Surveying

• Subject: Surveying II
• Semester: 6th
• Credit No #: 3
• Methodology: Lecture and Practice
• Sources: Surveying Principles and Applications (9th edition), Barry Kavanagh & Tom Mastin
• Lecturer Abdul Saboor Haidari
 Introduction
A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose
ends have been marked in the field and whose
lengths and directions have been determined
from observations.

Traversing
There are two kinds of traverses:

1.Closed traverse
2.Open Traverse
 Polygon
 In the polygon traverse, as shown in Figure the
lines return to the starting point, thus forming
a closed figure that is both geometrically and
Closed traverse mathematically closed.
 An open traverse (geometrically and mathematically open)
consists of a series of lines that are connected but do not
return to the starting point or close upon a point of equal or
greater order accuracy.

Open Traverse

Open traverses should be avoided because they offer no means of checking for observational
errors and mistakes. If they must be used, observations should be repeated carefully to guard
against mistakes
 Traverses are used extensively in:

a)Control,
Use of Traversing b)Construction,
c)Property,
d)Topographic surveys.
 With total station instruments, traverses can be
run using azimuths. This process permits
reading azimuths of all lines directly and thus
eliminates the need to calculate them. In Figr
9.3, azimuths are observed clockwise from the
north end of the meridian through the angle
Traversing by Azimuths points.
 Positions selected for setting traverse stations vary
with the type of survey.
In general, a place should use to consider in
choosing them include accuracy, utility, and
efficiency.
• Intervisibility between adjacent stations, forward
and back, must be maintained for angle and distance
Selection of observations.
Traverses Stations
The stations should also ideally be set in convenient
locations that allow for easy access.
normally, stations are placed to create lines that are
as long as possible.
This not only increases efficiency by reducing the
number of instrument setups, but it also increases
accuracy in angle observations.
 It is always wise to “walk” the area being
surveyed and find ideal locations for stations before
the traverse stakes are set and the observation
process is undertaken.
Each different type of survey will have its unique
requirements concerning traverse station placement.
Selection of On property surveys, for example, traverse
Traverses Stations stations are placed at each corner if the actual
boundary lines are not obstructed and can be
occupied. If offset lines are necessary, a stake is
located near each corner to simplify the observations
and computations.
Finally station locations must be selected to permit
complete coverage of the area to be mapped.
 Traverse stations often must be found and
reoccupied months or even years after they are
established. Also they may be destroyed through
construction or other activity. Therefore, it is
important that they be referenced by creating
observational ties to them so that they can be
Referencing relocated if obscured or reestablished if destroyed
Traverse Stations
 If natural or existing features such as trees, utility
poles, or corners of buildings are not available,
stakes may be driven and used as ties. Figure
9.5(a) shows an arrangement of straddle hubs
well suited to tying in a point such as H on a
highway centerline or elsewhere.
Referencing
Traverse Stations
 Notice that details such as date, weather,
instrument identifications, and party members
and their duties are recorded on the right-hand
page of the notes.

Also a sketch with a north arrow is shown.The

observed data is recorded on the left-hand page.
Traverse Field Notes First, each station that is occupied is identified,
For office check and the heights of the total station instrument
and reflector that apply at that station are
recorded.

Then horizontal circle readings, zenith angles,

horizontal distances, and elevation differences
observed at each station are recorded.
Traverse Field Notes
 The angular misclosure for an interior-angle traverse
is the difference between
the sum of the observed angles and the
geometrically correct total for the polygon.
The sum, ∑ of the interior angles of a closed polygon
should be

Angle Misclosure
where n is the number of sides, or angles, in the
polygon. This formula is easily derived from known
facts. The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°; in a
rectangle, 360°; and in a pentagon, 540°.Thus, each
side added to the three required for a triangle
increases the sum of the angles by 180°.
 The sum of the exterior angles will be

The figure five-sided figure, if the sum of the

observed interior angles equals 540°00.05 ̋ the
angular misclosure is 5 ̋ Misclosures result from the
accumulation of random errors in the angle
Angle Misclosure observations. Permissible misclosure can be
computed by the formula

where n is the number of angles, and K a constant that

depends on the level of accuracy specified for the survey.
 The Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS)
recommends constants (K) for
five different orders of traverse accuracy:
•First-order,
•Second-order class I,
•Second-order class II,
• Third-order class I,
• Thirdorder class II.
Angle Misclosure Misclosure in traverse is 5 ̋ figr 9.1
Values of K for these orders, from highest to lowest, are
1.7 ,̋ 3 ̋, 4.5 ̋ , 10 ,̋ and 12 ̋
respectively. Thus, if the traverse of Figure 9.1(a) were
being executed to third-order
class I standards, its allowable misclosure error would
be.
 1. Poor selection of stations, resulting in bad
sighting conditions caused by:

(a)alternate sun and shadow,

(b)visibility of only the rod’s top,
(c)line of sight passing too close to the ground,
Sources of Error (d)lines that are too short, and
(e)sighting into the sun.
in Traversing
2. Errors in observations of angles and distances.
3. Failure to observe angles an equal number of
times direct and reversed.
 Some mistakes in traversing are:

1.Occupying or sighting on the wrong station.

2.Incorrect orientation.
Mistakes in Traversing 3.Confusing angles to the right and left.
4.Mistakes in note taking.
5.Misidentification of the sighted station
 Introduction
Different procedures can be used for computing and adjusting
traverses. These vary from elementary methods to more
advanced techniques.

The usual steps followed in making elementary traverse

computations are:

Traversing Computations (1)adjusting angles or directions to fixed geometric conditions,

(2)determining preliminary azimuths (or bearings) of the
traverse lines,
(3)calculating departures and latitudes and adjusting them for
misclosure,
(4)computing rectangular coordinates of the traverse stations,
(5)calculating the lengths and azimuths (or bearings) of the
traverse lines after adjustment.
 In elementary methods of traverse adjustment, the first
step is to balance (adjust) the angles to the proper
geometric total. For closed traverses, angle balancing is
done readily since the total error is known.
Angles of a closed traverse can be adjusted to the correct
geometric total by applying one of two methods:

Balancing Angles 1.Applying an average correction to each angle where

observing conditions were approximately the same at all
stations. The correction for each angle is found by
dividing the total angular misclosure by the number of
angles.

2.Making larger corrections to angles where poor

observing conditions were present.
The first one is almost always applied.
 Example 10.1
For the traverse of Figr 10.1, the observed interior angles are given in
Table 10.1. Compute the adjusted angles using methods 1 and 2.

Solution
The computations are best arranged as shown in Table 10.1. The first
part of the adjustment consists of summing the interior angles and
determining the misclosure according to Equation (9.1), which in
this instance, as shown beneath column 2, is +11 .̋
Balancing Angles The remaining calculations are tabulated, and the rationale for the
procedures follows.
Balancing Angles
 After balancing the angles, the next step in traverse
computation is calculation of either preliminary
azimuths or preliminary bearings.

This requires the direction of at least one course

within the traverse to be either known or assumed.
Computation of
Preliminary Azimuths For some computational purposes an assumed
or Bearings direction is sufficient, and in that case the usual
procedure is to simply assign north as the direction of
one of the traverse lines.
 Example 10.2
Compute preliminary azimuths for the traverse courses
of Figr 10.1, based on a fixed azimuth of 234°17 18̒ ̋
for line AW, a measured angle to the right of
151°5224̒ ̋ ̋
for WAE, and the angle adjustment by method 1 of
Table 10.1
Computation of
Preliminary Azimuths Solution
Step 1: Compute the azimuth of course AB.
or Bearings
 Example 10.2
Solution

 Step 2: Using the tabular method discussed in

Section 7.8, compute preliminary azimuths for the
remaining lines.The computations for this example
Computation of are shown in Table 10.2. Figr 10.2 demonstrates the
Preliminary Azimuths computations for line BC. Note that the azimuth of AB
or Bearings was recalculated as a check at the end of the table.
Conversion from bearing to azimuth
Conversion from azimuth to bearing

6
a. Bearing and back bearing illustration
 b. Azimuth illustration
An azimuth is an angle to the right (clockwise) from the meridian to the line. In most cases
the azimuth is turned from the north meridian end; earlier control surveys used the south
end. An azimuth varies from 0° to 360°.
Illustration of Back azimuth