaminated water is then released back into bodies of water. Oil
Shale is a rock which contains a mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen. The oil shale can
be mined and heated to release kerogen, which is used to remove impurities and then
refined.
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Nuclear Energy
Teachers' Domain, Nuclear Reaction: Fission, published February 20, 2004, retrieved on April 8, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/phy03.sci.phys.energy.fission/
Nuclear energy is generated when atomic nuclei undergo some type of nuclear reaction.
There are two kinds of nuclear processes:
1. Nuclear fission
2. Nuclear fusion
In short, fission is the splitting and fusion is the fusing of the nuclei of atoms.
Currently, the process of nuclear fusion cannot be used to generate nuclear energy,
therefore, nuclear fission reactions are used. Most nuclear power generation occurs in
fission reactors using uranium-235 (U-235) as a fuel source. Before it can be used uranium
must first be mined and refined. Only about 0.7% of uranium ore is uranium-235. The rest,
about 99%, is uranium-238 (U-238) which cannot be used to generated nuclear energy. In
processing facilities the uranium-235 is concentrated in uranium fuel pellets to a final
concentration of about 3%, which makes fission possible.
Light-Water Reactors
Currently, a type of nuclear reactor called light-water reactors (LWR) are used to generate
about 85% of the world's nuclear generated electricity. In this process, refined uranium fuel
pellets are packed into fuel rods which are then packaged into a fuel assembly in the reactor
core. A material called a moderator that is capable of absorbing neutrons emitted by the
fission process is used to keep the reaction going. The reaction is also controlled by raising
and lowering control rods to block the neutrons. There is an enormous amount of heat
generated. The heat is used to produce steam that turns turbines, thereby generating
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energy. This steam must be condensed back into water, and this is accomplished with
cooling water drawn from a nearby source. The cooling water leaves the reactor as hot
water, and is then either evaporated or discharged directly back into the source. As the fuel
in the rods decays, the concentration of uranium-235 declines, and the concentrations of
other dangerous radioisotopes rises. The waste products include radioisotopes of plutonium,
iodine and strontium.
Breeder Reactors
Breeder reactors are designed to produce more nuclear fuel than they consume by
converting nonfissionable uranium-235 into fissionable plutonium-239. The major benefit of
breeder reactors is that they offer a means of extending our supplies of uranium that can be
used for nuclear energy because they enable us to use more than 99% of the uranium in ore
deposits rather than only the small fraction of uranium-235. The prevailing concern involved
with the use of breeder reactors is that if there is a failure in one of the safety mechanisms of
the reactor liquid sodium coolant could be lost. Since liquid sodium is extremely combustible
when exposed to both air and water, the end result could be an out of control fission reaction
that might cause the containment building to explode releasing large amounts of radioactive
material into the atmosphere.
What happens to nuclear waste? To find out the answer to that question click on the
following link: The Problem of Nuclear Waste
To learn more about energy and the various forms of nonrenewable forms of energy click on
the following link: Energy Kid's Page
assignment entitled "Personal Energy Use Audit." After completing this activity you will
upload your data table, calculations, and summary to the dropbox entitled "Personal Energy
Use Audit."
Then, you will complete the alternative assignment "Nuclear Power Plant Tour."
Renewable and Alternative Energy
Types of Renewable Energy Resources
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Although the vast

majority of energy
used today is
generated using
nonrenewable
resources there are
also a wide variety
of renewableenergy resources
available. Their
development and
use to this point
has been impeded
by lack of
government support and lack of incentive for major manufacturers. As fuel prices continue to
rise, however, and fuel resources become increasingly depleted more emphasis is being
placed on the development and practical means of generating a greater percentage of our
energy using renewable energy resources. Presently, there are five main sources of
renewable energy: the sun, water, geothermal energy, biomass, and wind.
Solar Energy
One of the most efficient means by which energy from the sun can be used to generate
electricity is by using solar cells that convert sunlight directly to electricity. Within the solar
cell, also called a photovoltaic cell there exists materials that are classified as
semiconductors. When solar energy strikes the PV cell it causes electrons to be released.
These electrons then begin to flow which results in an electrical current. Solar cells can be
mounted on roofs or even incorporated into roofs or windows and banks of solar cells can be
used to generate enough electricity to easily power a home and can sometimes even
generate excess energy that can be sold back to power companies. Currently, solar cells
supply less than 1% of the worlds energy. This is due, in large part, to the high cost
associated with purchasing and installing solar panes. Their high costs, however, are
expected to decline and some scientists anticipate that by 2040 solar cells could supply as
much as 25% of the world's energy.
Teachers' Domain, Solar Paint Your Roof, published September 9, 2008, retrieved on April 8, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/oer08.sci.phys.energy.solarpaint/
Energy from Water

\Water can be used as a means of producing energy by using naturally flowing sources of
water to spin turbines in order to generate electricity. Large-scale facilities that utilize this
technology are referred to as hydroelectric power plants. These plants usually use high
dams placed across a large river in order to create a reservoir. Water is then released as
needed in order to turn the turbines that generate electricity. The major advantages of this
method are that mining is not required and fossil fuels are not burned. There are, however,
disadvantages of this method as well, the most notable of which is that a dam must be built.
When dams are used to create reservoirs the ecosystem that is flooded by the reservoir is
destroyed. In 2004 approximately 20% of the world's energy was supplied by hydropower.
Geothermal Energy
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Geothermal energy is defined as energy that is stored in the earth's mantle. This type of
energy can be used to produce electricity as well as to heat and cool homes. The energy is
harnessed via a geothermal heat pump system in which pipes and ducts transfer heat that is
stored underground. In the summer the earth can be used as a heat sink to store heat
thereby cooling homes and in the winter the earth can be used as a heat source. Currently,
the United States is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the world.
To learn more about geothermal energy click on the following link: U.S. Department of
Energy Geothermal Technologies Program
Biomass
Biomass, in regard to the production of energy, refers primarily to plant materials and animal
wastes. These substances can be burned for the purpose of providing heat or electricity and
can also be converted into various types of biofuels. Presently, the majority of biomass that
is utilized for energy production is burned for heating and cooking. The use of biofuels to
operate motor vehicles is becoming increasingly widespread, however, there is some
controversy about whether this practice is a viable alternative to the use of fossil fuels given
the negative environmental impact of agriculture.
Energy from Wind

Teachers' Domain, Windmill Gallery, published February 20, 2004, retrieved on April 8, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/phy03.sci.phys.matter.wind/
Wind power is arguably the world's best alternative energy source because it is abundantly
available, cannot be used up, is cheap, and produces clean energy. According to the U.S.
Department of Energy the Great Plains states, alone, could produce enough energy to meet
the energy needs of the entire nation.
To learn more about energy and the various forms of renewable energy click on the following
link: Energy Kid's Page
assignment entitled "Alternative Energy Lab." After completing this lab you will write a formal
lab report using the format explained in the introductory unit of this course.
Solid and Hazardous Waste
Types of Waste
328
Our society produces many different types of wastes that must be disposed of properly.
Waste products can be classified into one of two categories:
1. Solid Waste
2. Hazardous Waste
Solid Waste
The United States alone generates in excess
of 10 billion metric tons of waste every year.
Solid wastes included everything from food
and beverage containers, to discarded paper,
to junk cars. There are two main categories
of solid wastes:
1. Biodegradable solid wastes: Most
natural substances, such as plant and
animal matter, are biodegradable.
2. Nonbiodegradable solid wastes: Most
synthetic substances, such as plastic,
are not biodegradable.
In addition to the two categories of solid
wastes there are two different categories of
solid wastes:
1. Municipal solid wastes: The majority
of the waste that we dispose of on a day to day basis is considered to be municipal
solid waste butmunicipal solid wastes only accounts for about 2% of the solid
waste in the United States.
2. Solid waste from mining, manufacturing, and agriculture: Most of the solid waste
produced in the United States is produced as a byproduct of mining, manufacturing,
or agriculture. Although people do not directly produce these types of waste they
contribute to the waste production when they buy the products of mining,
manufacturing, and agriculture.
Disposal of Solid Wastes
329
Solid
wastes are
disposed
of in
landfills
and via
incineration. In landfills, wastes are dumped in holes in the ground and covered over
regularly with layers of soil, plastic, or both. Landfills must be carefully designed in such a
way that they can permanently contain wastes so that they do not contaminate the
surrounding environment. One major environmental concern surrounding the disposal of
wastes in landfills is the formation of leachate which can accumulate at the bottom of a
landfill and can potentially leak into the surrounding environment. Most landfills have
systems in place that monitor the formation of and concentration of leachate but if incorrectly
monitored the leachate can contaminate soil and local water supplies. An alternative to the
use of landfills is to incinerate solid waste. Although this practice does reduce the amount of
solid waste that is sent to landfills, the law of conservation of matter tells us that matter
cannot be destroyed. Therefore, the solid waste is simply being converted into different
forms when it is incinerated. In addition, since materials that should not be incinerated (such
as paint and batteries) are not easily separated from those that can be safely incinerated the
process can result in the formation of toxic gases that are emitted into the atmosphere.
Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste is defined as any solid, liquid, or gas that meets any of the following
criteria:
1. Is combustible or is capable of releasing toxic fumes
2. Easily catches fire
3. Contains one or more of 39 toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic
substances in concentrations above previously established acceptable limits.
4. Is corrosive.
This definition, however, excludes a number of substances including radioactive materials,
household wastes, mining wastes, oil- and gas-drilling wastes, liquids containing organic
hydrocarbons, kiln dust produced when hazardous wastes are incinerated, and any wastes
from small businesses and factories that produce less than 220 pounds per month. Due to
330
the above exclusions, only about 6% of the 6 billion tons (23 tons/person) of hazardous
waste generated each year in the U.S. is regulated by hazardous waste laws.
To learn more about household products that are classified as hazardous wastes click on the
following link: Household Hazardous Wastes
United States Hazardous Waste Regulations
The Resource and Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA) was passed in 1976 and amended in
1984. This act requires EPA to identify hazardous wastes and to establish standards for the
management of these wastes. The RCRA also requires permits for all companies handling
more than 220 pounds/month of waste as well as "cradle-to-grave" monitoring.
Unfortunately, the money to fund this oversight is limited and there is lack of sufficient
personnel to oversee the 750,000 waste producers and 15,000 haulers and disposers. In
addition, violators are frequently not prosecuted or punished in any meaningful way.
The Superfund Act was passed in 1980 and amended in 1986 and 1990. The actual name of
this act is the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA). It established a fund to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites,
86% of which is provided by taxes on hazardous waste producers. The CERCLA is based on
the principle that the polluter should pay but this principal only works if the polluter can be
identified, forced to pay, and has the funds to do so. Otherwise, money from the Superfund
is used.
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Disposal of Hazardous Wastes

Hazardous waste requires special handling. If the hazardous waste is a liquid it may be
forced into deep wells below groundwater in hopes that the dry porous rock will store liquids
indefinitely and isolate it from groundwater and the surface. Although there are major
concerns about the possible long-term consequences of this disposal method it has become
the method of choice for disposal of liquid hazardous wastes.
Solid hazardous wastes may be stored in surface impoundments. These are supposed to be
sealed on the bottom with a plastic liner to prevent leaks but the majority of them either leak
or do not have proper liners. About 5% of U.S. hazardous waste is concentrated and stored
in drums that are stored in special landfills.
The main problem with many of these techniques is that when problems arise, the operators
declare bankruptcy and federal or state governments are then responsible for operations
and clean up. One suggestion is to store wastes in specially designed containment buildings.
These would be constructed at the local level, reducing the long distance transport of the
waste and the possibility of accidents.
Ecosystems
Essential Questions/Introduction:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What are the primary components of ecosystems?

How do autotrophs obtain energy?
How do heterotrophs obtain energy?
What is the structure of organisms within any given ecosystem?
How are a niche and a habitat different? How are the similar?
What are the five categories of species interactions? Describe them.
Who initially proposed the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection?
What are the five general rules that govern the process of evolution by natural
selection?
9. What is meant by the phrase "survival of the fittest?"
10. What do food webs, food chains, and trophic level pyramids tell us?
11. Why are food webs generally thought to be more accurate than food chains?
12. How is the second law of thermodynamics represented by trophic level pyramids?
13. How does matter cycle through ecosystems?
14. What are the primary process by which matter cycles through ecosystems?
15. What process describes a gradual change in the composition of species in a given
area? Describe this process.
Introduction:
Ecology is the study of the interaction between organisms and their environment. This
module offers an in depth study of the fundamental components of ecosystems. In this
module you have the opportunity to learn about both the biological and physical components
332
of ecosystems, the structure of organisms within ecosystems, and how organisms interact
with one another. In addition, you will cover the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection and
the rules that govern this process. Finally, you will have the opportunity to learn how matter
is continuously cycled through ecosystems via the biogeochemical cycles and how
ecosystems change over time through the process of succession.
Ecosystems: Major Components
What is an Ecosystem?
Ecosystems consist of all the different organisms living in a specific area, along with their
physical environment. Ecosystems usually do not have clear boundaries, but rather they
overlap one another to varying degrees. Terrestrial ecosystems are classified as biomes
according to their climate and the types of organisms which inhabit them. Aquatic biomes,
such as marine and freshwater life zones, describe the many different areas found in aquatic
environments.
Major Components of Ecosystems

All ecosystems are composed of biotic and abiotic factors. These are the major components
of any given ecosystem. The biotic factors are all the living parts of an ecosystem. The
abiotic factors are all the nonliving parts of an ecosystem. Look at the images to the right.
Which of them are biotic? Which are abiotic? Now, roll your cursor over the image to check
your answers.
Biological Components of Ecosystems

The major biological components of ecosystems are the autotrophs that are self-feeders and
the heterotrophs. Autotrophs make their own food from compounds in the environment. Most
autotrophs use sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates (glucose) and oxygen,
a process called photosynthesis. A few specialized producers can convert simple
compounds to more complex compounds without sunlight, a process called chemosynthesis.
The most notable example of chemosynthesis occurs in deep ocean ecosystems ~ areas
near the bottom of the ocean that have life even though the sun doesn't reach them. In this
ecosystem there is bacteria that makes food from hydrogen sulfide (which comes from the
water that escapes from hydrothermal vents in the ocean floor). Heterotrophs feed on other
organisms or their remains in order to obtain energy.
To learn more about photosynthesis click on the "Photosynthesis" link in the sidebar to the
left to view a short video.
To learn more about chemosynthesis click on the "Chemosynthesis and Vent Life" link in the
sidebar to the left to view a short video.
To further explore all of the components of ecosystems click "begin" below to explore this
interactive activity about ecosystems.
Teachers' Domain, Analyzing an Ecosystem, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on January 16, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.oate.ecosystem/
Structure of Ecosystems
333
Within ecosystems all living things are organized into categories based upon their genetic
similarities and how they coexist with one another. From most specific to most general those
categories are: organisms, species, populations, and communities.
1. An organism is one individual living thing. The cell is the basic unit of life in
organisms. Organisms are classified as either eukaryotic or prokaryotic based on the
presence or absence of a membrane-bound nucleus.
2. A species is a group of organisms that are able to produce fertile offspring and that
share common genes and therefore share some resemblance to one another.
3. A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place.
4. A community is a group of interacting populations of different species. A community
is made up of all of the living inhabitants of an ecosystem.
5. Finally, an ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with each other
and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy. All of the earth's diverse
ecosystems comprise the biosphere.
The Range of Tolerance of Ecosystems

All of the individual populations within an ecosystem have a specific range of tolerance to
physical and chemical factors within the ecosystem. The distribution of the organisms,
species, and populations within an ecosystem are governed by the law of tolerance. The law
of tolerance states that the distribution of a species in an ecosystem is determined by the
levels of one or more physical or chemical factors being within the range tolerated by that
species. In addition, most species in ecosystems have a particular limiting factor. The
limiting factor principle states that too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or
prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimum range of
tolerance.
To learn more about the range of tolerance of organisms click on the "Range of Tolerance"
link in the sidebar to the right.
Niche and Habitat

All living things in ecosystems have both a niche and a habitat. An ecological niche is a
species' way of life in an ecosystem, everything that affects its survival and reproduction.
The niche includes all of its relationships with its environment, the characteristics of the
organism's lifestyle, and how it contributes to and fits into its environment. Each species has
both a fundamental niche and a realized niche. The fundamental niche is the full potential
range of conditions and resources a species could use if there were no interactions with
other organisms. Its realized niche is the part of the potential niche that allows a species to
survive and avoid competition with other species and organisms for the same resources. An
organism's niche is NOT the same as the organism's habitat. The habitat is simply the
physical location where a species lives.
assignment entitled "Building a Virtual Ecosystem Lab." After completing this lab you will
write a formal lab report using the format explained in the introductory unit of this course.
334
Species Interactions
To explore how various species interact with one another in the Dzangha-Sangha Rain
Forest click "connect the dots" below.
Teachers' Domain, Biodiversity in the Dzangha-Sangha Rain Forest, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on January 16, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.oate.biodiversity/
Types of Species Interactions

There are five major types of species interactions: predation, competition, parasitism,
mutualism, and commensalism.
Predation
In predation one organism kills and eats another organism. In this species interaction one
organism plays the role of the prey species while one organism plays the role of the predator
species. Predators often target young or weak prey. Predators play a very important role in
ecosystems because they limit the size of prey populations. Therefore, a decrease in the
population of predators leads to an increase in the population of prey. This is one reason
that some types of hunting have become a necessary means of population control.
Competition
Competition occurs when two or more organisms of the same or different species attempt to
use the same limited resource. Competing species do not necessarily have to come in direct
contact with one another in order for competition to occur. An example of competition
between species without any direct contact occurs with large predatory birds. Owls and
hawks both hunt primarily rodents, therefore they are competing for the same general
resource. However, owls are nocturnal hunters while hawks are diurnal hunters.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is
harmed. Parasitism involves the interaction between a parasite and a host.
Mutualism
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Mutualism is a cooperative partnership between two species in which both species benefit.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship in which one species benefits and the other is neither
harmed nor helped.
The Theory of Evolution By Natural Selection
Due to the fact that all species change over time the Theory of Evolution is a fundamental
aspect of the study of modern biology as well as any other discipline of science that
integrates the key principles and concepts of modern biology. So, let us begin by exploring
what is meant by the term "theory" in science. Click on the picture of Charles Darwin below
to go to the American Museum of Natural History website to learn more about scientific
theories and The Theory of Evolution.
Evolution
Evolution is the gradual
change in the genetic
makeup of a population
over time. Populations
evolve by becoming
genetically different. The
Theory of Evolution states
that all species descend
from earlier, ancestral
species. Evolution of
species occurs as a direct
result of the following four
conditions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Members of a population differ from each other in form, physiology, and behavior.
The environment exerts a strong influence over which individuals have offspring.
Some individuals are more likely to survive and produce offspring.
Over many generations natural selection causes the characteristics of populations to
change.
Microevolution
The type of evolution that can be observed over a relatively short amount of time is termed
microevolution. This occurs because over time, a population's gene pool changes when
mutations in DNA molecules are passed on to offspring. Only mutations in reproductive cells
are passed to offspring. There may be several different forms of a single gene. These
mutations occur because sexual reproduction leads to random recombination of alleles in a
gene pool. Over a period of time a population develops genetic variability brought about by
mutations.
Mutations can occur in two ways:
336
1. Mutations can occur when the DNA of a germ cell is exposed to external agents like
X rays, chemicals (mutagens), or radioactivity.
2. Mutations can also occur when random mistakes occur in coded genetic instructions
during formation of a germ cell or during embryonic development.
Evolution by Natural Selection

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection in 1859. Natural selection describes
the unequal survival and reproduction that results from the presence or absence of particular
traits. According to Darwin evolution occurs through the process of natural selection. There
are five general rules that govern the process of evolution by natural selection.
1. All organisms have the ability to produce more offspring than can possibly survive.
2. The environment contains things that kill organisms. There is a "struggle for
existence" among organisms.
3. Individuals vary, or differ, in their traits. The variations must be inherited in order for
them to influence natural selection.
4. Some inherited traits give individuals an advantage in coping with environmental
challenges, allowing them to survive longer and produce more offspring.
5. Organisms with these traits are "naturally selected for."Because individuals with
advantageous traits have more offspring, each new generation contains a greater
proportion of the offspring with these traits than did the previous generation.
Adaptations
An adaptation is an inherited trait that increases an organism's chance of survival and
reproduction in a certain environment. Species evolve by developing adaptations that give
them a greater likelihood of survival and therefore reproduction. The more offspring an
individual can produce the more of that individual's genetic traits will be passed on to future
generations.
In the activity below design a fish that has the right adaptations, or traits, to help it survive in
a reef environment. Choose a body, mouth, and color/pattern, then release your fish into the
ocean reef to search for food and evade predators. Steer your fish around the reef to see
how well it survives with the traits that you gave it. Good luck!
Teachers' Domain, Build-a-Fish, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on January 19, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.evo.buildafish/
Coevolution
Coevolution is often observed between predators and prey. This occurs when two or more
species evolve in response to each other. One common example of coevolution has
occurred over time between the common garter snake and the rough-skinned newt. The
newt produces a very strong nerve toxin that is concentrated in the skin of the newt. The
garter snake, however, is immune to the effects of the nerve toxin. Over time, the
concentration of toxin in the skin of the newt has steadily increased. Simultaneously, the
snake has developed a greater and greater tolerance to the toxin. Therefore, the two species
(predator and prey) have evolved in response to one another.
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Extinction
If a species ceases to evolve and adapt to ever changing environmental conditions the
species may become extinct. Extinction is the irreversible disappearance of a population or a
species.
assignment entitled "Peppered Moth Simulation." After completing this lab you will write a
formal lab report using the format explained in the introductory unit of this course.
Flow of Energy in Ecosystems
See the interactive activity below for an illustration of how energy flows through ecosystems.
Teachers' Domain, Energy Flow, published September 26, 2003, retrieved on January 20,
2009,http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.oate.energyflow/
The Ultimate Source of Energy

Life on earth depends on the sun as the ultimate source of energy. in some way or another
almost all organisms get their energy from the sun.
What Eats What?

As was previously mentioned, all organisms can be categorized as either producers or
consumers. A producer is an organism that makes its own food. Most producers get their
energy directly from the sun. Consumers are organisms that get their energy by eating other
organisms. Consumers get energy indirectly from the sun. There are five different categories
of consumers.
1. Herbivores are consumers that feed only on plants. Herbivores are also called
primary consumers.
2. Omnivores are consumers that feed on both plants and other consumers. Omnivores
can also be called secondary consumers.
3. Carnivores are consumers that feed only on other consumers. Carnivores are also
called tertiary consumers.
4. Decomposers are consumers that get their food by breaking down dead organisms
into simpler inorganic compounds, causing them to rot.
5. Detritivores are consumers that feed on dead organic detritus and break it down into
smaller molecules.
Producers Photosynthesize...What Do Consumers Do?
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Just like producers, consumers undergo a metabolic process to produce energy. This is
called cellular respiration and it is the process of breaking down the food consumers eat into
energy. Some of the energy obtained through this process is used during daily activities and
some is used to make more body tissue.
Energy Transfer
Energy transfer occurs
any time an organism
eats another organism.
We can use food chains,
food webs, and trophic
levels to trace the paths
that energy follows as it
travels through an
ecosystem. Food chains,
food webs, and trophic
levels help us understand
how eaters, the eaten,
and the decomposed are
interconnected in an
ecosystem. Food webs
are complex networks of
interconnected food
chains. They are maps of
life's interdependence.
Energy flow in a food
web/chain decreases at
each succeeding
organism in a chain or
web.
Trophic levels are as follows:

o Producers belong to the first trophic level.
o Primary consumers belong to the second trophic level.
o Secondary consumers belong to the third trophic level.
o Tertiary consumers belong to the third trophic level.
o Detritivores and decomposers process detritus from all trophic levels.
The dry weight of all organic matter within the organisms of a food chain/web is called
biomass. Ecological efficiency is the term that describes the percentage of usable energy
transferred as biomass from one trophic level to another and ranges from 2%40% with 10%
being typical. The pyramid of energy flow visualizes the loss of usable energy through a food
chain. Loss of usable energy occurs due to entropy within the system. The lower levels of
the trophic pyramid support more organisms. If people eat at a lower trophic level (fruits,
vegetables, grains directly consumed), Earth can support more people. There is a large loss
of energy between successive trophic levels. The greater number of trophic levels in a food
chain, the greater loss of usable energy. Energy loss results in fewer organisms at the higher
trophic levels and places a limit on the number of possible trophic levels in an ecosystem.
There is not enough energy to support higher trophic levels.
Teachers' Domain, Antarctic Food Web Game, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on January 20, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.eco.oceanfoodweb/
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See the resources in the sidebar to the left for more information about feeding relationships
and energy flow in ecosystems.
assignment entitled "Cats of Borneo."
Matter Cycling in Ecosystems
Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are global recycling systems that interconnect all organisms. In the
biogeochemical cycles nutrient atoms, ions, and molecules continuously cycle between air,
water, rock, soil, and living organisms. These cycles include the water, carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus, cycles. They are connected to chemical cycles of the past and the
future.
The Water Cycle
The water cycle is a the process by which water moves between the Earth's surface and the
atmosphere. The overall amount of water on Earth stays roughly the same. The sun
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provides the energy that fuels the water cycle. Heat from the sun evaporates water from
lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, moist soil surfaces, plants, etc. Water vapor then cools in the
atmosphere it forms water droplet in clouds. When clouds meet cold air the water returns to
the Earth again in the form of precipitation. The precipitation may then evaporate again,
collect in bodies of water on the Earth's surface, or soak into the soil. Precipitation that
collects in bodies of water on the earth's surface is called surface water. Precipitation that
soaks into the soil is groundwater. The area of land where groundwater originates is called a
recharge zone. Groundwater ultimately accumulates in aquifers which are usually made up
of porous rock but can also sometimes be large caves. Plants also contribute to the water
cycle through a process called transpiration. Through this process plants take up water from
the soil. Any unused water then passes out of small holes in the plant's leaves, evaporates,
and becomes water vapor in the atmosphere.
The Carbon Cycle

In
the
carbon cycle, carbon continuously circulates throughout the biosphere. The carbon cycle is
broken down into a short-term cycle and a long-term cycle. In the short-term carbon cycle
plants convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. Organisms then eat the plants and obtain
some of the carbon from the carbohydrates. The carbon is then released back into the air as
carbon dioxide once the organisms break down the plant. In the long-term carbon cycle
carbon is restored back to the atmosphere over a long period of time. In this process, carbon
is stored in the geosphere in the form of carbonate, which comes from the remains of plants
and animals.
Humans impact the carbon cycle in many different ways.
Oceans recycle carbon by acting as a carbon sink. When ocean temperatures

increase, however, carbon is released in the form of carbon dioxide gas.
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Burning of fossil fuels, which are composed primarily of carbon, releases carbon into
the atmosphere.
Some methods of deforestation, such as slash and burn clearing in which trees are
cut down and then burned, release carbon stored in trees into the atmosphere.
Clearing of trees which take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen through
photosynthesis decreases the amount of carbon dioxide that is being removed from
the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas in the earth's atmosphere. Therefore,
release of excess carbon has the potential to significantly increase the rate of global
warming.
The Nitrogen Cycle

Teachers' Domain, The Nitrogen Cycle, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on January 20,
2009,http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.eco.nitrogen/
In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen moves from the air to soil, soil to organisms, and back into the
air. Nitrogen is used by organisms to build proteins. Nitrogen gas makes up approximately
78% of the atmosphere. Even though nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere, most
organisms cannot use the nitrogen in its current state. The only organisms that can use
nitrogen directly from the soil are nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in the roots of some
plants and in the soil. For all other organisms, in order to be usable nitrogen must be altered
through a process called nitrogen fixing.
Parts of the Nitrogen Cycle:
1. Ammonification: Nitrogen fixing bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) to
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion (NH4+).
2. Nitrification: Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia and ammonium ion into inorganic
nitrogen molecules: nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). These are the usable forms
of nitrogen. At this point some of the nitrates and nitrates are utilized by organisms in
a process called assimilation.
3. Denitrification: denitrifying bacteria convert excess nitrates (NO3-) to nitrites (NO2-)
and then to nitrogen gas (N2)
Humans impact the nitrogen cycle in a variety of different ways.
Modern agricultural practices remove nitrogen from topsoil. In order to replace this
nitrogen large amounts of chemical fertilizers are applied to croplands. Excess
nitrogen runs off into surface water polluting the water.
The destruction of wetlands, forests, and grasslands releases nitrogen dioxide into
the atmosphere.
Any process that requires the burning of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere. When nitrogen oxides react with oxygen in the atmosphere nitrous
oxide, a greenhouse gas is formed. Nitrogen oxides can also react with water vapor
in the atmosphere to form nitric acid which contributes to acid precipitation.
Since some nitrogen compounds act as greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere,
release of excess nitrogen contributes to global warming.
The Sulfur Cycle
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In the sulfur cycle, sulfur continuously moves through the earth's water, air, living organisms,
soil. Much of the sulfur on earth is stored in rocks and under deep ocean sediments. Sulfur is
produced naturally in areas where anaerobic decomposition occurs such as in tidal flats,
swamps, and bogs. Additionally, sulfur is released from volcanoes. Dimethyl sulfide (DMS),
which helps to facilitate condensation of water vapor in clouds, is produced by some types of
marine algae.
Humans affect the sulfur cycle in many different ways.
Burning of coal, oil refining, and the production of metals from ores are all processes
that release sulfur into the environment.
Excess sulfur oxides in the atmosphere can react with water vapor which results in
sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid then returns to the earth's surface in the form of acid
precipitation
The Phosphorus Cycle
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In the phosphorus cycle, phosphorus moves through all four spheres except the
atmosphere. Phosphorus enters the soil when either rocks break down or when organisms
excrete waste. Plants then absorb the phosphorus through their roots. The phosphorus is
then taken in by animals when they eat the plants. Finally it is returned back to the soil when
the animal dies.
Humans have a variety of different impacts on the phosphorus cycle.
Phosphorus is mined to produce fertilizers, detergents, and pesticides.

Phosphorus from detergents, chemical fertilizers, and chemical pesticides runs off
into surface water, polluting the water.
Excess phosphorus in water causes certain water plants, such as green algae, to
grow extensively. As a result the oxygen supply in the water becomes depleted,
causing fish and other oxygen-dependent organisms to die and bacteria that are not
oxygen dependent (anaerobic) to take over. This phenomenon is referred to as
eutrophication.
Questions For Thought:

Fresh water is a vital but limited resource that is increasingly threatened by water pollution.
Although fresh water is arguably the most important recourse that we have, it is also to most
poorly managed and under appreciated. How does the movement of water through the water
cycle affect the purity of fresh water? Compose a response to this questions consisting of a
minimum of 5 sentences.
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Ecosystems and Change

Ecological Succession
As environmental conditions change community structures can change as well. When this
happens one group of species is replaced by another. This process is called ecological
succession. There are two types of ecological succession: primary and secondary.
Primary Ecological Succession

Primary ecological succession describes the gradual establishment of biotic communities on
a ground surface that does not contain life. In the soil, there is no terrestrial community; and
in an aquatic community, there is no bottom sediment. This process generally takes a very
long time. In primary ecological succession pioneer species attach themselves to patches of
bare rock to begin the process. Lichens and moss initiate the building of soil particles. Early
successional plants include tiny annuals that reseed, which are then followed by small
perennial grasses, herbs, and ferns that grow close to the ground. Early successional plants
are followed by mid-successional plants which include low shrubs and trees that require
more soil and lots of sunlight. This process takes hundreds of years. Finally, late
successional plant species are usually tree species that create shade and can tolerate
shade to become a complex forest community.
Primary succession can also occur in newly created ponds that, over a long period of time,
will be transformed to a marsh and finally to dry land.
Secondary Ecological Succession

Secondary ecological succession occurs in communities with different species developing in
places with soil or bottom sediment. In secondary ecological succession some soil or
sediment remains after the natural community of organisms has been disturbed, removed, or
destroyed. For example, forest fires or deforestation can convert a particular stage of
succession to an earlier stage. Changes in vegetation during secondary succession also
change the numbers and types of animals and decomposers.
The Process of Ecological Succession

The typical view of ecological succession is that it is an orderly sequence in which each
stage leads to the next until a climax community is reached. Such a community would
represent a perfectly balanced ecosystem that is dominated by a few long-lived plant
species that are in balance with their environment.
Factors that Affect Ecological Succession

There are three general factors that are believed to affect how and at what rate succession
occurs.
1. Facilitation: an area is made suitable for a second species by the actions of the first
2. Inhibition: early species delay establishment of later species
3. Tolerance: later species are unaffected by plants at earlier stages of succession
Succession can, however, be delayed by changes in environmental conditions that disrupt a
community. Some examples of these types of changes include (but are not limited to)
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disturbances such as fire, drought, mining, plowing, and climate change and large
catastrophic disturbances.
Types of Ecosystems
Biomes
Essential Questions and Introduction:

1. What is a biome and what are the primary characteristics used to categorize biomes
of the world?
2. How many major biomes are there in the world?
3. Which four biomes are categorized as forest biomes?
4. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the four categories of forest
biomes?
5. What are the defining characteristics of each of the four forest biomes?
6. How do actions by humans threaten forest biomes?
7. What are the two main types of grassland biomes?
8. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two types of grassland
biomes?
9. What are the defining characteristics of the two grassland biomes?
10. How do the actions of humans threaten grassland biomes?
11. What is a chaparral and what are the defining characteristics of this biome?
12. How do the actions of humans threaten the chaparral biome?
13. What is a desert and what are the defining characteristics of this biome?
14. How do the actions of humans threaten desert biomes?
15. What is a tundra and what are the defining characteristics of this biome?
16. How do the actions of humans threaten tundra biomes?
17. What is a mountain and what are the defining characteristics of mountain biomes?
18. How do the actions of humans threaten mountain biomes?
19. What are the categories of freshwater biomes and what are the defining
characteristics of freshwater biomes?
20. How do the actions of humans threaten freshwater biomes?
21. What are the categories of marine biomes and what are the defining characteristics
of marine biomes?
22. How do the actions of humans threaten marine biomes?
Introduction:
A biome is an area that has distinctive climates and organisms. In this module you will have
the opportunity to explore how ecosystems are categorized into biomes and to learn the
defining characteristics of the twelve biomes of the world: tropical rainforest, temperate
rainforest, deciduous forest, taiga, savanna, temperate grassland, chaparral, desert, tundra,
mountain, freshwater, and marine. In addition, this module will enable you to explore the
multitude of ways in which the actions of humans impact the above biomes.
What is a biome?
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A biome is an area that has distinctive climates and organisms. This occurs because
different climates lead to different communities of organisms, especially vegetation. These
difference in climate are the direct result of global air and water circulation patters around the
globe. The world is divided into twelve major biomes. Each biome contains many different
ecosystems. The twelve major biomes on earth are:
1. Tropical rainforests
2. Temperate rainforests
3. Deciduous Forest
4. Taiga
5. Savanna
6. Temperate grassland
7. Chaparral (Mediterranean)
8. Desert
9. Tundra
10. Mountains
11. Freshwater
12. Marine
Biomes are characterized largely by the types of plants that inhabit them because this is
often the feature that stands out the most about a biome. In addition, the types of plants that
inhabit a given area determine the types of other organisms that can survive and thrive in the
area. Plants in each biome have very specialized adaptations that enable them to survive.
The main factors that determine what types of plants grow well in a given environment are
climate, latitude, and altitude. Climate is determined primarily by temperature and
precipitation. Latitude and altitude have a strong impact on the distribution and types of
plants in an area because they strongly influence temperature.
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Teachers' Domain, Biomes, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on February 11, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.biomemap/
You may also view additional videos: Terrestrial Biomes and Aquatic Biomes. Links for these
videos are also found in the sidebar to the right.
As a follow up activity go to the assignments page of this module and access the assignment
entitled Biomes Project. This is a culminating project for the entire module but you need to
get started now. This is a lengthy assignment that will count as a test grade. Please plan to
spend the duration of this module working on constructing a polished and well put together
finished product.
Then, go to the assignments page of this module and access the assignment entitled
Biomes Webquest. You will use the interactive activity above as well as the link provided in
the assignment description to fill in all of the necessary information about biomes.
Forests
Tropical Rainforests
Tropical Rainforests occur in a belt around the Earth near the equator. This is one of the
most biologically diverse biomes. In the tropical rainforest there is little seasonal variation in
climate and temperature due to the proximity to the equator. This biome receives roughly
250 cm of rain per year and is therefore consistently very humid. Plants in the tropical
rainforest grow in layers measured from the surface of the ground. A layer called the canopy,
which is made up of trees over 30 meters tall, receives about 95 percent of the available
sunlight. Many plants have made adaptations that allow them to live within canopy trees
where there is sunlight available for photosynthesis. Examples include orchids and
bromeliads that can grow on limbs in the tops of trees where there is very little or no soil.
Due to the abundance of available resources in the tropical rainforest most rainforest
animals are specialists.
Tropical rainforests used to cover about 20 percent of the earths surface. Due to clearing,
development, and overall mismanagement tropical rainforests now only cover approximately
5 percent of the earth's surface. In the last 100 years, over 97 percent of the Brazilian
rainforest has been cleared or otherwise degraded. Since habitat destruction is the primary
cause of species extinction, and rainforests are one of the most biologically diverse biomes,
the destruction of this biome is a major environmental concern. Although there is not a
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widely agreed upon figure, scientists do agree that the extinction rate in our earth's
rainforests is extremely high.
Temperate Rainforests
Temperate rainforests occur in North and
South America, Australia, and New
Zealand. In regard to precipitation this
biome is much like the tropical rainforest,
with high annual precipitation and high
humidity. Unlike the tropical rainforest,
however, there is distinct seasonal
variation with warm to hot summers and
cold winters.
Temperate Deciduous Forests

Temperate deciduous forests generally
occur between 30 degrees and 50 degrees north latitude. In the temperate deciduous forest
there are extreme seasonal variations in climate and temperature, summers are hot and
winters are cold. This biome receives anywhere between 75 and 250 cm of rain per year.
Plants in the temperate deciduous forest are adapted to take full advantage of the warm
growing season and many become dormant during the cold winters. For example, the
majority of trees in this biome loose their leaves in the fall as a mechanism of surviving the
cold winter months. Like plants, animals found in this biome are adapted to survive the
extreme seasonal variations. Many are adept at using forest plants for shelter as well as for
food. In addition, many animals found in this biome either migrate or hibernate. This biome
used to cover a large portion of North America, Europe, and Asia.
Taiga
The taiga is commonly referred to
as the northern coniferous forest.
This biome stretches in a band
across the northern hemisphere
and just below the arctic circle.
The taiga has long, very cold
winters and a very short growing
season. In this biome most
precipitation is in the form of
snow. In addition, due to the tilt of
the earth on its axis and the
rotation of the earth around the
sun there is constant daylight
during parts of the summer and
constant darkness during parts of
the winter. The duration of this
constant daylight or absence of
daylight is dependent upon latitude. Since there is little liquid precipitation (rain) in the taiga,
plants must be able to survive with little water. In addition, plants in the taiga normally grow
very slowly due to the short growing season. Conifers, for example, are very well adapted to
this biome. They do not shed needles in winter, their seeds develop in cones, the shape of
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"leaves" helps trees retain water when ground moisture is frozen, and the shape of tree
helps it to shed snow. The vast majority of animals that live in the taiga migrate south during
the winter months.
Grasslands
Savannas
The savanna is a type of

grassland biome that is often
referred to as the west African
plain. Savannas are found in
areas around the equator that get
too little rain for many trees to
grow. Rain falls mainly at certain
times of the year. The rainy
season in the savanna is referred
to as the monsoon season. Plants
that grow in the savanna have
developed adaptations that help
them to survive and grow in this
biome. First, they have large root
systems that help them survive fires and survive dry seasons. In addition, they have the
ability to regrow very quickly after a fire or long dry season. Animal adaptations in the
savanna are geared primarily around enabling animals to cope with extended periods of little
to no rain. Many animals in this biome migrate to follow food and water supply. In addition,
they may only give birth during the wet season when food is readily available.
Temperate Grasslands: Prairies, Steppes, and Pampas
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Temperate grasslands have the most

fertile soil of all of the biomes. At one time
they covered approximately 45 percent of
the surface of the Earth. Now, they only
cover about 10 percent. Temperate
grasslands are found in the interiors of
continents where there is not enough rain
for trees to grow. In this biome fires are
very common and many of the
adaptations that can be observed in both
plants and animals that live in this biome
enable them to survive fires, dry
conditions, and cold winters. Perennial
grasses are the most common type of plant in temperate grasslands. They have dense root
systems that help them survive drought and fire. Grazing animals are also commonly found
in temperate grasslands. They have large, course back teeth for chewing tough prairie
grass; and have thick coats that they shed in the spring for surviving cold winters. Many
other animals in this biome live underground. This offers them protection from fire, weather,
and predators in open grassland.
The actions of humans have altered temperate grasslands in a multitude of ways. Due to the
fact that the soil in this biome is extremely fertile, temperate grasslands are often utilized for
agricultural purposes. Presently, the primary threat to temperate grasslands is erosion due to
cultivation and overgrazing.
Click on the following link to explore the types of plants and animals that inhabit short and
tall grass prairies.
GAME: Build a Prairie
assignment entitled "LAB: Graphing the Biomes." After completing this lab you will write a
Chaparral, Desert, and Tundra Biomes
Chaparral
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Chaparrals are found in mid-latitudes, primarily in

coastal areas with Mediterranean climates.This
biome has hot, dry summers and mild, wet
winters. In the chaparral there is relatively little
variation in seasonal temperature. Since the
summers in this biome are hot and dry plants and
animals have adapted to survive these
conditions. Most plants found in the chaparral are
low growing with thick leaves that resist water
loss. In addition, they are very well adapted to
fires. Many plants in the chaparral even have
natural oils that promote fires because fires kill
trees that the low growing plants would otherwise
have to compete with for light and water. Since
plants in the chaparral are very spread out many
animals found in this biome have camouflage
coloration patterns.
The primary human threat to the chaparral is
development. Due to its mild climate many
people view the chaparral as an ideal place to
live. In addition, since the growing season is very
dry, damage to the chaparral takes a long time to
naturally repair itself. Therefore, small changes have a lasting impact.
Deserts
Deserts are defined as areas that receive less than 25 cm of precipitation per year or areas
where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Although many people think of deserts as
unbearably hot, they can actually be hot or cold. Since there is so little precipitation in
deserts drought-resistance is necessary for survival of both plants and animals. Plants are
able to survive very dry conditions by having large root systems that enable them to absorb
water from a large area of land and leaves/stems that hold large amounts of water reserves.
Many animals in the desert survive by estivating. In addition, most animals are more active
at night or at dusk when the sun is not as hot. This reduces the amount of energy that is
expended in the process of cooling the body. Other animals that are commonly found in the
desert have body armor. This is a method of retaining water.
Like the chaparral, the primary threat to the desert from humans is development. Although
not as many people desire to live in deserts as in the chaparral, development of desert
biome areas does still occur. In addition, use of deserts for recreational purposes is
common. Due to the very dry conditions, which leads to slow growth of plans, damage done
to deserts takes a very long time to be repaired.
Teachers' Domain, Deserts, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on February 11, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.deserts/
Tundra
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The tundra is a
biome without tall
trees that is
located north of
the arctic circle. In
the tundra the
summers are very
short. Therefore,
the growing
season in this
biome is also very
short. Even in
summer only the
top few inches of
soil thaws out.
The permanently
frozen layer of soil
below the surface
is called
permafrost. Next to deserts, the tundra is the driest place on Earth. In this biome, since the
layer of soil above the permafrost layer is often very thin, some plants are actually able to
grow without soil. In addition, plants in the tundra have wide, shallow roots and they grow
and flower quickly each season. Animals in the tundra must either migrate to other areas in
winter or be very well adapted to cold weather conditions.
The primary human threat to the tundra is oil drilling. This biome is very fragile so small
intrusions by people have a very large negative impact.
assignment entitled "Deserts." Use the interactive activity above to answer the questions.
Mountain Biomes
Mountains, which cover about one fourth of the earth's land surface, are areas of high
elevation. There is a great deal of variability in the types of organisms found in mountain
biomes due to dramatic and often rapid variations in altitude, climate, soil, and vegetation.
Due to the steep slopes of mountains soil erosion can be a major problem if vegetation is
disturbed either by natural events or human activities.
Ecologically, mountains are extremely important for a number of reasons. First, mountains
help to regulate the climate on earth. Mountaintops that are covered with snow and ice
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reflect solar radiation back into space. Approximately 75% of the freshwater on earth is
stored in glacial ice, much of which is in mountain areas. Therefore, mountains have an
impact on sea levels due to decreases or increases in glacial ice. In addition, mountains
contain the majority of the world's forests which are home to a huge diversity of terrestrial
organisms and serve as a refuge for species who have been driven from lowland areas.
Many ecologically important endemic species can be found in mountains, as well. Finally,
mountains play a tremendous role in the hydrologic cycle through the gradual release of ice,
snow, and water that is stored in soil and vegetation to mountain streams.
Threats to Mountains
The primary threat to mountains is that, despite their ecological importance, the preservation
of natural mountain ecosystems has not been a high priority for governments. Therefore,
human activities such as development, mining, and timber cutting are rapidly degrading this
biome.
Play the video below to learn about the struggles facing the Giant Pandas of Bamboo
Mountain China. Scientists estimate that there may be as few as 1,000 pandas remaining in
the mountains of China due the the enormous pressure that is placed in the environment by
China's large population. Pandas are being robbed of the natural habitats by human
activities such as farming and logging. The video segment below features scientists in China
who are studying the panda population of Bamboo Mountain.
Teachers' Domain, Bamboo Mountain, published July 30, 2008, retrieved on February 20, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/vtl07.la.ws.research.bamboo/

Choose your favorite biome and write an advertisement to encourage your classmates to
visit your biome.
Freshwater Biomes
Lakes and Ponds
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Lakes and ponds are

divided into four
"zones" based largely
upon nutrient content
of the water, the
amount of sunlight
received, the types of
organisms that are
most prevalent, and
the depth of the water.
1. Littoral zone:
nutrient rich
area around
the shore. This
is where the
vast majority of
organisms are
found in lakes
and ponds.
2. Limnetic zone: area away from the shore that gets enough sunlight for
photosynthesis. Dominant inhabitants are tiny plants and animals called
phytoplankton and zooplankton respectively. This is the most productive area for
food and oxygen production.
3. Profundal zone: deep area of open water that is too deep for photosynthesis to occur.
Oxygen levels are lower in this area than in the littoral or limnetic zones.
4. Benthic zone: the bottom of a lake or pond, found only in very deep bodies of
freshwater that have areas of open water where no sunlight penetrates. Relatively
few animals are adapted to live in these areas. The benthic zone is inhabited by
decomposers, detritus feeders, and insect larvae.
Lakes can be classified as one of three types according to their plant nutrients.
1. Oligotrophic: a newly formed lake that has a relatively low concentration of plant
nutrients. Oligotrophic lakes are often very deep with extremely clear water and low
productivity.
2. Eutrophic: containing an excessive amount of plant nutrients. Eutrophic lakes are
often shallow with murky brown or green water and extremely high productivity.
3. Mesotrophic: in between oligotrophic and eutrophic - contain enough plant nutrients
for relatively high productivity.
Although nutrients are a valuable part of freshwater ecosystems there is such a thing as too
much of a good thing. When nutrients accumulate in lakes and ponds plants (including
algae) grow excessively. This process is called eutrophication. In eutrophic lakes and ponds
excessive plant growth robs water of oxygen needed by animals. This occurs because as
the number of plants in a lake or pond increases, populations of bacteria that feed on
decaying organisms also increase. These bacteria, in turn, use the available oxygen in the
water thereby depleting the oxygen available to other organisms. Although eutrophication
can happen naturally over a very long period of time, human activities often speed up the
process. This is a process called artificial eutrophication and is often a direct result of runoff
from local farms flowing into bodies of fresh water.
To learn more about lake eutrophication click on the video link in the sidebar to the right:
Lake Eutrophication.
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Wetlands
Wetlands are defined as areas of land that are covered with
water for at least part of the year. There are two primary
types of freshwater wetlands:
1. Marshes: contain nonwoody plants
2. Swamps: contain woody plants or shrubs
Wetlands are a very important part of the environment for
many reasons. First, they are used by many fish for
breeding and spawning grounds and they provide a home
for native and migratory wildlife. Therefore, wetlands help to
preserve biodiversity on earth. Second, wetlands remove pollutants from the water and the
vegetation in wetlands traps carbon that would otherwise be released as carbon dioxide.
Therefore, wetlands work to improve water quality and minimize global warming. Third,
wetlands help to control flooding by serving as a buffer between rivers/streams and
residential or agricultural areas. Finally, wetlands produce many commercially important
products such as cranberries and peat moss. To learn more about wetlands click on the
image to the right to go to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency website.
Threats to wetlands
Throughout much of human history wetlands have been thought of as wastelands that
support disease breeding organisms and therefore give rise to new diseases and increase
prevalence of diseases. For this reason, many of them have been "cleaned up" drained
and cleared for industrial, agricultural, and residential purposes. For example, the Florida
everglades is the largest freshwater wetland in the United States. At one time the Florida
Everglades covered over 8 million acres of land. In the 1800's however, people began
digging canals for the purpose of draining and "cleaning up" this area. Although this practice
has since stopped as we now recognize the ecological importance of wetlands, the Florida
Everglades now only cover approximately 2 million acres of land.
Teachers' Domain, The Value of Wetlands, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on February 20,
2009,http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.eco.wetlands/
Click on the following link to view a wetlands case study: The Fight to Preserve the Bollana
Wetlands.
Rivers
The key characteristic of rivers is that the properties of the water in rivers changes greatly
from one area of the river to another. Three individual life zones can be identified within a
river ecosystem.
1. Source Zone: At the headwaters of a river the water is usually very cold, has a high
oxygen concentration, and flows very quickly. Plants and animals found in this part of
the river have to be adapted to tolerate the cold temperatures as well as the fast
flowing water. Plants found in this part of a river often anchor themselves to rocks or
other structures and fish must be very strong swimmers.
2. Transition Zone: The river becomes deeper and wider and the slope down which the
river flows begins to slowly level out. The water also becomes warmer and contains
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more nutrients. This portion of a river can support more producers and it has
somewhat lower disolved oxygen.
3. Floodplain Zone: The river has become still wider and deeper and flows much more
slowly. The temperature of the water has increased further and more nutrients are
present. The number of producers has further increased and the disolved oxygen
concentration has decreased.
The primary threat to rivers comes from activities surrounding them. Industrial manufacturing
plants, for example, are often constructed near rivers so that river water can be used to cool
machinery and as a mechanism of waste "removal." This practice introduces both thermal
and chemical pollution into the river.
Teachers' Domain, The Mississippi River Delta, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on February 11, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.missdelta/
Estuaries
An estuary is an area where fresh water from rivers
mixes with salt water from the ocean. These are one of
the most productive ecosystems because they contain
plenty of light and nutrients. Organisms that live in
estuaries have to be able to tolerate variations in salinity
because the salt concentration changes as fresh river
water mixes with water from the ocean. The greatest
threat to estuaries is from development primarily
because of the ease with which goods can be
transported. Many ocean ports have been built on
estuaries and seven out of the ten largest urban areas in
the world were built on estuaries. Ultimately, this leads to
pollution and destruction of these estuaries. To learn
more about estuaries and the environmental challenges that face estuaries click on the
photo to the right to go to the Environmental Protection Agency website.
assignment entitled "Ecosystems."
Marine Biomes
Coral Reefs
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Coral reefs are limestone islands

in the sea that are built by coral
animals called polyps. The outer
layer of a coral reef contains
living coral polyps. Coral reefs are
often thought of as the tropical
rainforests of aquatic biomes due
to their high degree of
biodiversity. Found in shallow,
tropical areas in water with high
salinity. Coral reefs thrive in water
that is between eighteen and
thirty degrees Celsius. A
temperature increase of even one
degree above this range can
result in coral bleaching, a phenomenon that occurs when coral polyps die. Coral reefs are
extremely delicate and any change in the water around coral reefs (even a minor change)
affects the ability of the corals to produce limestone which disrupts the balance of the reef.
Oceans
Oceans cover almost 75% of the surface of the Earth. Much of the plant and animal life is
concentrated in the shallower water around the continents. The open ocean is one of the
least productive of all of the ecosystems in the world.
The open ocean can be divided into three zones according to how much light is able to
penetrate.
1. Euphotic Zone: This zone receives the greatest amount of sunlight and consists
primarily of floating phytoplankton that undergo photosynthesis. Due to the large
amount of photosynthesizing phytoplankton the disolved oxygen in this zone is high.
In addition to phytoplankton, this zone is also inhabited by large, fast-swimming
predatory fish such as bluefin tuna and sharks.
2. Bathyal Zone: This zone is the relatively dimly lit middle zone. Since so little sunlight
penetrates to the bathyal zone there are no producers. Rather, this zone is inhabited
by zooplankton and smaller fish.
3. Abyssal Zone: This zone receives no sunlight and is therefore very dark and cold. In
addition, the concentration of dissolved oxygen is very low. Filter feeders and deposit
feeders inhabit this zone.
Threats to oceans
Pollution is arguably the biggest threat to oceans. This is largely because pollution from
terrestrial ecosystems often eventually finds its way into the ocean. According to the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 80% of ocean pollution comes from land based
activities. For example, runoff from development and agriculture runs into local rivers and
streams which eventually flow into the water, air pollutants that are emitted into the
atmosphere are picked up by precipitation, much of which is eventually carried to the ocean.
Over 70 percent of ocean pollution comes from activities on land. Another threat to oceans is
over fishing. According to a 2003 study by a Canadian-German team of scientists, 90% of
the large, open-ocean fish such as tuna, marlin and swordfish have disappeared since 1950.
When fish populations shrink fishermen begin targeting smaller and smaller fish. Eventually,
this practice can reduce populations of breeding stock fish which are necessary for recovery
of the depleted species. The last major threat to oceans is development. In 2006 about 45%
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of the world's population lived along or near a coastal zone. By 2010 the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts that approximately 80% of the world's population
will live in these areas.
To learn more about oceans and threats to oceans see the video links in the sidebar to the
right: Ocean Environmental Awareness and NOAA: Ocean Pollution.
Polar Ecosystems
Teachers' Domain, Arctic Ecosystem, published January 17, 2008, retrieved on February 11, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ipy07.sci.life.eco.arcticecosys/
Polar ecosystems are considered marine because almost all food is provided by the ocean.
There are two polar ecosystems: the arctic and the Antarctic. The Arctic has relatively
shallow waters that are rich in nutrients. This ecosystems supports a large population of
plankton that feeds a variety of different types of animals. The Antarctic is the only continent
never colonized by humans. Like in the arctic, plankton is base of food chain in the Antarctic.
Like the tundra, the primary threat to polar ecosystems is oil drilling. This biome is very
fragile so small intrusions by people have a very large negative impact.
Populations, Biodiversity, and the Future

Essential Questions/Introduction
Essential Questions
1. How does technology affect the impact that individuals have on the environment?
2. What are six key factors that influence the size and rates of change of human
populations?
3. How can human population growth over the course of history be described?
4. How does the age structure of a population influence changes in population size?
5. How can age structure pyramids be used to determine if a country is developing or
developed?
6. How is population growth limited?
7. What is meant by exponential population growth?
8. What is biodiversity and why is it important?
9. How are humans impacting the earth's biodiversity?
10. What are the key similarities and differences between the species approach and the
ecosystem approach to preserving biodiversity?
11. What are some key environmental public policies?
12. What government agencies are responsible for overseeing environmental public
policies?
Introduction
This module focuses on human population, biodiversity, and environmental public policy. In
this module you will have an opportunity to explore the value of biodiversity, the impacts that
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humans are having on the earth's biodiversity, and measures that can be taken to preserve
biodiversity. In addition, you will learn about public policies that are key to the preservation of
our environment, how environmental public policies are established, and what government
agencies are responsible for overseeing these policies.
Human Populations and the Environment

In 2006 the world population was approximately 6.6 billion people. Given average annual
population growth rates many scientists estimate that by 2050 there could be as many as 10
billion people on Earth. In addition, about 90% of this growth is taking place in developing
countries. The end result is that by 2050 people in developing countries could make up as
much as 97% of the global population!
The Impact of Technology

Technology has drastically altered the impact that each individual person has on the
environment. According to Paul Ehrlich, the total impact of the human population on the
environment can be expressed through a single relationship:
impact per individual x total number of individuals = total environmental effect
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Technological power has increased the effect that each individual has on the environment.
This is due largely to the fact that technology increases the use of resources.
Therefore, the addition of each new individual in an industrialized nation leads to a greater
effect on the environment than the addition of each new individual in an undeveloped nation.
Human Demography
So, what needs to be done to decrease the environmental impact of humans? In short, we
need to slow the too rapidly growing population. There are two steps that serve as the
central focus to help change the rapid increase in our numbers:
1. Understanding the causes of population increase
2. Learning how to calculate rates of increase
Following are the six key factors that influence the size and rates of change of human
populations:
1. Total fertility: the total number of children that a woman will have during her lifetime
2. Relationships between the human population and the environment: some
environmental factors influence death rates and birth rates
3. Factors that increase the death rate: including why death rates will increase with
crowding and why death rates will increase if we do not decrease birth rates
4. Standard of living: A higher standard of living correlates with a decrease in birth rates
5. Death rates
6. Growth rates
Human demography is the study of the 6 concepts above and others that are closely related.
Demographers determine the actual size of a population at some time and attempt to project
changes into the future. In order to do this population demographers must have a
comprehensive understanding of population dynamics.
assignment entitled "LAB: Population Growth." After completing this lab you will write a
Population Dynamics
Human Population Growth Rate
Over the course of history human population growth can be divided into 4 periods:
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1. The Hunter and Gatherer Period: During this period the total human population was
less than a few million. People were mostly hunters and gathers who lived in small
groups that moved around as needed to find food.
2. The Agricultural Revolution: The agricultural revolution enabled people to settle in
villages and raise crops and domesticated animals. This period is when the first
major increase in human population occurred.
3. The Industrial-Medical Revolution: During this time improvements in health care and
food supply led to rapid increases in the human population.
4. The Information-Globalization Revolution: This period involves the use of new
technologies to obtain access to a large quantity of information on a global scale.
Some examples of these technologies include computers, the telephone, radio, and
television.
Population Dynamics
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area or
interbreeding and sharing genetic information. The growth rate of any given population is
equal to the difference between the birth rate and the death rate. Since it is impossible to
accurately count every single individual we quantify populations by looking at crude rates.
Therefore, the crude growth rate is equal to the birth rate minus the death rate. Changes in
population size occur via four different means. Populations increase through birth and
immigration. Populations decrease through death and emigration.
Population Age Structure
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Age structure of a population is another factor that has a big impact on changes in
population size. Age structure is usually described as the pre-reproductive stage, the
reproductive stage and the post-reproductive stage. Population age structure is represented
using a population pyramid such as those in the figure to the right. The United States (top
population pyramid) has a fairly stable population size. This is indicated by the even
distribution between the pre-reproductive and reproductive stage individuals and the
relatively large number of post-reproductive stage individuals. There are some countries that
are actually experiencing a decline in population size such as the one represented by the
middle population pyramid. The decline in population size is indicated by the fact that there
are fewer pre-reproductive stage individuals than reproductive stage individuals. Most
developing countries, such as the one represented by the population pyramid on the bottom,
are experiencing rapid population growth. This is indicated by the large number of preprereproductive and early reproductive stage individuals. The growth rate of populations
such as these, however, is somewhat diminished by the short life expectancy which is
apparent by the few post-reproductive stage individuals.
Carrying Capacity and Environmental Resistance

No population can grow indefinitely due to limited resources such as light, water, and
nutrients and also due to competitors and/or predators. This is referred to as environmental
resistance. The capacity for growth for a given population if no environmental resistance
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exists is called the population's biotic potential. Therefore, the overall carrying capacity (K) of
a population is determined by both biotic potential and environmental resistance. As a
population reaches its carrying capacity, its growth rate will decrease because resources
become more scarce. If ample resources are available a population can grow rapidly.
Exponential Population Growth

With few resource limitations, a population will have exponential growth. This is a fixed rate
of growth that when graphed will appear as a J-shaped growth curve as the base size of
population increases. As the population gets larger and begins to face environmental
resistance, however, exponential growth is converted to logistic growth. In logistic growth,
the growth rate levels off as population size reaches or nears carrying capacity. If the
carrying capacity of an area is exceeded, changes in the area itself can reduce future
carrying capacity. For example, reducing grass cover by overgrazing allows sagebrush to
move in and reduces the number of cattle that the land can support. Technological, social,
and cultural changes have extended the earth's carrying capacity for human beings, for the
time being.
Human population growth rate peaked at 2.1% from 1965-1970 due to improvements in
health, medicine, and food production. The human population has actually increased at a
rate faster than the rate of exponential growth. Currently, the growth rate is declining globally
and is now approximately 1.4%. In the 1930s scientists predicted that given the availability of
resources the population of the United States could not exceed 200 million. Currently, the
population of the United States is approximately 260 million.
Projecting Future Population Growth

Scientists use population doubling time as a means of projecting future population growth.
Consider the fact that when agriculture began, about 10,000 years ago, there were
approximately 5 million humans on the planet and currently there are 6.6 billion of us. It took
from the time that the first human arrived on the planet (between 90,000 and 195,000 years
ago) and 1927 to add the first two billion people, less than 50 years to add the next two
billion, and only 25 years to add the next two billion people.
By studying populations of other species scientists have concluded that no population can
grow exponentially forever. The question is how much longer can we continue to increase
the earth's carrying capacity for humans by using technological advances to overcome
factors that limit population growth. We do not have any clear idea of how close humans are
to the final carrying capacity of earth for our species but there is no question that we are
steadily degrading the environment that keeps us and other species alive.
Limiting Factors
Human populations will eventually be limited by some factor or combination of factors that
could be either short-term factors, immediate-term factors, or long-term factors. Examples
are as follows:
Short-term factors: The most important would be something that disrupts the
distribution of food within a country. This could occur as a result of political events,
wars, or local loss of crops coupled with a shortage of energy needed to transport
food. Other short-term limiting factors include drought, major world catastrophes,
worldwide spread of a toxic chemical, and the outbreak of an emergent disease.
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Immediate-term factors: These include climatic changes, energy shortages that affect
food production and distribution, desertification, wide dispersal of certain pollutants,
disruption in the supply of nonrenewable resources, or a decrease in the supply of
firewood or other fuels for heating and cooking.
Long-term factors: These include soil erosion, a decline in groundwater supplies,
disruption in the supply of nonrenewable resources, climatic changes resulting from
changes in atmospheric chemistry (global warming), and wide dispersal of certain
pollutants.
How Can We Stop Population Growth?

The simplest and most effective means of slowing population growth is to delay the age of
first childbearing by women. This happens naturally with women entering the workforce and
social pressures that lead to later marriages. In countries where couples marry earlier in life
there is a high rate of population growth.
Formal family planning programs can slow population growth by giving people knowledge of
the means to control birth, and the ability to afford these means. In addition, formal family
planning programs can help explain problems that arise from rapid population growth and
the benefits to individuals of reduced population growth. These programs include information
about birth control and provide access to various means of birth control.
In the past, when resources ran out, the population would simply relocate but we have run
out of places to go. Some suggestions that have been proposed are using technology to
colonize areas like the Antarctic and deep sea, creating space stations on which people can
live, or moving to other planets. None of these, however, are practical solutions for our
world's population problems.
assignment entitled "LAB: Population Pyramids." After completing this lab you will write a
What is Biodiversity and Why is it Important?
Biodiversity is the number and variety of species on Earth. Currently there are about
1,412,000 million known species on Earth. Of these there are 751,000 known species of
insects, 57,700 known species of protists, 248,400 known species of plants, 4,800 known
species of prokaryotes, 69,000 known species of fungi, and 281,000 species that are
categorized as other animals. Many scientists estimate, however, that there are actually
between 4 and 10 million species on earth.
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Teachers' Domain, Bowhead Whaling and Its Impact, published February 12, 2007, retrieved on April 27, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/echo07.sci.life.coast.bockstoce/
How are humans causing extinctions?

There are five primary factors that lead to the extinction of species and we use the acronym
HIPPO to represent them:
H for Habitat destruction and degradation

I for Invasive species
P for Pollution
P for Human population growth
O for Overexploitation
The
most common cause of extinction today is habitat destruction. The human population is
growing by about 220,000 people per day. This causes major environmental changes which
leads to the extinction of other species. In addition, scientists have suggested that climate
change due to human activities could lead to the premature extinction of over 25% of all
known plant and animal species by the end of the century. Invasive species are second only
to habitat destruction in terms of the threat that they pose to animal and plant extinction.
See the image to the right for a map of the human footprint. In this map the impact of
humans on the environment is quantitatively rated on a scale of 0 to 100 with 0 representing
the minimum human impact and 100 representing the maximum human impact. Click on the
image to learn more about the map and what the map represents.
What is the value of biodiversity?

When assessing the value of biodiversity it is important to consider two distinct categories.
The first, called instrumental values, consists of all of the values that are directly useful to
humans. This category includes values such as goods and services, recreation, and
scientific information. The second, called intrinsic values, consists of all of the values that are
not directly useful to humans. This category includes values such as the aesthetic value, and
a bequest for future generations.
Each species plays an important role in the ecosystem in which it lives. Extinction of any
species can lead to a chain reaction. In fact some species, called keystone species, are so
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important to the ecosystem in which they live that the entire ecosystem will break down if
that species becomes extinct.
assignment entitled "LAB: Virtual Field Walk." After completing this lab you will write a formal
Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach vs. the
Species Approach
Extinction: The Future of Biodiversity
We estimate present and future extinction rates by looking at the rate at which species have
become extinct since the arrival of humans on Earth and comparing that information to fossil
records and extinction prior to the arrival of humans. Before humans arrived on Earth the
natural extinction rate was approximately 0.0001% per year. This is equal to one species per
million species on earth going extinct every year. There is no consensus on what the exact
current extinction rate is but scientists believe that it is somewhere between 0.01% and 1%.
This has led many scientists to conclude that we are in the early stages of the 6th mass
extinction on Earth.
So, it is obvious that we need to do something to slow the loss of species but what? There
are three key approaches that can be taken in an effort to slow the loss of biodiversity. The
first, called the species approach, involves taking measures designed to save a particular
species. The second, called the ecosystem approach, involves taking measures designed to
preserve entire ecosystems. Finally, government regulations can be enacted in order to
protect individual species or entire ecosystems.
The Species Approach

When a particular species is on the verge of imminent extinction it sometimes becomes
necessary to focus on saving just that particular species. This is done primarily through
captive breeding programs, the preservation of genetic material, and efforts to learn more
about the species through zoos, parks, aquariums, and gardens. Captive breeding programs
involve breeding individuals in captivity with the eventual hope of reintroducing the offspring
into their native habitats. Although this has not been overwhelmingly successful to this point
due to the difficulty of getting individuals to breed and bear healthy young in captivity it offers
great potential because it allows for the introduction of new genetic diversity into populations.
Another method of saving individual species is by preserving the germ plasm in germ plasm
banks. These banks store the genetic material for future use in research and for species
recovery efforts. Genetic materials may be stored as seeds, eggs, sperm, or as pure DNA.
Zoos, parks, gardens, and aquariums are also often a part of efforts to save species. They
serve as a means by which zoologists and other scientists can learn more about animals in
order to better help them and increase public awareness. Sadly, these places in recent
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decades have begun housing the few remaining members of a species and are sometimes
the species' last hope of survival.
Ultimately, saving just a few individual members of a species is not the most effective means
of preserving biodiversity. Therefore, the strategies discussed above should be a very last
resort in a crisis situation. A far better approach is to identify populations at risk and work
pro-actively and diligently to preserve their habitats.
Teachers' Domain, To List or Not to List, published November 18, 2008, retrieved on April 27, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/nat08.living.eco.humimp.tolist/
The Ecosystem Approach
By far, the best way to preserve biodiversity is to protect and conserve entire habitats. It is
important to remember, however, that if a species becomes confined to a small isolated
habitat the entire species could be decimated by one natural disaster or disease outbreak.
For this reason, conservation biologists call for protecting 20% of the earth's land area
representing multiple examples of all biomes. Although this sounds like a lot, funding for the
protection of 20% of the earth's land surface would cost the same amount of money as is
spent around the world every 90 minutes on production of weapons. So, if all of the countries
in the world collectively got together and decided to not produce any weapons for 90 minutes
one time per year this project could be paid for.
Since so little of the land on earth is currently protected scientists and conservationists from
all over the world have come together to identify hotspots of biodiversity as a part of an
emergency action strategy to preserve as much of the world's remaining biodiversity as
possible. Although these biodiversity hotspots only cover about 2% of the earth's surface
they contain 52% of the worlds plant species and 36% of all terrestrial vertebrates. Scientists
have suggested that, at minimum, these areas should be a priority for preservation of
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ecosystems. In his 2006 book The Future of the Wild, J.S. Adams expounded upon this idea
by suggesting that areas in large protected ecoregions should be connected by networks of
corridors. Adams argued that the natural state of the world and the habitats within it should
not be fragmented pieces but rather should represent connectedness. Adams suggests that
we will continue to see a rapid decline in biodiversity if the connections between ecosystems
are not restored.
The map on the right represents 25 "hotspots" of biodiversity around the globe. Although
these areas only comprise 1.4% of the total land surface of the earth they contain
approximately 44% of all known plant species and 35% of all land vertebrate species.
Conservationists suggest that by preserving this very small portion of the earth's land we will
be able to save a relatively large amount of the earth's biodiversity. To learn more about
these new tools of conservation click on the image to the right.
Teachers' Domain, Unique Species of Kentucky's Green River, published September 2, 2008, retrieved on April 27, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ket08.sci.life.evo.ketendemics/
Government Regulations to Save Species and Preserve Biodiversity

There are a number of government enacted and backed legal actions that have been taken
with the intention of saving species and preserving biodiversity. The Endangered Species
Act (ESA), originally enacted in 1973 and amended several times since, was designed to
identify and legally protect endangered species in the United States and abroad. Under the
ESA marine species are identified by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and all
other species are identified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Between its
original enactment in 1973 and 2006 the number of species on the endangered species act
increased from 92 to 1,260. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species,
enacted in 1975, restrict international trade of approximately five thousand species of
animals and twenty-eight thousand species of plants because there is a risk of them
becoming threatened. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed by 188
countries, obligates participating countries to help reverse the decline in biodiversity. This is
very important because the primary focus is on protecting ecosystems rather than on
protecting individual species. The National Refuge System Improvement Act, enacted in
1997, attempts to ensure that the biological diversity, integrity, and overall health of wildlife
refuges are preserved.

There are more than 600 species of trees in Costa Rica, most of which are in the tropical
rain forests. What might account for the coexistence of so many species with similar
resource needs?
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Environmental Public Policy
An environmental policy is composed of laws, regulations, and rules that are related to an
environmental problem and are implemented and enforced by one or more government
agencies. In democratic societies the formulation of public policies frequently goes through a
four part life cycle of sorts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Recognition
Formulation
Implementation
Control
Public Policy in the United States

In the United States the establishment and implementation of environmental laws is the
responsibility of a multitude of major federal agencies. These agencies are established by
Congress and are overseen by the president as a part of the executive branch of
government. Following is a list of major federal agencies that are actively involved in
environmental policy:
Department of Health and Human Services: Health

Environmental Protection Agency: Air and water pollution, noise, pesticides, solid
waste, radiation, toxic substances
Department of Justice: Environmental litigation
Department of the Interior: Endangered species, energy, minerals, national parks,
public lands, fish and wildlife, and water development
Department of Agriculture: Soil conservation and forestry
Department of Defense: Civil works construction, dredge and fill permits, and
pollution control from defense facilities
Nuclear Regulatory Commission: Licensing and regulation of nuclear power
Department of State: International environment
Department of Commerce: Oceanic and atmospheric monitoring and research
Department of Labor: Occupational health
Department of Housing and Urban Development: Housing, urban parks, and urban
planning
Department of Transportation: Airplane noise, mass transit, oil pollution, and roads
Department of Energy: Energy policy, and petroleum allocation
Tennessee Valley Authority: Electric power generation
Environmental Laws, Acts, and Policies Throughout History

Since the late 1800's numerous laws, acts, and policies have been implemented for the
purpose of preserving the environment and the resources which it provides. Following is a
list of the key environmental laws, acts, and policies. Many of them have been discussed
previously in the course
Forest Reserve Act (1891)

Lacey Act (1900)
Antiquities Act (1906)
Public Health Service Act (1912)
National Park Service Act (1916)
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Migratory Bird Act (1918)

Taylor Grazing Act (1934)
Soil Conservation Act (1935)
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947)
Atomic Energy Act (1954)
Water Pollution Control Act (1956)
Wilderness Act (1964)
Land and Water Conservation Act (1965)
Clean Air Act (1970)
Resource Recovery Act (1970)
National Environmental Policy Act (1970)
Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (1972)
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (1972)
Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1973)
Safe Drinking Water Act (1974)
Energy Policy and Conservation Act (1975)
National Forest Management Act (1976)
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)
Clean Water Act (1977)
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977)
Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1978)
Superfund Law (1980)
Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (1980)
Montreal Protocol (1987)
National Environmental Education Act (1990)
International Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
International Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2000)
UN International Pa Water, Soil, and Agriculture
Essential Questions and Introduction:

1. How much of the water on earth is available to us as usable freshwater?
2. What are the two main sources of freshwater?
3. How can we ensure that we continue to have adequate supplies of freshwater to
meet our needs?
4. What is water pollution?
5. List and describe the six types of water pollutants.
6. What have governments done in an effort to clean up existing and prevent further
water pollution?
7. How does the formation of soil occur and what factors influence this process?
8. What are the four soil horizons? Describe them.
9. Describe the common soil types found around the world and where each is found.
10. What four main nutrient groups are required for optimum human health?
11. Why are many people not getting enough to eat despite the fact that global food
production remains ahead of global population growth?
12. What is meant by the term polyculture agriculture?
13. What is meant by the term monoculture agriculture?
14. Why do modern monoculture agricultural practices place more stress on the
environment than traditional polyculture agricultural techniques?
371
15. What are the main categories of pesticides?

16. Describe some government regulations that control pesticide use?
17. What is biological pest control and what are some of the benefits of this approach to
pest control?
18. Describe the green revolution and the three step process that it entails.
19. What are some of the benefits and drawbacks of the green revolution?
20. What is the difference between the first and the second green revolution?
21. What are genetically engineered organisms?
22. How can genetically modified crops be used to reduce the negative environmental
impact of agriculture?
23. What are some of the arguments surrounding the use of genetically modified
organisms?
24. What are some of the benefits of genetically modified organisms?
Introduction:
In this module you will be given the opportunity to learn about the fundamental importance of
water, soil, and agriculture in sustaining the human standard of living; and the heavy toll that
current agricultural practices take on our water and soil resources. Although water and soil
are two of the most important resources on earth they are also two of the most poorly
managed. We will explore traditional versus modern agricultural practices and the impact of
each on the environment. In addition, we will explore various means of reducing the harm to
the environment that results from modern agricultural practices.
Water as a Resource
People live longer today partly because of the availability of clean water. Water is an
amazing molecule with many unique properties. People can survive for many weeks without
food but only a few days without water. Despite the enormous importance of this resource it
is one of the world's most poorly managed.
How much do you know about water? Take this Properties of Water True/False Quiz to find
out. How did you do? Need a little review? Click on the following link to learn more about the
Properties of Water.
Earth, often referred to as the blue planet, has abundant water resources. Approximately
70% of the surface of the earth is covered by water. Of this 70%, however, approximately
97% of it is saltwater leaving only 3% of the earth's water as freshwater. Of the 3% of the
earth's water that is freshwater, approximately 77% is frozen leaving only about 0.024% of
the total amount of water on earth available to us as liquid freshwater.
Teachers' Domain, Who Owns the Water of the Great Lakes?, published September 5, 2008, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/wnet08.sci.ess.watcyc.wnetgrlake/
Sources of Water
372
Water for people comes

from two sources:
surface water and
groundwater. Surface
water is stored above
ground in lakes, ponds,
rivers, and streams.
Supplies of surface
water are continuously
restored by the
watershed in which the
lake, pond, river, or
stream is located. A
Watershed is an area of
land that is drained by a
river. River water is in
very high demand for a number of reasons. Water from rivers is readily available to a large
number of people due to the fact that rivers generally flow for long distances. In addition,
water from rivers can be used for a wide variety of purposes. Often, dams are built on rivers
in order to form reservoirs of water for irrigation, drinking, manufacturing, etc. Although dams
are beneficial to human populations because they provide large reservoirs of freshwater,
they are detrimental to the environment
Groundwater is precipitation that seeps underground. Supplies of groundwater are stored in
aquifers. Aquifers are usually porous rock but can sometimes be large caves as well.
Supplies of groundwater are continuously restored by the recharge zone in which the aquifer
is located. The recharge process takes a very long time, however, so freshwater in aquifers
can be rapidly depleted.
Supplies of Fresh Water

Teachers' Domain, The Disappearing Aral Sea, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 3,
2009,http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.aralsea/
Although fresh water is a renewable resource there is not an infinite supply. If supplies of
fresh water are not used sustainably this resource could become depleted to the point at
which we will have to find alternative means of obtaining adequate supplies of water. The
interactive activity above is an excellent example of how supplies of fresh water can become
depleted. Currently, about 70% of the water that we withdraw from rivers, lakes, and aquifers
is not returned to these sources. There are several alternative methods that have been
suggested for supplying our fresh water needs and some of them are already being used.
One method that is currently employed in some countries is desalinization of ocean water.
This can be achieved by using distillation or reverse osmosis. The major disadvantages of
desalinization are that the process is extremely expensive and it produces large amounts of
salty wastewater that have to be disposed of safely. Another method that has been
suggested as a means of obtaining fresh water is called water towing. There are multiple
ways to do this but most are not practical. The best method of ensuring that we continue to
have adequate supplies of fresh water is by practicing water conservation techniques.
373
assignment entitled "LAB: Earth's Waters." After completing this lab you will write a formal
Water Pollution
What is Water Pollution?
Water pollution is defined as the introduction of chemical, physical, or biological agents into
water. When this occurs water quality is degraded and organisms are harmed. There are two
overarching causes of water pollution: industrialization and rapid increase in human
population.
Categories of Pollutants
There are six categories of pollutants that that can contaminate and degrade aquatic
ecosystems.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pathogens: organisms that cause disease such as bacteria, parasites, and viruses.
Heavy Metals: arsenic, mercury, lead, and cadmium
Inorganic Chemicals: industrial chemicals, acids, bases, and salts
Organic Chemicals: fertilizers, detergents, products made from petroleum, pesticides,
oil, gas, etc.
5. Organic Matter: food waste, feces, animal and plant matter remains
6. Physical Agents: heat and suspended particulate solids.
Sources of Pollution
All of the above types of water pollution can come from either point sources or from nonpoint
sources. Point pollution is discharged from a single known source. Nonpoint pollution, on the
other hand, comes from many nonspecific sources. Some sources of point pollution are
374
landfills, wastewater treatment plants, and septic systems. Some sources of nonpoint
pollution include pesticides, fertilizers, debris and eroded dirt from construction and
development sites, and storm water runoff.
Teachers' Domain, Pollution Along the Rhine River, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.rhine/
Wastewater
Wastewater is
water that
contains wastes
from homes or
industry.
Wastewater
treatment plants
accommodate
most water that
goes down the
drain. The
purpose of
wastewater
treatment is to
make water clean
enough to return
to lakes or rivers.
Most wastewater
treatment plants
utilize primary and
secondary
treatment
processes. In
primary water treatment the wastewater undergoes filtration and is then sent to the first
settling tank. In secondary water treatment the water is moved from the first settling tank to
an aeration tank where it is mixed with oxygen and bacteria. The water is then moved to a
second settling tank and finally through a process of chlorination. Some wastewater
treatment facilities then utilize a tertiary treatment process in which water is dechlorinated.
Although this process of wastewater treatment is relatively effective, it cannot remove all
toxic substances from water.
Affects of Water Pollution on Ecosystems

Teachers' Domain, Acid Lake, published August 9, 2007, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.life.oate.acidlake/
Water pollution can affect ecosystems in a number of different ways. Many pollutants that
are commonly found in water are subject to a phenomenon called biological magnification. A
toxic substance that undergoes biological magnification increases in concentration as it is
passed down the food chain. Therefore, organisms that are higher on the food chain have
proportionally higher concentrations of the substance than do organisms that are lower on
the food chain. Some types of water pollution can result in immediate damage to an
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ecosystem as in the case of oil spills. In addition, an influx of some pollutants in water can
lead to artificial eutrophication.
To learn more about biological magnification click on the following link. Read the introduction
and instructions and then participate in the interactive activity illustration the phenomenon of
biological magnification. When you are done, answer the questions at the bottom of the
page.
NOAA: Biomagnification
Cleaning Up/Preventing Water Pollution

There have been a number of efforts made by governments to clean up existing water
pollution and prevent future pollution.
1. Clean Water Act (CWA): Also called Water Pollution Control Act, this was passed by
Congress in 1972. The purpose of the Clean Water Act was to maintain the chemical,
physical, and biological integrity of our nation's waters. The goal was to make all
surface waters clean enough for swimming and fishing.
2. Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (1972): Controls dumping into the
ocean.
3. Safe Drinking Water Act (1975): Protects groundwater and surface water from
pollution.
4. Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (1980):
Makes owners, operators and customers of hazardous waste sites responsible for
their own clean up.
5. Water Quality Act (1987): Supports efforts to clean polluted waters and protect
estuaries.
6. MARPOL: (The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships)
Prohibits discharge of oil and dumping of plastics.
7. Law of the Sea Treaty: enacted in order to clarify "ownership" of the oceans. Only
134 countries signed this treaty, some did not, including the U.S. This treaty
established the Territorial Sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone. The rest of the
world's oceans are controlled by the International Seabed Authority.
376
assignment entitled "Exploring the Environment - Water Quality."
Formation of Soil and Soil Types
Formation of Soil
Soil Formation occurs as the result of the interactions of several important factors: parent
material, time, climate, organisms, and slope. Parent Material is the geologic material and
mineral matter on which soil forms. Soil that forms on bedrock is referred to as residual soil.
Soil that forms on unconsolidated deposits is referred to as transported soil. Various factors
such as the rate of weathering, the rate of soil formation, and soil fertility are affected by the
parent material. Over the course of time the depth of the soil above the parent material
increases. Therefore, the longer soil has been forming the deeper the soil will be. Climate
influences the type of weathering that will occur, the rate of the weathering, and therefore the
depth of the soil. The amount of precipitation has an impact on soil fertility because if
influences how quickly nutrients are removed from the soil. Organisms have a tremendous
impact on the properties (both physical and chemical) of soil. Most of the organic matter in
soil comes directly from plants. Minerals and organic matter in the soil are mixed and
redistributed by burrowing organisms. Organisms play a large role in the nitrogen cycle.
Slope can affect the various types of soil. The soil can also vary according to the amount of
erosion as well as water content.
Go to the following website to learn more about the formation of soil and factors that
influence soil formation.
Soil Forming Factors
Soil Profile
377
Soils have variations in the following key

properties: composition, texture, structure, and
color. The variations in these factors result in soil
being divided into horizontal zones known as soil
horizons.
1. O Horizon is the uppermost soil horizon. It
consists of dead/decomposing leaves and
other organic matter.
2. A Horizon is most commonly referred to as
topsoil. It is composed primarily of organic
matter with the lower portion of this horizon
being mostly mineral matter and organic
matter.
3. B Horizon is most commonly referred to as
subsoil. It consists of fine particles of clay
that have washed down from the A horizon.
4. C Horizon consists primarily of parent
material that has been partially weathered.
Types of Soil
Soils are created through the interaction of climate, vegetation, organisms, and topography
of the organic and mineral material found on Earth's surface. Because different locations
around the world have different climates and topographies and support different kinds of
organisms, soil types vary from place to place. Each type possesses certain defining
characteristics, including color, texture, and mineral composition. This interactive activity
below features soil types found around the world. Maps highlight how narrowly or widely
each type is distributed over the planet.
Teachers' Domain, Soils Around the World, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.soils/
assignment entitled "Soil Webquest."
Soil as a Resource
Soil and Human Health: What People Eat
378
Soil is an extremely
important resource because
without it we would have no
food. Everything that we
eat, either directly or
indirectly, comes from the
soil. In order to remain
healthy and maintain
normal body function
people must consume
sufficient amounts of four
major nutrient groups as
well as meet a minimum
energy requirement. The
four main nutrient groups
are as follows:
1. Carbohydrates:
provide energy
2. Proteins: use to
build and maintain
the body
3. Lipids: used to build membranes and some hormones, supply energy, may be stored
and used later
4. Vitamins and Minerals: promote normal body function
If a person's diet is not sufficient to meet their nutritional or energy needs the person will
eventually suffer from malnutrition. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one
third of the world's people suffer from a deficiency in one or more vitamins and minerals,
most frequently in developing countries and involving vitamin A, iron, and iodine. A
deficiency in vitamin A can lead to blindness and increased susceptibility to contracting
various childhood diseases. A deficiency in iron leads to a condition called anemia which
causes fatigue, increased susceptibility to infection, and an increased risk of hemorrhage
during childbirth. A deficiency in iodine can result in a condition called goiter, stunted growth,
and mental retardation.
Why People Go Hungry

Although global food production has remained ahead of global population growth, one out of
every six people in developing countries is not getting enough to eat. Many scientists agree
that the two root causes of malnutrition are poverty, which prevents people from growing or
buying enough food, and inequitable distribution, which prevents people from obtaining their
share of the available food resources. War and corruption of governments are common
causes of food not being distributed to the individuals who need it most. In addition,
transportation of food is often a problem. Periods of extreme drought can also lead to people
not getting enough to eat. Droughts can cause crop failure and lead to starvation. If there is
a widespread epidemic of malnutrition and starvation this is termed a famine. Watch the
following video for an illustration of the hardships that can be imposed on a population as a
result of a combination between political issues and natural disasters.
Teachers' Domain, Arduous March, published August 22, 2008, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/wa08.socst.world.glob.arduous/
379
assignment entitled "Cost Calorie Analysis of Raw Foods."
Agriculture
Food Production Then
Historically, most food was produced through traditional subsistence farming or traditional
intensive farming. Farmers relied upon traditional agricultural practices such as polyculture,
intercropping, and polyvarietal cultivation. In addition, farmers utilized human and draft
animal labor rather than large farm machinery such as tractors. Using these traditional
farming practices crop yield is limited by the availability of arable land, water, and human
and draft animal labor. Currently, traditional farming techniques are still practiced by about
2.7 billion people in developing countries and provide about one-fifth of the world's food
supply using almost three-fourths of the world's cultivated land. During the last century,
however, our growing human population has led to a need for more efficient farming
practices that produce considerably higher yields in order to feed the people of the world.
Food Production Now

In modern agriculture there are three systems that are utilized to supply most of our food.
Croplands are used primarily to produce grains while pastures and rangelands are used to
produce meat, largely from grazing livestock such as cattle. Industrialized food production
focuses on monoculture rather than polyculture farming and involves the use of large
amounts of fossil fuel energy, pesticides, fertilizers, and water in order to maximize crop
yield. Although there has been a substantial increase in global food production since 1960,
these modern agricultural practices have also taken a heavy toll on the environment.
Environmental Impact of Modern Agriculture

Some of the environmental issues that have emerged as a result of the use of industrialized
monoculture agriculture techniques are topsoil erosion, salinization, and desertification.
Topsoil is a thin layer of soil that is necessary for plant growth. Practices such as
deforestation, plowing, tilling, and overgrazing all lead to an increased rate of topsoil erosion.
According to the Natural Resource Conservation Service, soil on cultivated land in the
United States is eroding approximately 16 times faster than it can be formed. Many scientists
feel that this is one of the greatest environmental problems that we face today. Salinization,
which results from over irrigation, refers to the gradual accumulation of salts in the upper soil
380
layers. According to reports from the United Nations severe salinization has led to a
reduction in crop yields on about one-fifth of the world's croplands. Desertification, which can
be caused by overgrazing, erosion, salinization, and deforestation, refers to a loss in the
productive potential of farmlands. In severe cases desertification can result in previously
arable lands being converted to deserts.
The Challenge
Scientists agree that we are currently faced with a tremendous challenge; to continue to
increase food production without causing any additional harm to the environment. Soil
conservation is the first step that is necessary to enable us to continue to increase food
production. There are many methods that can be utilized to conserve soil. First, by paying
attention to the slope of land when planting farmers can minimize runoff of topsoil. This can
be accomplished by contour plowing. In addition, farmers can leave strips of vegetation
when plowing, leave natural ecosystems in place, or use no-till farming. An increased
reliance upon sustainable agricultural techniques is the second step that must be taken in
order to minimize the negative environmental impact of food production. Sustainable
agriculture centers around low input farming or organic farming. In other words, in order to
reduce the negative environmental impact of agriculture we must figure out a way to
continue to increase crop yield while also utilizing more traditional farming techniques of the
past. See the video below that details one man's efforts to use sustainable organic farming
techniques in order to conserve topsoil.
Teachers' Domain, Organic Farming: Conserving Top Soil, published December 17, 2005, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.organic/
assignment entitled "History's Harvest." Click on the assignment link and then view the
video: History's Harvest. The link to this video is located in the sidebar on this content page
as well as in the sidebar on the assignments page of the module. As you watch the video
take notes using the assignment handout. When you are done write and one to two
paragraph summary.
Pest Management
Pesticides
When you think of a pest you might think of mosquitoes or fleas...something that causes you
discomfort. Although those are examples of pests there are also many pests that do not
cause us harm or discomfort, weeds in a flower bed for example. A pest is simply any
organism that occurs where you don't want it or in large enough numbers to cause damage.
381
In order to control pests we often use pesticides. There are four primary categories of
pesticides:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fungicides
Rodenticides
Insecticides
Herbicides
Since the 1950 widespread use of pesticides has increased dramatically and currently aver
25% of all pesticide use in the United States is for non agricultural purposes such as
controlling weeds and controlling insect populations in and around dwellings.
Benefits of Pesticide Use

There are unquestionable benefits from the use of pesticides. First, they help to save lives.
DDT, for example, is a pesticide that is used to control populations of the Malaria carrying
anopheles mosquito. By reducing mosquito populations the number of people that suffer
from Malaria is also reduced. Second, they increase crop yield and food supplies. Over 50%
of crops are lost to pests annually when pests are not controlled. Third, since they increase
crop yield they also increase the profits of farmers. Finally, they work much more quickly
than many other pest control methods.
Drawbacks of Pesticide Use

Along
with the
benefits
of
pesticide
use,
however,
are some
substantial drawbacks. First, many pesticides present serious health concerns. The WHO
and UNEP estimate that annually pesticides seriously poison 3.5 to 5 million agricultural
workers in developing countries and approximately 300,000 people in the United States.
They also estimate that pesticides cause 20,000 to 40,000 deaths per year. In addition,
pesticides have been linked to an increased prevalence of many cancers as well as some
other diseases. This is of great concern to many people due to the large percentage of foods
that contain pesticide residues. Look at the graph on the right for an overview of percentages
of the foods we eat that contain pesticide residues. Second, pesticides can harm wildlife.
Pollinating bee populations are declining rapidly and many scientists feel that this is largely
the result of pesticides. Third, pesticides do not necessarily remain where the are initially
382
used and they can therefore pollute the environment. See the diagram below that illustrates
the various pathways through which pesticides move between air, water, and soil. In
addition, many pesticides are persistent meaning they do not break down easily or quickly
when they enter the environment. DDT is one example of a pesticide with high persistance.
Finally, widespread use of pesticides leads to pesticide resistance in which pests become
resistant to pesticides.
Government Regulations
Government regulations have banned the use of some harmful pesticides but many
scientists argue that these regulation are not strict enough. The Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIRFA), which was initially passed in 1947 and was
amended in 1972 is designed to regulate the sale and use of pesticides. Despite this act,
however, less than 10% of the active ingredients in pesticide products have been evaluated
in terms of their long term health effects. The Food Quality Protection Act, passed by
Congress in 1996, requires the EPA to reduce the allowable levels of pesticide residues on
food by a factor of 10 if the potential risks of the pesticide on children are unknown.
Biological Pest Control

The best way to minimize the potential health and ecological risks of prolonged exposure to
pesticides is to avoid using them when possible. One alternative to the use of pesticides is
biological pest control. This method is preferable to using pesticides for a number of
reasons. First, other organisms are usually not harmed. Pesticides, on the other hand,
directly and indirectly harm many more organisms than those that are targeted. Second,
resistance takes longer to evolve when using biological pest control. Finally, harmful
chemicals are not used.
There are various methods of biological pest control that can be employed. Natural
predators, parasites, or pathogens can be released into the area where the pest lives. Pests
can also be controlled by using natural chemical compounds that are extracted from plants
to be used as pesticides. In addition, breeding cycles of pests can be disrupted. Finally,
plants can be crossbred to produce crops that have their own defenses.
383

One method of reducing or even eliminating the use of synthetic chemical pesticides is to
use biological pest control techniques. Use the internet to find one biological pest control
technique that you find interesting. Before composing your discussion post check with you
instructor to make sure that the technique that you have chosen is acceptable. Then write a
one to two paragraph explanation of this method. In your explanation include what organism
is use for pest control and what type of pest(s) it is used to combat, how and why the
technique is practiced, why it is effective, whether it is as effective at controlling pests as the
synthetic alternative, and your opinion of which is better - biological or synthetic
The Green Revolution and Genetically Modified Foods
The Green Revolution
The green revolution, initiated in the 1950's, describes the introduction of new crops with a
much higher yield than normal crop varieties. Since this time, over 80% of the increase in
global food production has been the result of the green revolution. The first green revolution
involved a three step process. First, high yield variations of monoculture crops were
selectively bred or genetically engineered and then planted. Second, large amounts of
fertilizers, pesticides, and water were used to further increase the overall crop yield. Finally,
multiple cropping was used to further increase the number of crops harvested each year.
The second green revolution, initiated in 1967, involved the same three step process utilized
in the first green revolution but integrated the use of fast-growing dwarf varieties of rice and
wheat.
Benefits of the Green Revolution

As a result of the two green revolutions world grain production tripled between 1950 and
1985. This helped to address the issue of how to feed the growing world population. In
addition, the two most heavily populated countries in the world, China and India, were able
to become largely self sufficient in terms of food production due to the green revolution.
Drawbacks of the Green Revolution

The new variations of crops that were produced for the green revolution reduced the
availability of older varieties that were once used. The problem, for many people, was that
these new crop varieties required more specific growing conditions, pesticides, and
chemicals thereby making them more expensive and difficult to grow. In developing
countries where subsistence farming is still widely practiced this put farmers at a distinct
disadvantage. This is widely evident in Africa which, since 1970, despite the rapidly growing
population has experienced the sharpest drop in per capita food production. This is due
384
largely to poor soil, lack of irrigation, and farmers not having enough money to purchase
pesticides and fertilizers that are necessary to obtain high crop yields from green revolution
crops. In addition, the high input approach that took hold with the initiation of the green
revolution causes harmful effects to soil, air, water, and biodiversity. According to many
scientists, modern agriculture is more detrimental to the environment than any other human
activity.
Genetic Engineering
The use of genetic engineering to further increase crop yields by producing genetically
superior crops and livestock animals is often referred to as the third green revolution. The
process of creating genetically engineered organisms (GMOs) involves splicing a gene from
one species and transplanting it into the DNA of another species. Relative to the selective
breeding and crossbreeding techniques of the past, genetic engineering usually costs less
and takes about half as much time.
To view the differences between selective breeding and the process of transgenic
manipulation click on the following link. After reading the introductory information on the left
click on "Selective Breeding" on the right side of the page. Navigate this tutorial in order to
explore the process of selective breeding. Then, click the back button and click on
"Transgenic Manipulation." Navigate this tutorial in order to explore the process of transgenic
manipulation.
NOVA: Harvest of Fear ~ Engineer a Crop
Benefits of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering can be used for a multitude of purposes. Presently, scientists are
creating crops that are resistant to pests, parasites, heat, cold, viral pathogens, drought, and
poor soil quality. These characteristics could enable farmers to drastically reduce the use of
pesticides, fertilizers, and large quantities of water required for production of high crop yield
from first and second green revolution crops. In addition, crops are being genetically
modified to contain nutrients that they would not otherwise contain as well as various
medications such as vaccinations. Scientists argue that this application could enable them to
easily vaccinate people in developing countries as well as to significantly reduce the
prevalence of diseases that are the result of nutrient deficiencies. Click on the photo to the
right to learn more about these genetically engineered (purple) tomatoes that contain high
levels of cancer fighting anti-oxidants.
Drawbacks of Genetic Engineering

Super Salmon: are they as super as they seem?
Teachers' Domain, Super Salmon, published September 26, 2003, retrieved on March 3, 2009,
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.gen.salmon/
Despite the obvious benefits there is a great deal of controversy surrounding the production
of genetically modified foods and many people openly refer to these products as
"Frankenfoods." First little to no research has been conducted on the potential long term
health effects that these products might pose for humans. Many people fear that if negative
385
health effects are discovered that it will be too late as genetically modified products cannot
be recalled or cleaned up like a typical food contamination. Second, there is concern that
genetic engineering could lead to "super weeds" that are resistant to herbicides. In addition,
some people are concerned that these foods will have lower nutritional values than the nongenetically engineered alternatives. There is also the concern that introducing genes from
one type of food to another could introduce new allergens into foods. Finally, some people
fear that plant cell mutations in genetically engineered organisms could lead to harmful
toxins in foods.
Do you want to learn more about the next wave of genetically modified foods that could be
coming to supermarket shelves near you? Click on the following link to explore the future of
GM foods. Then, click on "Guess What's Coming to Dinner" on the right side of the page.
Guess What's Coming to Dinner ~ GM Foods of the Future
Should we grow genetically engineered crops? It's time to further explore this issue and
voice your opinion. Click on the following link. After reading the information presented on
each page carefully think about what you have learned. Then, you get to vote...should we
grow genetically engineered crops or not? When you are done review all 12 arguments, 6 for
and 6 against. The link for this can be found at the bottom of the page.
386

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Contents

Earth Origin, Composition, and Structure ................................................................................. 20

Essential Questions: ................................................................................................................... 58

Energy Demands Discussion.................................................................................................... 75

The Rock Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 205

Waterlogging ............................................................................................................................... 214

Lab: Virtual Transgenic Fly Lab ............................................................................................. 234

Air Pollution and Climate Change ............................................................................................. 250

2. Secondary Pollutants ....................................................................................................... 263

Changes Due to Warming Temperatures......................................................................... 279

Eutrophication ............................................................................................................................ 294

Module Wrap-Up ............................................................................................................................. 304

Maintenance of Global Climate .......................................................................................... 318

Structure of Ecosystems...................................................................................................... 333

Ecological Succession ......................................................................................................... 345

Oceans ...................................................................................................................................... 358

Instruction: Concept 1 .................................................................................................................. 372

The Green Revolution ........................................................................................................... 384

How did the Earth and solar system form?

Formation of Earth and the Solar System

Formation of Earth's Atmosphere

gradually increased. Earth's present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21%

Formation of Earth's Oceans

What is in the Water? Discussion

Earth's Composition and Layers

Earth's Internal Heat Source

What evidence led to the theory of plate tectonics?

Theory of Plate Tectonics Activity

Pangaea: The History of the Continents

Theory of Plate Tectonics Activity

Continents Adrift: An Introduction to Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics Further Evidence Discussion

What are rocks made of?

Minerals in Our Environment Discussion

Minerals in Our Environment Discussion

Clastic sedimentary rocks are the most common type of

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when dissolved

Organic sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation

Heat provides the energy that is needed for metamorphism to occur.

Types of regional metamorphism:

Magma hardens and cools beneath the Earth's surface to form

Temperature and Chemical Weathering Lab

The Temperature and Chemical Weathering Lab

Erosion and Soil

Surface and Ground Water

Geologic Time and Correlation

What is radioactive decay and how can it be measured?

Grand Canyon Virtual Field Trip

Relative Age Dating

The picture above is an example of angular unconformity. This type of unconformity is

Absolute Age Dating

Radioactive isotopes used in Radiometric Dating

1.25 billion years

4.5 billion years

Earth and Life History

How does the availability of fresh water affect life on Earth?

History of Life I Quiz

History of Life I Quiz

Mass Extinction Discussion