EE4602 JanJune20-21

Subject : Power Transmission & Distribution
Subject Code : EE4602 L-T-P-Cr: 3-0-0-3
Objective: To learn the basic of power system distribution and transmission

Pre-requisite: Elements of Basic Electrical Engineering
Course Outcome:
CO1 Recall fundamental components of transmission and distribution system.
CO2 Explain different type of phenomena occurring in transmission and distribution system.
CO3 Associate the operating principles, design aspects, physical phenomenon of transmission
system to the practical power system.
CO4 Solve quantitative problems on performance parameters of radial distribution system,
electrical and mechanical design parameters of transmission and distribution system.
CO5 Determine the metrics for steady state and transients condition for transmission line.
CO6 Evaluate the inter-relationship between different performance and design parameters of
transmission system.
Syllabus:
Unit 1. Distribution: Effect of system voltage on transmission efficiency, Single phase AC, 3 phase
AC System. Choice of Conductor’s Size, choice of voltage, Radial and ring Feeders; Calculation
of voltage drop in AC. Radial and ring system. 6 Hours
Unit 2. Electrical Design: Calculation of Inductance of conductor due to internal and external
flux, Inductance of Single Phase system; Skin and proximity effects/ G.M.R. of solid
conductor: G.M.R. of standard conductor; Mutual G.M.D. Inductance of opposite conductor
lines, Inductance of 3- phase lines single circuit and double circuit, symmetrical spacing and
unsymmetrical spacing. Inductance of bundled conductor system, Calculation of capacitance
of single phase and 3-phase system, symmetrical and unsymmetrical and unsymmetrical
spacing, single circuit and double circuit bundled conductor system, effect of earth on
capacitance of line. 10 Hours
Unit 3. Mechanical Design: Types of supports cross arms and conductors. Calculation of sag and
tension, cases of unequal height of supports. Stringing chart, earth clearance of live
conductors, vibration, dampers. Types of insulator, Potential distribution over a string of
suspension insulator, Methods of equalizing potential 8 Hours
Unit 4. Performance of Lines: Short medium and long lines, A.B.C.D constants: regulations nominal
T and Pi, equivalent T and Pi representation, surge impedance, surge impedance loading of
line, universal power circle diagram. Lossless line. Corona, corona loss, line design based on
corona 10 Hours
Unit 5. Underground cables: Types, insulating materials, stress in insulation and capacitance inter
seath and capacitance grading, P.F. in cables capacitance of 3-core cables. Instantaneous and
long time breakdown strength, dielectric losses, Ionization, deterioration, Heat production,
Sheath current, Thermal characteristics. 8 Hours
Suggested Readings:
1. C.L. Wadhwa Electrical Power System
2. I J Nagrath & Kothari, Modern power System , TMH.
3. Stevenson , Elements of power System Analysis, McGraw Hill
4. Soni, Gupta & Bhattnagar A Course in Electrical Power, Dhanpat Rai & Sons
5. A R Bergen & V Vittal, Power System Analysis, Pearson Education
Objective: To learn the basic of power system distribution and transmission.

Outcome: After completion of this course student will be able to:
CO1: Recall fundamental components of transmission and distribution system. (Remember-Level 1)
CO2: Explain different type of phenomena occurring in transmission and distribution system.
(Understand-L2)
CO3: Associate the operating principles, design aspects, physical phenomenon of transmission system
to the practical power system. (Understand-L2)
CO4: Solve quantitative problems on performance parameters of radial distribution system, electrical
and mechanical design parameters of transmission and distribution system. (Apply-L3)
CO5: Determine the metrics for steady state and transients condition for transmission line. (Analyse-
L4)
CO6: Evaluate the inter-relationship between different performance and design parameters of
transmission system. (Evaluate-L5)
Syllabus:
Unit 1. Distribution: Effect of system voltage on transmission efficiency, Single phase AC, 3 phase AC
System. Choice of Conductor’s Size, choice of voltage, Radial and ring Feeders; Calculation of
voltage drop in AC. Radial and ring system. 6 Hours – CO1, CO4
Corrective action – 18 Hours (Gap – student performance in earlier sem was poor)
flux, Inductance of Single Phase system; Skin and proximity effects/ G.M.R. of solid conductor:
G.M.R. of standard conductor; Mutual G.M.D. Inductance of opposite conductor lines,
Inductance of 3- phase lines single circuit and double circuit, symmetrical spacing and
capacitance of line. 10 Hours – CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5, CO6
suspension insulator, Methods of equalizing potential. 8 Hours – CO1, CO3, CO4, CO6
Corrective action – 6 Hours (Gap – extra lectures provided)
corona. 10 Hours – CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO6
Corrective action – 5 Hours (Gap – Can be completed in less hours as materials are repeatative
and the extra lectures used to compensate classes in Unit 1)
Unit 5. Underground cables: Types, insulating materials, stress in insulation and capacitance
interseath and capacitance grading, P.F. in cables capacitance of 3-core cables. Instantaneous
and long time breakdown strength, dielectric losses, Ionization, deterioration, Heat
production, Sheath current, Thermal characteristics. 8 Hours – CO1, CO3
Corrective action – 2 Hours (Gap – Earlier Semester Number of Lectures Required Less)
Extra Unit added – Trasients in Transmission line – 2 Hours – Questions asked in GATE and
other competitive Exams
Suggested Readings:
Objective: To learn the basic of power system distribution and transmission.

Outcome: After completion of this course student will be able to:
CO1: Recall fundamental components of transmission and distribution system. (Remember-Level 1)
CO2: Explain different type of phenomena occurring in transmission and distribution system.
(Understand-L2)
CO3: Associate the operating principles, design aspects, physical phenomenon of transmission system
to the practical power system. (Understand-L2)
CO4: Solve quantitative problems on performance parameters of radial distribution system, electrical
and mechanical design parameters of transmission and distribution system. (Apply-L3)
CO5: Determine the metrics for steady state and transients condition for transmission line. (Analyse-
L4)
CO6: Evaluate the inter-relationship between different performance and design parameters of
transmission system. (Evaluate-L5)
Syllabus:
Unit 1. Distribution: Effect of system voltage on transmission efficiency, Single phase AC, 3 phase AC
System. Choice of Conductor’s Size, choice of voltage, Radial and ring Feeders; Calculation of
voltage drop in AC. Radial and ring system. 15 Hours – CO1, CO4
flux, Inductance of Single Phase system; Skin and proximity effects/ G.M.R. of solid conductor:
G.M.R. of standard conductor; Mutual G.M.D. Inductance of opposite conductor lines,
Inductance of 3- phase lines single circuit and double circuit, symmetrical spacing and
capacitance of line. 10 Hours – CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5, CO6
suspension insulator, Methods of equalizing potential. 6 Hours – CO1, CO3, CO4, CO6
corona. 5 Hours – CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO6
Unit 5. Underground cables: Types, insulating materials, stress in insulation and capacitance
interseath and capacitance grading, P.F. in cables capacitance of 3-core cables. Instantaneous
and long time breakdown strength, dielectric losses, Ionization, deterioration, Heat
production, Sheath current, Thermal characteristics. 2 Hours – CO1, CO3
Unit 6. Trasients in Transmission line: Transmission line transients, surge impedance, SIL, Travelling
wave – when line terminates with resistance, reactance, terminates at a cable, end is short
circuited etc. T-Junction. 2 Hours – CO2, CO4, CO5
Suggested Readings:
Reference Books or Materials for each of the Modules of The syllabus:
Unit 1. Distribution: Material provided in PDF form during class
Unit 2. Electrical Design: Power System Analysis (1994) - Grainger, Stevenson (Provided)
Electrical Power Systems (2006) - D Das (Provided)
Unit 3. Mechanical Design: Chapter 15 of Electrical Power Systems (2006) - D Das
A few supportive materials will be provided in coming weeks.
Unit 4. Performance of Lines: First part upto lossless line is given in the following NPTEL material
https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108104051/ui/Course_home-2.htm and Grainger
Section Corona – Chapter 14 of Electrical Power Systems -D Das
Unit 5. Underground cables: Material provided in the google drive –the link as follows
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1nOSEaHevDQUsFTwaCpWlLWDi_uT0WI0d?usp=sharing
Power Transmission and Distribution
Code: EE 4602 Credit: 3 L-T-P:3-0-0
Unit No Lecture No. Topic
1 Introduction to Syllabus, relevance of the subject, the outcome and pre-
requisite discussion
1 2 Introduction to Power System, different components of Power system,
Importance of High Voltage in transmission, relation of high voltage
transmission with efficiency
3 Concept of Distribution System – AC and DC. DC distribution system
– ring main and radial system, Comparison of Ring main and Radial
system
3 Radial System – voltage drop calculation - numerical
2 Ring main system, derivations, numericals
1 AC system – single phase, three phase
3 Comparison of amount of Cu required in different system
1 Choice of conductor, Choice of voltage
2 2 Calculation of Inductance of conductor due to internal and external
flux,.
1 Inductance of Single Phase system; Skin and proximity effects.
First Class Test on Unit 1
2 G.M.R. of solid conductor: G.M.R. of standard conductor; Mutual
G.M.D.
1 Inductance of opposite conductor lines, Inductance of 3- phase lines
single circuit and double circuit,
2 symmetrical spacing and unsymmetrical spacing. Inductance of bundled
conductor system, Calculation of capacitance of single phase and 3-
phase system,
2 single circuit and double circuit bundled conductor system, effect of
earth on capacitance of line
3 1 Types of supports cross arms and conductors. earth clearance of live
conductors, vibration, dampers.
3 Calculation of sag and tension, cases of unequal height of supports.
Stringing chart,
2 Types of insulator, Potential distribution over a string of suspension
insulator, Methods of equalizing potential
4 1 Short medium and long lines nominal T and Pi, equivalent T and Pi
representation,
2 A.B.C.D constants: regulations for long, medium and short lines
2 surge impedance, surge impedance loading of line. Lossless line.
Corona, corona loss, line design based on corona
Second Class Test
5 1 Types, insulating materials, stress in insulation and capacitance inter

seath and capacitance grading.
1 Instantaneous and long time breakdown strength, dielectric losses,
Ionization, deterioration.
6 1 Transmission line transients, travelling wave, incident and reflected
wave
2 A transmission line terminated at a resistance, reactance.
1 T-Line
Total Lectures Required 42 + 1(introduction)+2(Class Test)
___________________
Dr. Mala De
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engg. Dept
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R
1
2 Course Code: EE4602: Power Transmission & Distribution Session: Jan-June 2021
3 Course PO Attainment 2.152 2.152 1.43467 0.7173 0 0.71733 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.152 0 0

4 Average: 3 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
5 PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
6 C202.1 CO1 3 3 3
7 C202.2 CO2 3 3 1 3
8 C202.3 CO3 3 3 2 1 3
9 C202.4 CO4 3 3 3
10 C202.5 CO5 3 3 2 3
11 C202.6 CO6 3 3 1 3
12
13 Correlation levels 1, 2 or 3 as defined below:
14 1 Slight (Low)
15 2 Moderate (Medium)
16 3 Substantial (High)
17
Blooms’
SlNO DESCRIPTION Taxonomy
18 Level
19 C202.1 CO1 Recall fundamental components of transmission and distribution system. R - L1

20 C202.2 CO2 Explain different type of phenomena occurring in transmission and distribution system. U - L2
Associate the operating principles, design aspects, physical phenomenon of transmission system to the practical power
21 C202.3 CO3 system. U - L2
Solve quantitative problems on performance parameters of radial distribution system, electrical and mechanical design
22 C202.4 CO4 parameters of transmission and distribution system. P - L3
23 C202.5 CO5 Determine the metrics for steady state and transients condition for transmission line. A - L4
24 C202.6 CO6 Evaluate the inter-relationship between different performance and design parameters of transmission system. E - L5
25
26 Bench mark Attainment of COs: Level Blooms Taonomy
27 If 80% students got greater than the target then attainment is 3 1 Remembering (R)
28 If 70% students got greater than the target then attainment is 2 2 Understanding (U)
29 If 60% students got greater than the target then attainment is 1 3 Applying (P)
30 4 Analysing (A)
31 5 Evaluate (E)
32 6 Create (C)
Course Attainment EE4602: Power Transmission & Distribution
Direct Assessment
Average
Average Attainment
Course Outcome Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Attainment Quiz-1 Quiz-2 Class Test-1 Class Test-2 End Semester
Closed Book)
(Open Book)
CO1 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 2.2
CO2 3 3 2 1 1 0 1
CO3 3 3 1 3 1 1 1.5
CO4 3 3 3 3 1 3 2.5
CO5 3 3 2 3 2.5
CO6 3 3
Attainment 3 1.94
Weighted % 20 80
Weighted Direct Attainment 0.6 1.552
Total of Direct Attainment for the course 2.152

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
1 EE5604 Q1 Q2a,c Q2b Q3a,c Q3b Q4a,c,g Q4d,f Q4b,e TOTAL Percentage 37
2 CO1 5 6 4 15 40.540541
3 CO2 3 3 8.1081081
4 CO3 3 3 8.1081081
5 CO4 10 4 14 37.837838
6 CO5 5 5 13.513514
7 CO6 0 0
9 TOTAL 10 5 5 6 4 4 3 37
10
11 CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6
12 CO wise Maximum Marks 15 3 3 14 5 0
13 Competence of 60% Threashold 9 1.8 1.8 8.4 3 0
14 No. of students attended 60% criteria 94 56 65 95 93 0
15 Attainment in %: 92.15686 54.90196 63.72549 93.1373 91.176471 0
16 CO Attainment 3 0 1 3 3
17
18
19 Question wise Maximum Marks: MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE
20 Total Students 102 10 5 5 6 4 4 3 3 39.5 15 3 3 14 5
21 Roll No Name Q1 Q2a,c Q2b Q3a,c Q3b Q4a,c,g Q4d,f Q4b,e TOTAL CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
22 1902001 SHYAM JEE 10 4 3 5.5 4 4 1 3 34.5 13.5 1 2.75 14 4
23 1902002 SHUBHAM PRAKASH10 2.5 3 5.5 4 4 1 3 33 12 1 2.75 14 2.5
24 1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 10 3.5 3 5.5 4 4 2 3 35 13 2 2.75 14 3.5
25 1902004 VIVEKANAND 8 5 3 5 4 4 1 3 33 14 1 2.5 12 5
26 1902005 ANAMIKA KUMARI 10 4 5 5.5 4 4 2 3 37.5 13.5 2 2.75 14 4
27 1902007 SHIVANSH MAURYA10 4.5 3 2.5 4 4 2.5 3 33.5 11 2.5 1.25 14 4.5
28 1902008 ANKIT KUMAR 10 5 3 5.5 4 4 1 3 35.5 14.5 1 2.75 14 5
29 1902009 ROSHAN 10 5 3 6 4 4 1 3 36 15 1 3 14 5
30 1902010 SANJAY KUMAR 10 4 3 6 4 4 2.5 3 36.5 14 2.5 3 14 4
31 1902011 SUMIT KUMAR BHARTI
10 4 3 4 4 4 1.5 3 33.5 12 1.5 2 14 4
32 1902012 ADITYA KUMAR 10 5 3 3 4 4 1.5 3 33.5 12 1.5 1.5 14 5
33 1902016 RAHUL KUMAR 10 5 4 5 4 4 1 3 36 14 1 2.5 14 5
34 1902017 MOHIT KUMAR GOND
10 4 3 1.5 4 4 0.5 3 30 9.5 0.5 0.75 14 4
35 1902018 AVINASH 10 4 3 4.5 4 4 1 3 33.5 12.5 1 2.25 14 4
36 1902019 SHIVANG SHARMA 10 4 3 3 4 3.5 3 3 33.5 10.5 3 1.5 14 4
37 1902020 ANJALI KUMARI 10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 1 3 35 14 1 2.75 14 4.5
38 1902021 AJAY KUMAR SHARMA
10 4 3 5 4 4 2 3 35 13 2 2.5 14 4
39 1902022 VIVEK KUMAR 10 5 3 5 4 4 2 3 36 14 2 2.5 14 5
40 1902023 RITIK KANNAUJIYA 10 5 3 3.5 4 4 2 3 34.5 12.5 2 1.75 14 5
41 1902025 TABISH ADNAN 10 4.5 5 6 4 4 1 3 37.5 14.5 1 3 14 4.5
42 1902026 CHANDRA MOHAN RAJ
9 4 3 2 4 4 1 3 30 10 1 1 13 4
43 1902027 MAYANK KUMAR 10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 3 3 37 14 3 2.75 14 4.5
44 1902028 AVI SONI 9 4 4 4 4 4 1 3 33 12 1 2 13 4
45 1902029 SUHANI 10 4.5 4 5 4 3.5 2 3 36 13 2 2.5 14 4.5
46 1902030 NAVNEET KUMAR 9 4.5 4 5 4 4 3 3 36.5 13.5 3 2.5 13 4.5
47 1902031 ASISH KUMAR BAIRWA
8 4 3 3.5 4 4 1 3 30.5 11.5 1 1.75 12 4
48 1902032 RAYAPUREDDY LAKSHMI
9 NARAYAN
4 3 2 4 4 2 3 31 10 2 1 13 4
49 1902033 RITIKA CHOUDHARY9 4 3 3.5 4 4 1 3 31.5 11.5 1 1.75 13 4
50 1902034 PADMAJA JHA 10 4 3 4.5 4 4 2.5 3 35 12.5 2.5 2.25 14 4
51 1902035 ASHAY KUMAR GUPTA
10 4.5 3 3.5 4 4 2 3 34 12 2 1.75 14 4.5
52 1902036 GAURAV KUMAR 10 4.5 3 3.5 4 4 2 3 34 12 2 1.75 14 4.5
53 1902038 AMAN RAJ 10 5 3 4.5 4 4 1 3 34.5 13.5 1 2.25 14 5
54 1902039 VISHAL SINGH 8 4 5 5 4 4 1 3 34 13 1 2.5 12 4
55 1902040 KEERTHANA PRABHU
10A V 4 4.5 3 4 4 2 3 34.5 11 2 1.5 14 4
56 1902041 RISHABH MISHRA 8 4 5 5.5 4 4 2 3 35.5 13.5 2 2.75 12 4
57 1902042 SURAJ KUMAR 9 4 3 2 4 1 0 3 26 7 0 1 13 4
58 1902043 DUVADA S D VILAS CHOUDHURY
10 3.5 3 2 4 4 2 3 31.5 9.5 2 1 14 3.5
59 1902044 GIREESH KUMAR SINGH
10 4 5 5.5 4 4 2 3 37.5 13.5 2 2.75 14 4
60 1902045 AYUSH ARYAN 10 4 5 5.5 4 4 2.5 3 38 13.5 2.5 2.75 14 4
61 1902046 ANJALI 9 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 38 14 3 2.5 13 5
62 1902047 RAMKESH MEENA 9 4 4.5 5 4 4 2 3 35.5 13 2 2.5 13 4
63 1902048 ROHIT KUMAR SINGH
8 4.5 5 5 4 4 0 3 33.5 13.5 0 2.5 12 4.5
64 1902050 AYUSHMAN SHARMA
8 4 3 5 4 4 2 3 33 13 2 2.5 12 4
65 1902051 RAUSHAN SUMAN 10 4 2 2.5 2 4 1 3 28.5 10.5 1 1.25 12 4
66 1902052 ANIRUDDHA SHARMA
10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 1.5 3 35.5 14 1.5 2.75 14 4.5
67 1902053 PRAJAS VIKAS LOKHANDE
10 4 3 2 4 4 1 3 31 10 1 1 14 4
68 1902054 RAHUL DEV 10 4 3 2 4 4 1 3 31 10 1 1 14 4
69 1902055 SANTOSH KUMAR 10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 0 3 34 14 0 2.75 14 4.5
70 1902056 ZOHAIB BIN HAMID10 5 5 5.5 4 4 1 3 37.5 14.5 1 2.75 14 5
71 1902057 HIMANSHU NAGAR10 4 3 2 4 4 1 3 31 10 1 1 14 4
72 1902058 PRIYANKA BHARTI 10 4.5 3 3.5 4 4 2.5 3 34.5 12 2.5 1.75 14 4.5
73 1902059 AMIT KUMAR SINGH10 5 5 5.5 4 4 2.5 3 39 14.5 2.5 2.75 14 5
74 1902060 PRACHI GUPTA 10 4 3 2 4 4 2 3 32 10 2 1 14 4
75 1902061 WASHIM RAZA 7 4 3 3.5 4 4 1 3 29.5 11.5 1 1.75 11 4
76 1902062 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH
10 4 3 5.5 4 4 2 3 35.5 13.5 2 2.75 14 4
77 1902063 AMBIKA 10 5 5 5.5 4 4 2.5 3 39 14.5 2.5 2.75 14 5
78 1902064 BHUKYA BHANUMATI
9 4.5 3 2.5 4 4 2 3 32 11 2 1.25 13 4.5
79 1902065 PRASHANT KUMAR MEENA
8 4 3 2 4 4 2 3 30 10 2 1 12 4
80 1902067 PRAKASH KUMAR 10 4 3 5 4 4 3 3 36 13 3 2.5 14 4
81 1902068 KUMAR SATYAM 10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 2 3 36 14 2 2.75 14 4.5
82 1902069 SUBHAM RAI 10 4 3 2 4 4 2 3 32 10 2 1 14 4
83 1902071 AMAN KUMAR 10 5 5 5.5 4 4 3 3 39.5 14.5 3 2.75 14 5
84 1902072 KAUSHIKI RAWAT 9 5 3 2 4 4 2.5 3 32.5 11 2.5 1 13 5
85 1902073 NIRANJAN KUMAR 7 4 3 3 4 4 2.5 3 30.5 11 2.5 1.5 11 4
86 1902075 SAMEER SHEKHAR 10 4.5 5 5 4 4 1 3 36.5 13.5 1 2.5 14 4.5
87 1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR 6 4.5 3 4.5 4 3 0.5 3 28.5 12 0.5 2.25 10 4.5
88 1902077 ANKIT KUMAR SINGH
10 4.5 5 5.5 4 4 2 3 38 14 2 2.75 14 4.5
89 1902078 RITESH KUMAR 10 4.5 5 5 4 4 2 3 37.5 13.5 2 2.5 14 4.5
90 1902080 ADARSH JHA 10 5 3 6 4 4 2.5 3 37.5 15 2.5 3 14 5
91 1902081 VISHAL KUMAR SHAH
10 5 3 6 4 4 2 3 37 15 2 3 14 5
92 1902082 SURAJ KUMAR 10 5 5 5 4 4 2.5 3 38.5 14 2.5 2.5 14 5
93 1902083 ABHISHEK KUMAR 10 5 5 5.5 4 4 2.5 3 39 14.5 2.5 2.75 14 5
94 1902084 AMIT SINGH 10 4.5 5 5.5 4 4 3 3 39 14 3 2.75 14 4.5
95 1902086 AYUSH GARG 10 3.5 5 5 4 4 2 3 36.5 12.5 2 2.5 14 3.5
96 1902091 SHASHWAT AWASTHI
10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 1 3 35 14 1 2.75 14 4.5
97 1902092 SUDHAKAR RAWAT 8 5 3 4.5 4 4 3 3 34.5 13.5 3 2.25 12 5
98 1902094 PRIYANSHU SHEKHAR
10 5 3 3.5 4 4 1.5 3 34 12.5 1.5 1.75 14 5
99 1902095 ANURAG KUMAR 10 5 3 2.5 4 4 2 3 33.5 11.5 2 1.25 14 5
100 1902096 ANUJ YADAV 10 5 3 4.5 4 4 2 3 35.5 13.5 2 2.25 14 5
101 1902097 DEVESH KUMAR GUPTA
10 4 5 5.5 4 4 2 3 37.5 13.5 2 2.75 14 4
102 1902098 HARSH RAJ 10 4.5 3 5.5 4 4 1 3 35 14 1 2.75 14 4.5
103 1902099 PITTU GANESH REDDY
8 4 3 2 4 4 2.5 3 30.5 10 2.5 1 12 4
104 1902100 HRITIK SHARMA 10 4 5 5.5 4 4 1 3 36.5 13.5 1 2.75 14 4
105 1902101 ADITYA SWAROOP 10 4 5 5.5 4 4 1 3 36.5 13.5 1 2.75 14 4
106 1902103 ROHAN SRIVASTAV 10 4 3 4 4 4 1 3 33 12 1 2 14 4
107 1902104 KETHA LAKSHMI NAGA
10 SRI DEEPT
4 3 5 4 4 2 3 35 13 2 2.5 14 4
108 1902105 SUMIT KUMAR 10 4 3 5 4 4 2.5 3 35.5 13 2.5 2.5 14 4
109 1902106 AMAN ALAM 10 4.5 5 5.5 4 4 1 3 37 14 1 2.75 14 4.5
110 1902107 DIVYANSHU RAJ 10 4.5 4 6 4 4 2 3 37.5 14.5 2 3 14 4.5
111 1902108 SAURABH SANTOSH10
DHOTRE 4 5 5.5 4 4 2.5 3 38 13.5 2.5 2.75 14 4
112 1902109 ASHOK KALWA 10 3 2 4.5 4 4 2 3 32.5 11.5 2 2.25 14 3
113 1902110 LABALA RAKESH 8 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 32 12 2 2 12 4
114 1902111 NIKHIL SINGH 10 4 5 5.5 4 4 1 3 36.5 13.5 1 2.75 14 4
115 1902113 BHEEM SINGH MEENA
9 4 3 3.5 4 4 1 3 31.5 11.5 1 1.75 13 4
116 1902114 UDIT SINGH 10 5 3 5.5 4 4 2 3 36.5 14.5 2 2.75 14 5
117 1902115 IZHAR AHMAD 9 4.5 4 5.5 4 4 1.5 3 35.5 14 1.5 2.75 13 4.5
118 1902116 PRAGYESH KUMAR 9 3.5 3 2 4 3 0 3 27.5 8.5 0 1 13 3.5
119 1902117 NIRANJAN KUMAR SINHA
10 4 3 6 4 4 3 3 37 14 3 3 14 4
120 1902118 SANJEEV RANJAN 10 4 3 6 4 4 2 3 36 14 2 3 14 4
121 1902119 SHUBHAM KUMAR 9 3.5 3 5 4 4 3 3 34.5 12.5 3 2.5 13 3.5
122 1902120 KESHAV RAJ 10 4 5 5.5 4 4 1 3 36.5 13.5 1 2.75 14 4
123 0 AMEESHA SINGH 8 4 3 5 4 4 2 3 33 13 2 2.5 12 4
EE5604 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTAL Percentage FM 10
CO1 1 1 1 3 30
CO2 0 0
CO3 2 2 20
CO4 1 1 10
CO5 2 2 4 40
CO6 0 0
TOTAL 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10
CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6

CO wise Maximum Marks 3 0 2 1 4 0
Competence of 60% Threshold 1.8 0 1 0.6 2.4 0
No. of students attended 60% criteria 92 0 65 86 81 0
Attainment in %: 90.2 0 64 84.31373 79.4118 0
CO Attainment 3 1 3 2
Question wise Maximum Marks: MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

Total Students 102 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
Roll No Name Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTAL CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6
1902001 SHYAM JEE 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902002 SHUBHAM PRAKASH
2 2 2 0 1 1 1 9 3 0 2 0 4 0
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902004 VIVEKANAND 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902005 ANAMIKA KUMARI2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902007 SHIVANSH MAURYA
2 2 2 1 1 1 0 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902009 ROSHAN 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902010 SANJAY KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902011 SUMIT KUMAR BHARTI
0 2 0 0 1 1 1 5 3 0 0 0 2 0
1902012 ADITYA KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902016 RAHUL KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902017 MOHIT KUMAR GOND
2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902018 AVINASH 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902019 SHIVANG SHARMA2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902020 ANJALI KUMARI 0 2 0 0 1 1 1 5 3 0 0 0 2 0
1902021 AJAY KUMAR SHARMA
0 2 0 0 1 1 0 4 2 0 0 0 2 0
1902022 VIVEK KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902023 RITIK KANNAUJIYA2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902025 TABISH ADNAN 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902026 CHANDRA MOHAN2 RAJ 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902027 MAYANK KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902028 AVI SONI 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902029 SUHANI 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902030 NAVNEET KUMAR 0 2 0 1 1 1 1 6 3 0 0 1 2 0
1902031 ASISH KUMAR BAIRWA
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902032 RAYAPUREDDY LAKSHMI
2 NARAYAN
2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902033 RITIKA CHOUDHARY
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902034 PADMAJA JHA 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902035 ASHAY KUMAR GUPTA
2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902036 GAURAV KUMAR 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902038 AMAN RAJ 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902039 VISHAL SINGH 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
1902040 KEERTHANA PRABHU
2 AV 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902041 RISHABH MISHRA 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
1902042 SURAJ KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902043 DUVADA S D VILAS2CHOUDHURY
2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902044 GIREESH KUMAR SINGH
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902045 AYUSH ARYAN 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902046 ANJALI 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
1902047 RAMKESH MEENA2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902048 ROHIT KUMAR SINGH
0 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 2 1 2 0
1902050 AYUSHMAN SHARMA
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902051 RAUSHAN SUMAN2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902052 ANIRUDDHA SHARMA
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902053 PRAJAS VIKAS LOKHANDE
0 2 0 1 1 1 1 6 3 0 0 1 2 0
1902054 RAHUL DEV 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902055 SANTOSH KUMAR 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902056 ZOHAIB BIN HAMID
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902057 HIMANSHU NAGAR0 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 2 1 2 0
1902058 PRIYANKA BHARTI2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902059 AMIT KUMAR SINGH
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902060 PRACHI GUPTA 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 9 3 0 2 0 4 0
1902061 WASHIM RAZA 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902062 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902063 AMBIKA 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902064 BHUKYA BHANUMATI
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902065 PRASHANT KUMAR0 MEENA2 0 1 1 1 0 5 2 0 0 1 2 0
1902067 PRAKASH KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902068 KUMAR SATYAM 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902069 SUBHAM RAI 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902071 AMAN KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902072 KAUSHIKI RAWAT 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
1902073 NIRANJAN KUMAR2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902075 SAMEER SHEKHAR2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902077 ANKIT KUMAR SINGH
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902078 RITESH KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902080 ADARSH JHA 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 9 3 0 2 0 4 0
1902081 VISHAL KUMAR SHAH
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902082 SURAJ KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902083 ABHISHEK KUMAR2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902084 AMIT SINGH 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902086 AYUSH GARG 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902091 SHASHWAT AWASTHI
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902092 SUDHAKAR RAWAT0 2 0 1 1 1 1 6 3 0 0 1 2 0
1902094 PRIYANSHU SHEKHAR
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902095 ANURAG KUMAR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902096 ANUJ YADAV 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902097 DEVESH KUMAR GUPTA
2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902098 HARSH RAJ 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902099 PITTU GANESH REDDY
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 3 2 0 0 1 0 0
1902100 HRITIK SHARMA 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902101 ADITYA SWAROOP0 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 2 1 2 0
1902103 ROHAN SRIVASTAV2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902104 KETHA LAKSHMI NAGA
2 SRI 2DEEPT 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902105 SUMIT KUMAR 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902106 AMAN ALAM 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902107 DIVYANSHU RAJ 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 9 3 0 2 0 4 0
1902108 SAURABH SANTOSH
2 DHOTRE
2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902109 ASHOK KALWA 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 4 1 0 0 1 2 0
1902110 LABALA RAKESH 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902111 NIKHIL SINGH 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902113 BHEEM SINGH MEENA
2 2 2 1 1 1 0 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
1902114 UDIT SINGH 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 8 3 0 0 1 4 0
1902115 IZHAR AHMAD 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902116 PRAGYESH KUMAR2 0 0 1 1 1 0 5 2 0 0 1 2 0
1902117 NIRANJAN KUMAR2SINHA 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902118 SANJEEV RANJAN 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
1902119 SHUBHAM KUMAR2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 2 1 4 0
1902120 KESHAV RAJ 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 9 2 0 2 1 4 0
0 AMEESHA SINGH 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 0 1 4 0
CO1 1 1 2 20
CO2 1 2 3 30
CO3 1 1 10
CO4 2 1 1 4 40
CO5 0 0
CO6 0 0
TOTAL 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 10

Competence of 60% Threshold 1.2 1.8 0.6 2.4 0 0
Attainment in %: 83.3 72.5 81.37 84.314 0 0
Question wise Maximum Marks MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

Total Students 102 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 10 2 3 1 4
Roll No Name Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTALCO1 CO2 CO3 CO4
1902001 SHYAM JEE 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902004 VIVEKANAND 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902005 ANAMIKA KUMARI
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 6 2 1 1 2
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902009 ROSHAN 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902010 SANJAY KUMAR1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902011 SUMIT KUMAR 1BHARTI 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 6 2 0 1 3
1902012 ADITYA KUMAR1 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 8 2 2 0 4
1902016 RAHUL KUMAR1 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 7 2 1 0 4
1902017 MOHIT KUMAR1GOND 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 9 2 3 0 4
1902018 AVINASH 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902019 SHIVANG SHARMA
1 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902020 ANJALI KUMARI1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902022 VIVEK KUMAR 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 1 4
1902023 RITIK KANNAUJIYA
1 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 7 2 1 1 3
1902025 TABISH ADNAN1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1902026 CHANDRA MOHAN
1 RAJ 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902027 MAYANK KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902028 AVI SONI 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902029 SUHANI 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 9 2 2 1 4
1902030 NAVNEET KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902032 RAYAPUREDDY 1LAKSHMI2NARAYAN
1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902034 PADMAJA JHA 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902035 ASHAY KUMAR 1GUPTA 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 9 2 3 0 4
1902036 GAURAV KUMAR
1 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902038 AMAN RAJ 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902039 VISHAL SINGH 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 A V2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902041 RISHABH MISHRA
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902042 SURAJ KUMAR 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1902043 DUVADA S D VILAS
1 CHOUDHURY
2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902044 GIREESH KUMAR
1 SINGH 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 7 2 1 1 3
1902045 AYUSH ARYAN 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902046 ANJALI 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902047 RAMKESH MEENA
1 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 7 2 1 1 3
1902048 ROHIT KUMAR 1SINGH 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 6 2 0 1 3
1902051 RAUSHAN SUMAN
1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 1 4
1 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 9 2 3 0 4
1 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 6 2 0 1 3
1902054 RAHUL DEV 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902055 SANTOSH KUMAR
1 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 7 2 1 1 3
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902057 HIMANSHU NAGAR
1 2 0 1 0 1 1 2 8 2 3 0 3
1902058 PRIYANKA BHARTI
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 0 1 1 0 1 2 8 2 3 1 2
1902060 PRACHI GUPTA0 2 1 1 0 1 0 2 7 0 3 0 4
1902061 WASHIM RAZA1 2 1 1 1 1 0 2 9 1 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 9 2 3 0 4
1902063 AMBIKA 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902065 PRASHANT KUMAR
1 MEENA
2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1902067 PRAKASH KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902068 KUMAR SATYAM
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902069 SUBHAM RAI 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902071 AMAN KUMAR 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902072 KAUSHIKI RAWAT
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1902073 NIRANJAN KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902075 SAMEER SHEKHAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902078 RITESH KUMAR1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 4 1 3 0 0
1902080 ADARSH JHA 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902081 VISHAL KUMAR1SHAH 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902082 SURAJ KUMAR 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902083 ABHISHEK KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1902084 AMIT SINGH 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902086 AYUSH GARG 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 9 2 2 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902092 SUDHAKAR RAWAT
1 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 9 2 2 1 4
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 7 1 3 1 2
1902095 ANURAG KUMAR
1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 7 2 0 1 4
1902096 ANUJ YADAV 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 7 2 2 1 2
1902097 DEVESH KUMAR1 GUPTA 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902098 HARSH RAJ 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902099 PITTU GANESH 1REDDY 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 7 1 3 1 2
1902100 HRITIK SHARMA1 2 1 1 1 0 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902101 ADITYA SWAROOP
1 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 9 2 2 1 4
1902103 ROHAN SRIVASTAV
1 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 9 2 3 0 4
1902104 KETHA LAKSHMI
0 NAGA SRI
2 DEEPT1 1 1 1 1 0 7 1 1 1 4
1902105 SUMIT KUMAR1 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902106 AMAN ALAM 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902107 DIVYANSHU RAJ1 2 1 1 1 1 0 2 9 1 3 1 4
1 DHOTRE
2 1 1 1 0 1 2 9 2 3 1 3
1902109 ASHOK KALWA0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 4 1 1 1 1
1902110 LABALA RAKESH1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902111 NIKHIL SINGH 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902114 UDIT SINGH 0 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 6 1 1 0 4
1902115 IZHAR AHMAD 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902116 PRAGYESH KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1 SINHA0 1 0 1 1 1 2 7 2 2 1 2
1902118 SANJEEV RANJAN
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
1902119 SHUBHAM KUMAR
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 4
1902120 KESHAV RAJ 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
0 AMEESHA SINGH
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2 3 1 4
CO1 2 2 20
CO2 2 2 20
CO3 0 0
CO4 6 6 60
CO5 0 0
CO6 0 0
TOTAL 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10

Competence of 50% Threshold 1 1 0 3 0 0
Attainment in %: 65.69 65.686 0 65.69 0 0
CO Attainment 1 1 1

Total Students 102 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902001 SHYAM JEE 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902002 SHUBHAM PRAKASH 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902004 VIVEKANAND 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902005 ANAMIKA KUMARI 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902007 SHIVANSH MAURYA 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902009 ROSHAN 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902010 SANJAY KUMAR 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902011 SUMIT KUMAR BHARTI 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902012 ADITYA KUMAR 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902016 RAHUL KUMAR 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902017 MOHIT KUMAR GOND 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902018 AVINASH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902019 SHIVANG SHARMA 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902020 ANJALI KUMARI 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902021 AJAY KUMAR SHARMA 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902022 VIVEK KUMAR 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902023 RITIK KANNAUJIYA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902025 TABISH ADNAN 7 7 1.4 1.4 0 4.2 0 0
1902026 CHANDRA MOHAN RAJ 3 3 0.6 0.6 0 1.8 0 0
1902027 MAYANK KUMAR 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902028 AVI SONI 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902029 SUHANI 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902030 NAVNEET KUMAR 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902031 ASISH KUMAR BAIRWA 7 7 1.4 1.4 0 4.2 0 0
1902032 RAYAPUREDDY LAKSHMI NARAYAN
6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902033 RITIKA CHOUDHARY 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902034 PADMAJA JHA 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902035 ASHAY KUMAR GUPTA 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902036 GAURAV KUMAR 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902038 AMAN RAJ 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902039 VISHAL SINGH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902040 KEERTHANA PRABHU A V 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902041 RISHABH MISHRA 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902042 SURAJ KUMAR 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902043 DUVADA S D VILAS CHOUDHURY
5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902044 GIREESH KUMAR SINGH 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902045 AYUSH ARYAN 9.5 9.5 1.9 1.9 0 5.7 0 0
1902046 ANJALI 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902047 RAMKESH MEENA 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902048 ROHIT KUMAR SINGH 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902050 AYUSHMAN SHARMA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902051 RAUSHAN SUMAN 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902052 ANIRUDDHA SHARMA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902053 PRAJAS VIKAS LOKHANDE 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902054 RAHUL DEV 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902055 SANTOSH KUMAR 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902056 ZOHAIB BIN HAMID 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902057 HIMANSHU NAGAR 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902058 PRIYANKA BHARTI 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902059 AMIT KUMAR SINGH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902060 PRACHI GUPTA 9.5 9.5 1.9 1.9 0 5.7 0 0
1902061 WASHIM RAZA 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902062 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902063 AMBIKA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902064 BHUKYA BHANUMATI 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902065 PRASHANT KUMAR MEENA 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902067 PRAKASH KUMAR 7 7 1.4 1.4 0 4.2 0 0
1902068 KUMAR SATYAM 5.5 5.5 1.1 1.1 0 3.3 0 0
1902069 SUBHAM RAI 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902071 AMAN KUMAR 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902072 KAUSHIKI RAWAT 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902073 NIRANJAN KUMAR 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902075 SAMEER SHEKHAR 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902077 ANKIT KUMAR SINGH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902078 RITESH KUMAR 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902080 ADARSH JHA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902081 VISHAL KUMAR SHAH 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902082 SURAJ KUMAR 9.5 9.5 1.9 1.9 0 5.7 0 0
1902083 ABHISHEK KUMAR 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902084 AMIT SINGH 5.5 5.5 1.1 1.1 0 3.3 0 0
1902086 AYUSH GARG 9 9 1.8 1.8 0 5.4 0 0
1902091 SHASHWAT AWASTHI 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902092 SUDHAKAR RAWAT 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902094 PRIYANSHU SHEKHAR 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902095 ANURAG KUMAR 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902096 ANUJ YADAV 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902097 DEVESH KUMAR GUPTA 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902098 HARSH RAJ 3 3 0.6 0.6 0 1.8 0 0
1902099 PITTU GANESH REDDY 3 3 0.6 0.6 0 1.8 0 0
1902100 HRITIK SHARMA 5 5 1 1 0 3 0 0
1902101 ADITYA SWAROOP 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902103 ROHAN SRIVASTAV 7 7 1.4 1.4 0 4.2 0 0
1902104 KETHA LAKSHMI NAGA SRI DEEPT
4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902105 SUMIT KUMAR 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902106 AMAN ALAM 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902107 DIVYANSHU RAJ 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902108 SAURABH SANTOSH DHOTRE 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902109 ASHOK KALWA 7 7 1.4 1.4 0 4.2 0 0
1902110 LABALA RAKESH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902111 NIKHIL SINGH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902113 BHEEM SINGH MEENA 4 4 0.8 0.8 0 2.4 0 0
1902114 UDIT SINGH 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902115 IZHAR AHMAD 3 3 0.6 0.6 0 1.8 0 0
1902116 PRAGYESH KUMAR 8 8 1.6 1.6 0 4.8 0 0
1902117 NIRANJAN KUMAR SINHA 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
1902118 SANJEEV RANJAN 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
1902119 SHUBHAM KUMAR 7 7 1.4 1.4 0 4.2 0 0
1902120 KESHAV RAJ 10 10 2 2 0 6 0 0
0 AMEESHA SINGH 6 6 1.2 1.2 0 3.6 0 0
EE5604 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTALPercentage FM 10
CO1 5 5 50
CO2 1 1 10
CO3 4 4 40
CO4 0 0
CO5 0 0
CO6 0 0
TOTAL 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10

Competence of 60% Threshold 3 0.6 2.4 0 0 0
Attainment in %: 63.725 63.725 63.725 0 0 0
CO Attainment 1 1 1

Total Students 102 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 5 1 4 0
Roll No Name Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTAL CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4
1902001 SHYAM JEE 6.5 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902004 VIVEKANAND 6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
9.5 9.5 4.75 0.95 3.8 0
8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR 7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902009 ROSHAN 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902010 SANJAY KUMAR 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
1902012 ADITYA KUMAR 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902016 RAHUL KUMAR 5.5 5.5 2.75 0.55 2.2 0
7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902018 AVINASH 9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
6.5 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
1902020 ANJALI KUMARI 9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
1902022 VIVEK KUMAR 6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
6.5 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
1902025 TABISH ADNAN 9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
7.5RAJ 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902027 MAYANK KUMAR7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902028 AVI SONI 7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902029 SUHANI 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
4 4 2 0.4 1.6 0
6 NARAYAN 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902034 PADMAJA JHA 6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
5 5 2.5 0.5 2 0
1902036 GAURAV KUMAR5.5 5.5 2.75 0.55 2.2 0
1902038 AMAN RAJ 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
1902039 VISHAL SINGH 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
7.5 A V 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902041 RISHABH MISHRA7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902042 SURAJ KUMAR 2 2 1 0.2 0.8 0
6.5CHOUDHURY 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
1902044 GIREESH KUMAR9.5
SINGH 9.5 4.75 0.95 3.8 0
1902045 AYUSH ARYAN 9.5 9.5 4.75 0.95 3.8 0
1902046 ANJALI 10 10 5 1 4 0
1902047 RAMKESH MEENA3 3 1.5 0.3 1.2 0
4 4 2 0.4 1.6 0
4 4 2 0.4 1.6 0
2.5 2.5 1.25 0.25 1 0
8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
1902054 RAHUL DEV 5 5 2.5 0.5 2 0
2.5 2.5 1.25 0.25 1 0
9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
6.5 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
1902060 PRACHI GUPTA 4.5 4.5 2.25 0.45 1.8 0
1902061 WASHIM RAZA 4 4 2 0.4 1.6 0
10 10 5 1 4 0
1902063 AMBIKA 7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
6 MEENA 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
1902067 PRAKASH KUMAR7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902068 KUMAR SATYAM 7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902069 SUBHAM RAI 7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902071 AMAN KUMAR 10 10 5 1 4 0
1902072 KAUSHIKI RAWAT7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902073 NIRANJAN KUMAR7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
6.5 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR 9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902078 RITESH KUMAR 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
1902080 ADARSH JHA 10 10 5 1 4 0
4.5 4.5 2.25 0.45 1.8 0
1902082 SURAJ KUMAR 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
1902083 ABHISHEK KUMAR9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
1902084 AMIT SINGH 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902086 AYUSH GARG 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
9.5 9.5 4.75 0.95 3.8 0
8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
1902095 ANURAG KUMAR7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902096 ANUJ YADAV 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
6 6 3 0.6 2.4 0
1902098 HARSH RAJ 8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
3 3 1.5 0.3 1.2 0
1902100 HRITIK SHARMA 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
6.5 6.5 3.25 0.65 2.6 0
8.5 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902104 KETHA LAKSHMI 7.5
NAGA SRI DEEPT 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
1902105 SUMIT KUMAR 5.5 5.5 2.75 0.55 2.2 0
1902106 AMAN ALAM 4 4 2 0.4 1.6 0
1902107 DIVYANSHU RAJ 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
8.5 DHOTRE 8.5 4.25 0.85 3.4 0
1902109 ASHOK KALWA 5 5 2.5 0.5 2 0
1902110 LABALA RAKESH 8 8 4 0.8 3.2 0
1902111 NIKHIL SINGH 7.5 7.5 3.75 0.75 3 0
5.5 5.5 2.75 0.55 2.2 0
1902114 UDIT SINGH 7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902115 IZHAR AHMAD 7 7
1902116 PRAGYESH KUMAR 4.5 4.5 2.25 0.45 1.8 0
1902117 NIRANJAN KUMAR SINHA
8.5 8.5
1902118 SANJEEV RANJAN 7 7 3.5 0.7 2.8 0
1902119 SHUBHAM KUMAR 8.5 8.5
1902120 KESHAV RAJ 9 9 4.5 0.9 3.6 0
0 AMEESHA SINGH 9.5 9.5
CO1 2 2 20
CO2 2 2 20
CO3 2 2 20
CO4 0 0
CO5 0 0
CO6 4 4 40
TOTAL 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5CO6

Competence of 60% Threashold 1.2 1.2 1.2 0 0 2.4
Attainment in %: 91.176 91.18 91.18 0 0 91.18

Total Students 102 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902001 SHYAM JEE 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902004 VIVEKANAND10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902009 ROSHAN 9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902010 SANJAY KUMAR
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902011 SUMIT KUMAR
10BHARTI 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902012 ADITYA KUMAR
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902016 RAHUL KUMAR
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902017 MOHIT KUMAR
9 GOND 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902018 AVINASH 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902020 ANJALI KUMARI
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902021 AJAY KUMAR10
SHARMA 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902022 VIVEK KUMAR10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902025 TABISH ADNAN
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 RAJ 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902028 AVI SONI 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902029 SUHANI 9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902031 ASISH KUMAR10BAIRWA 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902032 RAYAPUREDDY
10LAKSHMI NARAYAN 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902034 PADMAJA JHA9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902035 ASHAY KUMAR
10GUPTA 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902038 AMAN RAJ 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902039 VISHAL SINGH10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 AV 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902042 SURAJ KUMAR9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902043 DUVADA S D 10
VILAS CHOUDHURY 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902044 GIREESH KUMAR
10 SINGH 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902045 AYUSH ARYAN
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902046 ANJALI 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902048 ROHIT KUMAR
10SINGH 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902053 PRAJAS VIKAS10LOKHANDE 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902054 RAHUL DEV 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902059 AMIT KUMAR10
SINGH 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902060 PRACHI GUPTA9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902061 WASHIM RAZA
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902062 VIVEK KUMAR10SINGH 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902063 AMBIKA 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 MEENA 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902069 SUBHAM RAI10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902071 AMAN KUMAR
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902077 ANKIT KUMAR
10SINGH 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902078 RITESH KUMAR
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902080 ADARSH JHA 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902081 VISHAL KUMAR
9 SHAH 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902082 SURAJ KUMAR
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902084 AMIT SINGH 8 8 1.6 1.6 1.6 0 0 3.2
1902086 AYUSH GARG10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902096 ANUJ YADAV 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902097 DEVESH KUMAR
10 GUPTA 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902098 HARSH RAJ 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902099 PITTU GANESH
10REDDY 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902100 HRITIK SHARMA
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902104 KETHA LAKSHMI
10 NAGA SRI DEEPT 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902105 SUMIT KUMAR
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902106 AMAN ALAM 9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902107 DIVYANSHU RAJ
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 DHOTRE 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902109 ASHOK KALWA
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902110 LABALA RAKESH
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902111 NIKHIL SINGH10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902113 BHEEM SINGH9MEENA 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902114 UDIT SINGH 9 9 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 3.6
1902115 IZHAR AHMAD
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 SINHA 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
1902120 KESHAV RAJ 10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
0 AMEESHA SINGH
10 10 2 2 2 0 0 4
EE5604 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTALPercentage FM 10
CO1 0 0
CO2 0 0
CO3 0 0
CO4 5 5 50
CO5 5 5 50
CO6 0 0
TOTAL 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10

Competence of 60% Threashold 0 0 0 3 3 0
Attainment in %: 0 0 0 91.18 91.176 0
CO Attainment 3 3

Total Students 102 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902001 SHYAM JEE 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902004 VIVEKANAND 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902005 ANAMIKA KUMARI10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902009 ROSHAN 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902010 SANJAY KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902012 ADITYA KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902016 RAHUL KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902018 AVINASH 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902019 SHIVANG SHARMA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902020 ANJALI KUMARI 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902022 VIVEK KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902025 TABISH ADNAN 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902026 CHANDRA MOHAN 10 RAJ 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902027 MAYANK KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902028 AVI SONI 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902029 SUHANI 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902030 NAVNEET KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 NARAYAN 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902034 PADMAJA JHA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902036 GAURAV KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902038 AMAN RAJ 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902039 VISHAL SINGH 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 A V 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902041 RISHABH MISHRA10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902042 SURAJ KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10CHOUDHURY 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902044 GIREESH KUMAR 10
SINGH 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902045 AYUSH ARYAN 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902046 ANJALI 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902047 RAMKESH MEENA10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902050 AYUSHMAN SHARMA10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902051 RAUSHAN SUMAN 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902054 RAHUL DEV 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902055 SANTOSH KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902057 HIMANSHU NAGAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902058 PRIYANKA BHARTI10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902060 PRACHI GUPTA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902061 WASHIM RAZA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902063 AMBIKA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902065 PRASHANT KUMAR10 MEENA 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902067 PRAKASH KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902068 KUMAR SATYAM10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902069 SUBHAM RAI 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902071 AMAN KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902072 KAUSHIKI RAWAT10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902073 NIRANJAN KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902075 SAMEER SHEKHAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902076 NIRAJ KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902078 RITESH KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902080 ADARSH JHA 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902082 SURAJ KUMAR 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902083 ABHISHEK KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902084 AMIT SINGH 9 9 0 0 0 4.5 4.5 0
1902086 AYUSH GARG 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902092 SUDHAKAR RAWAT10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902095 ANURAG KUMAR10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902096 ANUJ YADAV 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
1902098 HARSH RAJ 10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
10 10 0 0 0 5 5 0
Full Name User ActionTimestamp
Dr. Mala DeJoined 2/9/2021, 9:33:30 AM
ADITYA SWAROOP
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:33:49 AM
GIREESH KUMAR
JoinedSINGH
2/9/2021, 9:33:50 AM
PRACHI GUPTAJoined 2/9/2021, 9:33:53 AM
RAHUL KUMAR Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:01 AM
RAHUL KUMAR Left 2/9/2021, 10:21:13 AM
Nikhil SinghJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:03 AM
Subham RaiJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:06 AM
Subham RaiLeft 2/9/2021, 9:35:27 AM
LABALA RAKESH
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:15 AM
LABALA RAKESH
Left 2/9/2021, 9:36:08 AM
LABALA RAKESH
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:15 AM
Aman Kumar Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:19 AM
SHIVANG SHARMA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:20 AM
WASHIM RAZA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:21 AM
ABHISHEK KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:24 AM
AJAY KUMAR Joined
SHARMA2/9/2021, 9:34:24 AM
ASHAY KUMAR Joined
GUPTA2/9/2021, 9:34:26 AM
ASHAY KUMAR Left GUPTA2/9/2021, 9:35:38 AM
ASHAY KUMAR Joined
GUPTA2/9/2021, 9:35:55 AM
Aniruddha Joined
sharma 2/9/2021, 9:34:28 AM
CHANDRA MOHAN
Joined RAJ2/9/2021, 9:34:30 AM
Anjali A Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:36 AM
AMAN RAJ Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:37 AM
AMAN RAJ Left 2/9/2021, 9:47:59 AM
NIRANJAN KUMAR
Joined SINHA
2/9/2021, 9:34:38 AM
SUMIT KUMAR Joined
BHARTI2/9/2021, 9:34:38 AM
SUMIT KUMAR Left BHARTI2/9/2021, 9:55:16 AM
SUMIT KUMAR Joined
BHARTI2/9/2021, 9:55:40 AM
SANJAY KUMARJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:39 AM
ADARSH JHA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:39 AM
NIRANJAN KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:42 AM
VIVEKANAND Joined
VIVEKANAND
2/9/2021, 9:34:42 AM
Ayush GargJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:43 AM
AMIT KUMAR Joined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:34:44 AM
AMIT KUMAR LeftSINGH 2/9/2021, 9:59:53 AM
AMIT KUMAR Joined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:59:59 AM
AMBIKA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:49 AM
DEVESH KUMAR
JoinedGUPTA2/9/2021, 9:34:52 AM
ADITYA KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:35:05 AM
Keerthana Prabhu
Joined A V2/9/2021, 9:35:05 AM
KSHITIZ JHAJoined 2/9/2021, 9:35:05 AM
KSHITIZ JHALeft 2/9/2021, 10:14:05 AM
ANKIT KUMARJoined 2/9/2021, 9:35:12 AM
MOHIT KUMARJoinedGOND2/9/2021, 9:35:16 AM
VIVEK KUMARJoined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:35:19 AM
ZOHAIB BINJoined
HAMID 2/9/2021, 9:35:19 AM
ZOHAIB BINLeft
HAMID 2/9/2021, 10:40:36 AM
KETHA LAKSHMI
JoinedNAGA2/9/2021,
SRI DEEPTHI
9:35:35 AM
Priyanshu Shekhar
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:35:58 AM
RISHABH MISHRA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:02 AM
RISHABH MISHRA
Left 2/9/2021, 10:39:32 AM
Sumit KumarJoined 2/9/2021, 9:36:05 AM
Sumit KumarLeft 2/9/2021, 10:31:13 AM
AYUSH ARYANJoined 2/9/2021, 9:36:08 AM
HARSH RAJJoined 2/9/2021, 9:36:11 AM
SAURABH SANTOSH
Joined DHOTRE
2/9/2021, 9:36:27 AM
KAUSHIKI RAWAT
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:38 AM
KAUSHIKI RAWAT
Left 2/9/2021, 9:38:42 AM
KAUSHIKI RAWAT
Joined 2/9/2021, 10:02:30 AM
HRITIK SHARMA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:48 AM
BHUKYA BHANUMATHI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:53 AM
BHUKYA BHANUMATHI
Left 2/9/2021, 10:32:56 AM
BHUKYA BHANUMATHI
Joined 2/9/2021, 10:38:06 AM
keshav raj Joined 2/9/2021, 9:37:04 AM
PRIYANKA BHARTI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:37:07 AM
Roshan Joined 2/9/2021, 9:37:22 AM
UDIT SINGHJoined 2/9/2021, 9:37:24 AM
PRASHANT Joined
KUMAR MEENA
2/9/2021, 9:37:52 AM
SHYAM JEEJoined 2/9/2021, 9:38:04 AM
AVINASH Joined 2/9/2021, 9:38:13 AM
SANJEEV RANJAN
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:38:14 AM
SANJEEV RANJAN
Left 2/9/2021, 10:17:08 AM
SANJEEV RANJAN
Joined 2/9/2021, 10:17:17 AM
AMEESHA SINGH
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:38:21 AM
AMEESHA SINGH
Left 2/9/2021, 10:40:30 AM
RITIKA CHOUDHARY
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:39:17 AM
ANKIT KUMARJoined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:39:50 AM
RITIK KANNAUJIYA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:18 AM
ANAMIKA KUMARI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:30 AM
KUMAR SATYAM
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:32 AM
SHUBHAM Joined
KUMAR 2/9/2021, 9:40:43 AM
RAMKESH MEENA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:43 AM
PRAKASH KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:41:15 AM
VISHAL KUMARJoinedSHAH 2/9/2021, 9:41:52 AM
VISHAL KUMARLeft SHAH 2/9/2021, 9:47:28 AM
PADMAJA JHA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:43:00 AM
Himanshu Nagar
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:43:45 AM
ROHAN SRIVASTAV
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:44:37 AM
SHUBHAM Joined
PRAKASH 2/9/2021, 9:44:59 AM
SHUBHAM LeftPRAKASH 2/9/2021, 10:09:34 AM
NAVNEET KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:45:07 AM
Vivek Kumar Joined 2/9/2021, 9:45:48 AM
Vivek Kumar Left 2/9/2021, 10:38:46 AM
NIRAJ KUMAR Joined 2/9/2021, 9:46:12 AM
Suraj Kumar Joined 2/9/2021, 9:46:51 AM
IZHAR AHMAD Joined 2/9/2021, 9:49:02 AM
SAMEER SHEKHAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:52:15 AM
ASHOK KALWA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:55:48 AM
ASHOK KALWA Left 2/9/2021, 9:56:29 AM
SHIVANSH PRATAP
Joined MAURYA
2/9/2021, 9:56:12 AM
SHIVANSH PRATAP
Left MAURYA
2/9/2021, 10:07:58 AM
ANUJ YADAV Joined 2/9/2021, 9:56:17 AM
ANJALI KUMARI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:57:29 AM
Vishal SinghJoined 2/9/2021, 10:03:06 AM
suraj kumarJoined 2/9/2021, 10:12:48 AM
RAHUL DEVJoined 2/9/2021, 10:28:57 AM
RAHUL DEVLeft 2/9/2021, 10:29:53 AM
PRAJAS VIKASJoined
LOKHANDE
2/9/2021, 10:29:57 AM
BHEEM SINGH Joined
MEENA2/9/2021, 10:33:33 AM
Mayank KumarJoined 2/9/2021, 10:34:20 AM
Mayank KumarLeft 2/9/2021, 10:40:24 AM
SHASHWATJoined
AWASTHI 2/9/2021, 10:37:52 AM
PITTU GANESHJoinedREDDY2/9/2021, 10:39:18 AM
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
( An Institution Under MHRD, Govt. Of India)
Registered Student Details
Branch : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Exam-Session : JAN-JUN_2021
Course Code : EE4602 Title :Power Transmission & Distribution
RollNo Studnet Name EmailId

[email protected]
1902001 SHYAM JEE
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA
[email protected]
1902004 VIVEKANAND
[email protected]
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR

[email protected]
1902009 ROSHAN
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902013 ROBIN KUMAR
[email protected]
1902015 RAHUL KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902017 AVINASH
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902021 VIVEK KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902025 CHANDRA MOHAN RAJ
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902027 AVI SONI
[email protected]
1902028 SUHANI
[email protected]
[email protected]
IT Solution Provided By National Informatics Centre , Bihar State Centre, Patna


[email protected]
1902031 RAYAPUREDDY LAKSHMI NARAYANA
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902033 PADMAJA JHA
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902036 AMAN RAJ
[email protected]
1902038 VISHAL SINGH
[email protected]
1902039 KEERTHANA PRABHU A V
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902041 SURAJ KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902044 AYUSH ARYAN
[email protected]
1902045 ANJALI
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902053 RAHUL DEV
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902059 PRACHI GUPTA
[email protected]
1902060 WASHIM RAZA


[email protected]
[email protected]
1902062 AMBIKA
[email protected]
1902064 PRASHANT KUMAR MEENA
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902068 SUBHAM RAI
[email protected]
1902069 AMAN KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902075 NIRAJ KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902078 ADARSH JHA
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902081 SURAJ KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902083 AMIT SINGH
[email protected]
1902084 AYUSH GARG
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902095 ANUJ YADAV
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902097 HARSH RAJ
[email protected]
[email protected]


[email protected]

[email protected]
1902103 KETHA LAKSHMI NAGA SRI DEEPTHI
[email protected]
1902104 SUMIT KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902107 SAURABH SANTOSH DHOTRE
[email protected]
1902108 ASHOK KALWA
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902110 NIKHIL SINGH
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902113 UDIT SINGH
[email protected]
1902114 IZHAR AHMAD
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902119 KESHAV RAJ
[email protected]
1902120 AMEESHA SINGH

Welcome Mala De [ fc054 - Change
Faculty ] 2 December, 2021 Password
National Institute Of Technology Patna
Activities FeedBack Details

Registered
Student Exam Session JAN-JUN_2020
Debarred Student Program B.Tech-EE

Specialization NA
Relative Grade
Entry Program Semester sem 4
Grade Chart View Section A

Course Title EE4602
Consolidated
Grade Ok
Check Feedback Total No.

Course Organisation
Status Of student
Print Attendance Question Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor
Register
The course was well 24|
30| 31.58 % 28| 29.47% 8| 8.42% 5| 5.26%
Update NITP planned and organised 25.26%
Email Id. The topics provided new 31| 10|
23| 24.21% 26| 27.37% 5| 5.26%
Check Alloted knowledge 32.63% 10.53%
Course Papers Prescribed reading material 10|
95 24| 25.26% 32| 33.68% 25| 26.32 4| 4.21
was available 10.53%
PHD Classes were held according 28| 10|
23| 24.21% 30| 31.58% 4| 4.21%
to the time table 29.47% 10.53%
Acrivities
Work requirements and
28|
grading system were clear 21| 22.11% 33| 34.74% 8| 8.42% 5| 5.26%
29.47%
Registered form the beginning
Student
Course Organisation 24.2| 27.2| 9.2| 4.6|
Grade Entry 29.8| 31.37%
Avg 25.47% 28.63% 9.69% 4.84%
Total No.
To Report Any Problem Presentation
Of student
Click Here
Question Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor
The fundamental concepts
21| 12|
were prescribed clearly in 21| 22.11 % 35| 36.84% 6| 6.32%
22.11% 12.63%
the lecture.
The teacher speaks clearly 27| 10|
26| 27.37% 27| 28.42% 5| 5.26%
and is audible. 28.42% 10.53%
The teachers blackboard
95 (or overhead) presentation 28|
20| 21.05% 32| 33.68% 8| 8.42% 7| 7.37
was well organised and 29.47%
legible.
The teacher uses class time 30|
24| 25.26% 28| 29.47% 7| 7.37% 6| 6.32%
well. 31.58%
The teachers stresses
26| 10|
important points in the 25| 26.32% 28| 29.47% 6| 6.32%
27.37% 10.53%
lectures and discussions.
23.2| 26.4| 9.4|

Presentation Avg 30| 31.58% 6| 6.32%
24.42% 27.79% 9.9%
Total No.
Interaction and Report
Of student
95 Question Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor
The teacher 27| 28.42 % 29| 30.53% 25| 26.32% 8| 8.42% 6| 6.32%
responded adequately
to the questions asked
in the class.
The teacher treats
24| 25.26% 33| 34.74% 26| 27.37% 5| 5.26% 7| 7.37%
students with respect.
The teacher is willing
to meet and help
25| 26.32% 22| 23.16% 30| 31.58% 13| 13.68% 5| 5.26
students outside the
class.
The teacher uses class
22| 23.16% 25| 26.32% 32| 33.68% 10| 10.53% 6| 6.32%
time well.
Interaction and 19.6| 22.95|

22.6| 23.79% 7.2| 7.58% 4.8| 5.05%
Report Avg 20.63% 22.95%
23.93| 27.21|
Over All Average 29.14| 30.68% 9.21| 9.7% 5.5| 5.79%
25.19% 28.65%
Excellent(5) : 119.65 + Very Good (4): 116.56 + Good (3): 81.63 +
Overall Grade
Fair(2) : 18.42 + Poor(1) : 5.5
Grade Percentage 3.6
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Consolidated Marks Details for the Exam-session JAN-JUN_2021
Report Printed on : 02/12/202107:05:52 Program : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Paper : EE4602
Grade
UnivRollNo TheoryTotalCl TheoryAttendance ThMedRelaxation PracticalTotalCl PracticalAttenda PrMedRelaxatio
C
1902001
C
1902002
A
1902003
B
1902004
A+
1902005
C
1902007
B
1902008
A
1902009
A
1902010
D
1902011
C
1902012
I
1902013
B
1902015
D
1902016
B
1902017
C
1902018
C
1902019
C
1902020
C
1902021
B
1902022
B
1902023
C
1902025
A
1902026
B
1902027
B
1902028
B
1902029
C
1902030
C
1902031
B
1902032
B
1902033
C
1902034
B
1902035
B
1902036
B
1902038
A
1902039
A
1902040
D
1902041
C
1902042
A
1902043
IT Solution Provided By National Informatics Centre , Bihar State Centre, Patna Page 1 of 3
Grade
A+
1902044
A+
1902045
C
1902046
C
1902047
C
1902048
D
1902050
A
1902051
D
1902052
C
1902053
D
1902054
A+
1902055
D
1902056
B
1902057
A
1902058
C
1902059
D
1902060
A
1902061
A+
1902062
C
1902063
D
1902064
B
1902065
B
1902067
B
1902068
A+
1902069
C
1902071
C
1902072
B
1902073
C
1902075
A
1902076
B
1902077
A+
1902078
B
1902080
A
1902081
A
1902082
B
1902083
A
1902084
A
1902086
C
1902091
C
1902092
Grade
B
1902094
C
1902095
B
1902096
B
1902097
D
1902098
B
1902099
C
1902100
C
1902101
C
1902103
B
1902104
C
1902105
B
1902106
A+
1902107
D
1902108
B
1902109
A
1902110
D
1902111
B
1902113
C
1902114
D
1902115
A
1902116
B
1902117
B
1902118
A
1902119
B
1902120
EE4602 Power Transmission and Distribution
UNIT – III
Lecture 25: Mechanical Design

[Type of Support, Sag Tension, Insulators]
Dr. Mala De
Mechanical design of overhead lines
• Possible medium for electric power transmission:
(i) underground cables, (ii) overhead transmission and distribution lines.
• Underground cables not typically used for power transmission; reasons:
i. huge installation costs for underground transmission cables over long
distances to remote load centres;
ii. difficulty in proper insulation to underground transmission cables to
withstand higher pressures of power transfer at high voltages.
• Significant importance of power transmission by overhead lines 
due to power demand increase and consequent voltage level rise,
along with limitations of underground cables.
Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Mala De (EE Dept, NITP)
1
Mechanical design of overhead lines
• Challenges in overhead power transmission: to withstand various
weather conditions and other external interferences, and to continue
line operation.
• Need for adequate mechanical safety factors in lines.
• Need for sufficient strength of lines: line mechanical strength to provide
against most probable weather conditions.

2
Overhead line composition
• Typical main elements of overhead line:
a. Conductors: to transfer power from sending end station to receiving end
station.
b. Line supports: (like poles or towers) to keep conductors at appropriate
level above earth.
c. Insulators: (connected to supports) to insulate conductors from earth.
d. Cross arms: to give support to insulators.
e. Miscellaneous elements: (like phase plates, danger plates, surge
arrestors, etc.)
• Overhead line operation continuity to depend on judicious selection of
above elements.
3
Overhead line composition: Conductor materials
• Characteristics required in conductor material:
i. high tensile strength, to sustain mechanical stresses;
ii. high electrical conductivity;
iii. low specific gravity, for small weight per unit volume;
iv. low cost, to become affordable for laying considerable distances.
• Choice of conductor material: compromise between cost, needed
electrical and mechanical characteristics, and local conditions.
• Typically used conductor materials for overhead lines: copper,
aluminium, steel-cored aluminium, galvanised steel, cadmium copper.

4
• Nature of conductors used for overhead lines: typically stranded, to
increase flexibility.
• Nature of stranded conductors: typically one central wire, and
successive layers of wires around it; consecutive layers of wires to be
twisted or spiralled in different directions to bind layers together.
• For 𝑛 layers, total number of individual wires = 3𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 1.

5
A) Copper:
• Perfect material for overhead lines; typically use in hard drawn form.
• Pros: good electrical conductivity, significant current density, increased
tensile strength, homogeneous, durable, big scrap value.
• Hard drawn form  considerable increase in tensile strength, slight
decrease in electrical conductivity.
• Significant current density  (i) smaller conductor cross-sectional area
needed; (ii) decreased area offered by conductor to wind loads.
• Cons: expensive, non-availability.
• Current trend: use of aluminium instead of copper.
6
B) Aluminium:
• Pros: cheap, lower specific gravity.
• Lower specific gravity  light weight  not strong supporting structures.
• Cons: lower conductivity, lower tensile strength, high linear expansion.
• Lower conductivity  bigger conductor cross-sectional area  bigger
surface to wind pressure  greater transverse strength required in
supporting structures.
• Light weight  possible bigger swings  bigger cross-arms needed.
• Lower tensile strength and bigger co-efficient of linear expansion
 bigger sag.

7
B) Aluminium:
• A good candidate in trade-off: balance in overall characteristics (i.e.
cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc.).
• Suitability: profitable heavy-current transmission  big conductor size,
significant cost proportion in total cost of complete installation.
• Cons:
• Low tensile strength  bigger sag  unsuitability in long-distance
transmission.

8
C) Steel-cored aluminium:
• Also called aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR).
• Composite conductor, with central core of
galvanised steel wire(s), surrounded by
multiple wires of aluminium strands;
• Reason: to improve tensile strength.
• Typically, same diameter of both steel and
aluminium wires; typical steel to aluminium
ratio of 1:6 in cross-section, but 1:4 ratio used for more tensile strength.
[Ref: https://www.exportersindia.com/ajr-conductor-manufacturers/electrical-conductor-2275881.htm.]
9
C) Steel-cored aluminium:
• Pros:
• Reinforcement with steel  improved tensile strength and light weight.
• Steel core’s mechanical strength  smaller sag  useful for longer spans
of transmission.
• Light weight  support structures of smaller heights required.

10
D) Galvanised steel:
• Pros:
• Significant tensile strength  applicable for long spans or short line
sections exposed to significantly high stresses due to climatic conditions.
• Cons:
• Steel’s poor conductivity and high resistance  not appropriate for
transferring large power over long distance.
• Suitability: transfer of small power over small distance (where copper
conductor undesirable)  transmission in rural locations, with main
factor of cheapness.
11
E) Cadmium copper:
• Composite material of copper alloyed with cadmium.
• Addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper to improve tensile strength by
roughly 50%, while decrease in conductivity by 15% w.r.t pure copper.
• Pro:
• Useful for extremely long spans.
• Con:
• High cost of cadmium.
• Suitability: economical for lines of small cross-section (i.e. if conductor
material price relatively small in comparison to support structure cost).
12
Overhead line composition: Line supports
• Line supports: different types of poles and towers, as supporting
structures for overhead line conductors.
• Examples: wooden poles, steel poles, RCC poles, lattice steel towers etc.
• Typical characteristics of line supports:
i. light weight, without loss of mechanical strength;
ii. sufficient mechanical strength to sustain conductor weight and wind loads;
iii. longer life span;
iv. easy conductor accessibility for maintenance;
v. cheap in cost and economical to service.
• Factors to choose line supports: line span, cross-sectional area, line
voltage, cost, local circumstances.
13
A) Wooden poles:
• Suitability: moderate cross-section area line.
• Pros: cheap, available, insulation.
• Types: single, double (‘A’ type, ‘H’ type).
→

[Ref: R K Rajput, A Textbook of Electrical Engineering, Second edition, Laxmi Pub, 2004; https://www.eeeguide.com/line-support/.]
14
B) Steel poles:
• Types: tubular pole, rail pole, rolled steel joist pole.
• Pros: bigger mechanical strength, longer life, allow
longer spans.
• Applicability: distribution purposes in cities.
[Ref: https://www.electricaldost.com/type-of-line-supports/.]
15
C) Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) poles:
• Types: single circuit, double circuit.
• Pros: big mechanical strength, long life,
long transmission spans, little →
maintenance, good insulation.
• Con: heavy weight  high
transport cost.
• Applicability: long distribution
at low voltages (up to 11 kV). 
[Ref: R K Rajput, A Textbook of Electrical Engineering, Second edition, Laxmi Pub, 2004; https://www.eeeguide.com/line-support/.]
16
D) Steel tower:
• Applicability: long distance transmission at higher voltage.
• Pros: stronger mechanical strength, longer life,
sustain most severe climatic conditions, use of
longer spans.
• Types: single circuit, double
circuit.
• Another form of classification:
self-supporting tower, guyed or
stayed towers. [Ref: https://www.eeeguide.com/line-support/.]
17
D1) Steel tower: Self-supporting tower
• Types: narrow-base tower, wide-base tower.
• Usage: tangent vs. deviation/angle tower.
• Used mostly in India.
[Ref: http://www.steeltowerchn.com/lattice-steel-tower/assemble-the-transmission-lines-structure-steel-tower/.]
18
D2) Steel tower: guyed or stayed tower
• Commonly used in USA.
• Types: portal-shaped anchor, V-shaped anchor.

19
Overhead line composition: Insulators
• Insulation of line conductors from line supports: needed to prevent flow
of any leakage current from conductors to ground through supports.
• Desirable features of insulators:
i. enough mechanical strength, to sustain conductor load, wind load etc.;
ii. enough electrical resistance, to avoid leakage of currents;
iii. good relative permittivity, to achieve high dielectric strength;
iv. non-porous insulator material, with impurity-free and crack-free, to prevent
from degrading permittivity;
v. significant ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
• Typical insulation material: porcelain, glass, steatite etc.

20
• Porcelain: made by firing mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quartz at high
temperature.
• Pros: mechanically stronger than glass, less trouble from leakage and less
impacted by temperature changes.
• Insulator types: most typically used types  pin type insulator,
suspension type insulator, strain insulator, shackle insulator etc.

21
A) Pin type insulator:
• Pin type insulator: to be mounted and fixed rigidly on pole cross arm by
pin (of mild steel) to be attached inside insulator,
with groove on insulator upper end for
housing conductor.
• Conductor to pass through groove, and to bind
by annealed wire (of same material as conductor).
• Types: single shell, two shell, three shell.
• Increase in shell count for insulation from higher
voltages.
[Ref: https://www.electricaldost.com/types-of-insulator-and-their-applications/.]
22
[Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity).]
23
• Adjacent figure to indicate leakage path
as dotted line along external surface
(around all ribs and petticoats)
between points a and b.
• Wet-flashover path indicated by segments
A, (A+B) and (A+B+C) for single shell,
two shell, three shell insulators.
[Ref: A Ingole, Power Transmission and Distribution, Pearson, 2018.]

24
• Pin insulator electrical breakdown: possible by flashover or puncture.
• Flashover: discharge to jump across air gaps through shortest distance
in arc between conductor and pin (i.e., ground), called arcing distance.
• Insulator to continue operation in its adequate capacity, unless extreme
heat generated by arc destroying insulator.
• Puncture: discharge from conductor to pin through body of insulator.
• Insulator completely destroyed due to significant heat.
• In practice, proper thickness of porcelain provided in insulator to prevent
puncture by line voltage.

25
• Safety factor of insulator: ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage.
• High value of safety factor (around 10) preferable for flashover to happen
before puncture of insulator.
• Pros: long life (usually 50 years), better electro-mechanical properties,
reasonable cost, easy installation.
• Cons: very bulky, lengthy, uneconomical and cumbersome installation
for power transmission above 66kV.
• Applicability: MV power lines and substations; 11kV, 25 kV with single
shell, while 33kV and 66kV using two shell and three shell insulators.
26
B) Suspension type insulator:
• Suspension insulator string, where
required number of porcelain discs to
be mechanically coupled to one another
with metallic fittings, for ‘flexible’ string.
• Each disc designed for low voltage
(typically, 11 kV); number of discs in
series based on working voltage.
• Other factors: transmission structures,
insulator size, weather conditions etc.
[Ref: S Kalaga and P Yenumula, Design of Electrical Transmission Lines: Structures and Foundations (Volume I), CRC Press, 2017.]
27
[Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity).]
28
• Top end of insulator string to be securely fastened to tower cross arm,
while conductor to be suspended at bottom end of this string.
• Pros: cheap, easy customization based on working voltage, easy
repair, flexible, free to swing in any direction to minimize mechanical
stress, partial protection from lightning (as conductor to pass below
tower grounded cross arm).
• Three types of discs in suspension insulator 
(1) Cemented cap and pin type; (2) Hewlett or interlinking type; (3) Core
and link type.
29
B1) Suspension type insulator: Cemented cap and pin type
• Early model of suspension insulator.
• Cement to bind metal cap at top and metal pin
underneath of disc; string formation by recessed
cap to engage with pin of other disc.
• Pros: reliable linking method, very high tensile
strength, high creepage distance, unbroken
exposed surface, low cost.
• Cons: risk of string breakage (on break of porcelain between cap and
pin, on difference in expansion/contraction of links or materials etc.).
[Ref: A Ingole, Power Transmission and Distribution, Pearson, 2018.]
30
B2) Suspension type insulator: Hewlett or interlinking type
• Improved model of suspension insulator with simplified
disc, named after its inventor Edward Hewlett.
• Pros: easy assembly of discs (like, absence of cementing
while attaching discs), simple design, high tensile
strength, no risk of string breakage (due to difference
in expansion/contraction of links or materials).
• Con: probability of puncture (as porcelain between two
links under significant electrostatic stress)  unusable.
[Ref: M N Bandyopadhyay, Electrical Power Systems: Theory and Practice, PHI Learning, 2006.]
31
B3) Suspension type insulator: Core and link type
• Combination of cemented cap-and-pin type and Hewlett type insulators.
• Discs to be placed symmetrically, conforming to electrostatic lines of
force.
• Metallic cylinders to be fastened to porcelain for forming links.
• Pros: no risk of string breakage (due to difference in
expansion/contraction of links or materials), high puncture strength.

32
• Con: need for increased spacing between conductors in strings (due to
large swing possibilities).

33
C) Strain insulator:
• Also called tension insulator; installed at tension-type towers, to relieve
conductor line of excessive tension at its angle position, i.e. (i) dead
end of line, (ii) corner, (iii) sharp curve, (iv) intermediate anchor tower,
(v) long river crossing.
• Strain insulator to consist of assembly of
suspension insulators, with discs installed
in horizontal plane, and insulator string
clamped to tower, for high voltage lines.
[Ref: S Sivanagaraju and S Satyanarayana, Electric Power Transmission and Distribution. Pearson Education, 2008.]
34
C) Strain insulator:
• Two or more strain insulator strings to
be installed in parallel, for exceedingly
high line tension at long river crossing.
[Ref: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:High_Voltage_Transmission_Line_Insulators_-_Howrah_2011-03-19_1872.JPG.]
35
D) Shackle insulator:
• Shackle insulators normally used as strain insulator for low voltage
distribution lines.
• Nature of shackle insulator: (i) installed either in
horizontal or vertical position, (ii) directly
connected to pole with clamp/bolt or to cross
arm, (iii) conductor in groove linked with
soft binding wire.
[Ref: S Sivanagaraju and S Satyanarayana, Electric Power Transmission and Distribution. Pearson Education, 2008.]
36
Potential distribution over suspension insulator string
• Thumb rule for finding number of insulator discs in suspension insulator
string for particular operating voltage: consider 1 disc for every 11 kV.
⇏ Voltage distribution across discs of string uniform.
• Reason: shunt capacitance formed between disc metal parts and tower
(due to their proximity), to affect voltage distribution across string.
• Shunt capacitance: capacitance formed between metal parts of disc
units (in insulator string) and tower (i.e. ground); denoted as 𝐶.
• Mutual capacitance (or self-capacitance): capacitance of each disc
(due to its porcelain portion in between 2 metal links) in insulator string;
defined as 𝑚𝐶 (where 𝑚 = multiplying factor for mutual capacitance).
37
• Example: Three-disc string of suspension insulators (in leftmost fig);
corresponding mutual
capacitances only with 𝑚𝐶 𝑉 𝑚𝐶
𝑉1 𝑉1
3
uniform voltage and 𝐶
charging current (in
𝑉
middle fig); both 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑚𝐶 𝑚𝐶 𝑉2
3
shunt and mutual 𝐶
capacitances with 𝑉 𝑚𝐶
𝑉3 𝑚𝐶 3 𝐶 𝑉3
varied voltage, current
(in rightmost fig).
[Ref: P K Sadhu and S Das, Elements of Power Systems, CRC Press, 2016.]
38
• For deducing potential distribution over suspension
insulator string, equivalent circuit for suspension 𝐼1
𝑉1
𝐶 𝐼𝐶1 𝑚𝐶
insulator string of 4 discs to be considered.
• Objective: to find voltage across each disc unit as 𝐼2
𝑉2
multiple of operating voltage 𝑉, and compare 𝐶 𝐼𝐶2 𝑚𝐶
these voltages. 𝐼3
• Voltage drops across 4 disc units starting from 𝑉3
cross arm towards conductor: 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , 𝑉4 .
𝐼4
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 . (1) 𝑉4
• Normally, 𝑚 > 1; value of 𝑚 known a priori. 𝑚𝐶
[Ref: C L Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, Sixth edition, New Academic Science Ltd., 2012.]
39
• From equivalent circuit diagram: 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑉1 𝜔𝑚𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 (2)
after Kirchhoff’s current law, where, 𝜔 = supply angular frequency.
𝑚+1
⇒ 𝑉2 𝜔𝑚𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 𝑚 + 1 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 . (3)
𝑚
• Similar to (2): 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑉2 𝜔𝑚𝐶 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝜔𝐶
𝑚+1
⇒ 𝑉3 𝜔𝑚𝐶 = 𝑉2 𝜔 𝑚 + 1 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 𝑚 + 1 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶
𝑚
2
𝑚+1 +𝑚
⇒ 𝑉3 = 𝑉1 (4)
𝑚2
• Also, like (2): 𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐶3 ⇒ 𝑉4 𝜔𝑚𝐶 = 𝑉3 𝜔𝑚𝐶 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝜔𝐶 =
𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 𝑚+1 𝑚+1 3 +𝑚 𝑚+1 𝑚+1
𝑉1 𝜔 𝑚+1 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 ቈ +
𝑚2 𝑚 𝑚2 𝑚
𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2
+1ሿ𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉4 = 𝑉1 (5)
𝑚3
40
• Nature of 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , 𝑉4 : to consider with example where 𝑚 = 5.
𝑚+1 6
From (3): 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 = 1.2𝑉1 .
𝑚 5
𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 41
From (4): 𝑉3 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 = 1.64𝑉1 .
𝑚2 25
𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2 301
From (5): 𝑉4 = 3 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 = 2.408𝑉1 .
𝑚 125
• From above calculations: 𝑉1 < 𝑉2 < 𝑉3 < 𝑉4 .
⇒ minimum voltage drop across disc unit nearest to cross arm, which
increasing gradually for farther disc units (towards conductor), and
maximum voltage drop across disc unit nearest to conductor.

41
References
1. C L Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, Sixth edition, New Academic Science Ltd., 2012.
2. P K Sadhu and S Das, Elements of Power Systems, CRC Press, 2016.
3. D P Kothari and I J Nagrath, Modern Power System Analysis, Fourth edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2011.
4. A Ingole, Power Transmission and Distribution, Pearson Education, 2017.
5. A Chakrabarti and S Halder, Power System Analysis: Operation and Control, Third edition, PHI Learning, 2010.
6. S Sivanagaraju and S Satyanarayana, Electric Power Transmission and Distribution. Pearson Education, 2008.
7. M N Bandyopadhyay, Electrical Power Systems: Theory and Practice, PHI Learning, 2006.
8. J J Grainger and W D Stevenson, Power System Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1994.

42
UNIT – III
Lecture 26: Mechanical Design

[Sag Tension]
Dr. Mala De
• Thumb rule for finding number of insulator discs in suspension insulator
string for particular operating voltage: consider 1 disc for every 11 kV.
⇏ Voltage distribution across discs of string uniform.
• Reason: shunt capacitance formed between disc metal parts and tower
(due to their proximity), to affect voltage distribution across string.
• Shunt capacitance: capacitance formed between metal parts of disc
units (in insulator string) and tower (i.e. ground); denoted as 𝐶.
• Mutual capacitance (or self-capacitance): capacitance of each disc
(due to its porcelain portion in between 2 metal links) in insulator string;
defined as 𝑚𝐶 (where 𝑚 = multiplying factor for mutual capacitance).
1
• Example: Three-disc string of suspension insulators (in leftmost fig);
corresponding mutual
capacitances only with 𝑚𝐶 𝑉 𝑚𝐶
𝑉1 𝑉1
3
uniform voltage and 𝐶
charging current (in
𝑉
middle fig); both 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑚𝐶 𝑚𝐶 𝑉2
3
shunt and mutual 𝐶
capacitances with 𝑉 𝑚𝐶
𝑉3 𝑚𝐶 3 𝐶 𝑉3
varied voltage, current
(in rightmost fig).
[Ref: P K Sadhu and S Das, Elements of Power Systems, CRC Press, 2016.]
2
• For deducing potential distribution over suspension
insulator string, equivalent circuit for suspension 𝐼1
𝑉1
insulator string of 4 discs to be considered.
• Objective: to find voltage across each disc unit as 𝐼2
𝑉2
multiple of operating voltage 𝑉, and compare 𝐶 𝐼𝐶2 𝑚𝐶
these voltages. 𝐼3
• Voltage drops across 4 disc units starting from 𝑉3
cross arm towards conductor: 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , 𝑉4 .
𝐼4
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 . (1) 𝑉4
• Normally, 𝑚 > 1; value of 𝑚 known a priori. 𝑚𝐶
3
• From equivalent circuit diagram: 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑉1 𝜔𝑚𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 (2)
after Kirchhoff’s current law, where, 𝜔 = supply angular frequency.
𝑚+1
⇒ 𝑉2 𝜔𝑚𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 𝑚 + 1 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 . (3)
𝑚
• Similar to (2): 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑉2 𝜔𝑚𝐶 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝜔𝐶
𝑚+1
⇒ 𝑉3 𝜔𝑚𝐶 = 𝑉2 𝜔 𝑚 + 1 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 𝑚 + 1 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶
𝑚
2
𝑚+1 +𝑚
⇒ 𝑉3 = 𝑉1 (4)
𝑚2
• Also, like (2): 𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐶3 ⇒ 𝑉4 𝜔𝑚𝐶 = 𝑉3 𝜔𝑚𝐶 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝜔𝐶 =
𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 𝑚+1 𝑚+1 3 +𝑚 𝑚+1 𝑚+1
𝑉1 𝜔 𝑚+1 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔 𝐶 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 ቈ +
𝑚2 𝑚 𝑚2 𝑚
𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2
+1ሿ𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉4 = 𝑉1 (5)
𝑚3
4
• Nature of 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , 𝑉4 : to consider with example where 𝑚 = 5.
𝑚+1 6
From (3): 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 = 1.2𝑉1 .
𝑚 5
𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 41
From (4): 𝑉3 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 = 1.64𝑉1 .
𝑚2 25
𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2 301
From (5): 𝑉4 = 3 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 = 2.408𝑉1 .
𝑚 125
• From above calculations: 𝑉1 < 𝑉2 < 𝑉3 < 𝑉4 .
⇒ minimum voltage drop across disc unit nearest to cross arm, which
increasing gradually for farther disc units (towards conductor), and
maximum voltage drop across disc unit nearest to conductor.

5
𝑚+1 𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2
• From (1): 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉1
𝑚 𝑚2 𝑚3
𝑚3 +𝑚2 𝑚+1 +𝑚 𝑚+1 2 +𝑚2 + 𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2
⇒𝑉= 3 𝑉1
𝑚
𝑚+1 3 +𝑚3 +𝑚 𝑚+1 2 +𝑚2 𝑚+1 +2𝑚2 +2𝑚 𝑚+1
= 𝑉1 . (7)
𝑚3
• For large value of 𝑚, i.e. 𝑚 → ∞:
𝑚+1 𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 𝑚+1 2 1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 → 𝑉1 ; 𝑉3 = 2 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉1 → 𝑉1 ;
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑚+1 3 +2𝑚 𝑚+1 +𝑚2 𝑚+1 3 2 𝑚+1 1 1
𝑉4 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉 + 𝑉1 → 𝑉1 . (8)
𝑚3 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 1 𝑚
i.e. voltage drops across all units tend to be equal in case of large 𝑚.
• Large 𝑚 in high voltage lines, due to more conductor–tower clearance.
6
String efficiency of suspension insulator string
• For suspension insulator string clamped to cross arm, fully stressed or
utilized lowermost disc unit in string.
• Disc units towards cross arm less stressed, as compared to their capacity
and hence not utilized fully.
• String efficiency: measure of utilization of string material; denoted as 𝜂.
Voltage across string 𝑉
𝜂= = (9𝑎)
𝑛 × Voltage across disc unit near conductor 𝑛 × 𝑉𝑛
S.O.V. for string
or, 𝜂 = (9𝑏)
𝑛 × S.O.V. of one disc
where, 𝑛 = insulator count in string, S.O.V. = spark over voltage.

7
Methods of equalising potential distribution
• Three common methods:
(1) Selection of 𝑚.
(2) Grading of units.
(3) Static shielding.
(4) Special design insulators.

8
1) Selection of 𝑚:
• Objective: to increase value of 𝑚 to equalise potential drop across
various units.
• Large 𝑚 longer cross arms + taller support structures.
need
• Longer cross arm ⇒ uneconomical.
• Practical value of large 𝑚: 𝑚 = 10.

9
2) Grading of units:
• Objective: to arrange disc units of different capacities in string, so as to
produce same product of their capacitive reactance and current flowing
through respective units, in presence of leakage current from insulator
pin to tower.
• Approach: minimum capacitance (i.e. maximum capacitive reactance)
for disc unit nearest to cross arm, and gradual increase in capacitance
for successive disc units towards conductor.
• Shunt capacitances 𝐶 of equal value, but different mutual capacitances.
• Appropriate grading of units → complete equality of voltage drops.
10
2) Grading of units: 𝐼1
𝑉1
• For equivalent circuit of 𝑛 + 1 -insulator string, 𝐶 𝐶1
capacitance between metal & conductor neglected. 𝐼𝐶1
• Assuming same voltage drop 𝑉1 across all units: 𝐶
𝐼𝐶𝑛
𝐼𝐶1 = ⇒ 𝐼𝐶𝑛 = 𝑛𝑉1 𝜔𝐶. (10) 𝐼𝐶𝑛−1 𝐼𝑛
𝑛 𝑉1
𝐶 𝐶𝑛
• At junction marked ‘red’: 𝐼𝑛+1 = 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝐶𝑛
𝐼𝐶𝑛 𝐼𝑛+1
⇒ 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶𝑛+1 = 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶𝑛 + 𝑛𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔 𝐶𝑛 + 𝑛𝐶 𝑉1
𝐶 𝐶𝑛+1
⇒ 𝐶𝑛+1 = 𝐶𝑛 + 𝑛𝐶. 𝐼𝐶𝑛+1 (11)
• Generalization in (11) to find 𝐶2 ,…, 𝐶𝑛+1 , knowing 𝐶1 and 𝐶.
11
2) Grading of units:
• That is, by fixing capacitance of one unit, capacitance of other units to
be found for equal distribution of voltage across units of string.
• Con: large stocks of different sized units of different capacities required
→ uneconomical and impractical.
• This method normally not used, except for very high voltage lines.

12
3) Static shielding:
• Objective: to nullify exactly pin to tower charging currents, so as to
allow same current flows through units of identical capacities to
produce equal voltage drops across each unit.
• Approach: guard ring or grading ring connected round to conductor so
as to surround bottom unit.
• Design of guard ring in such manner to produce capacitances to cancel
exactly charging current in that particular section.
• Shunt capacitances 𝐶 of equal values for all units; similarly, mutual
capacitances 𝑚𝐶 of equal values for all units.
13
3) Static shielding: 𝐼1
𝐼𝐶1 𝑚𝐶 𝑉1
• 𝐶𝑛 = capacitance between guard ring and pin 𝐶
of 𝑛-th unit; 𝐾 = number of units in string.
• Operating voltage, 𝑉 = 𝐾𝑉1 . 𝐼𝑛−1
𝑚𝐶 ′
• Guard ring nature at junction marked ‘red’: 𝐶
𝐼𝐶𝑛−1 𝐶𝑛−1𝐼𝐶𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛
𝐼𝑛+1 + 𝐼𝐶′ 𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝐶𝑛 ⇒ 𝐼𝐶𝑛 = 𝐼𝐶′ 𝑛 (as 𝐼𝑛+1 = 𝐼𝑛 ). 𝐼𝐶𝑛 𝑚𝐶 𝐼𝐶′ 𝑛 𝑉1
𝐶
⇒ 𝑛𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑉1 𝜔𝐶𝑛 = 𝐾 − 𝑛 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶𝑛 . 𝐼𝑛+1 𝐶𝑛
𝑛 𝐼𝐶′ 𝑛+1 𝑉1
⇒ 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶. (12) 𝐶 𝑚𝐶
𝐾−𝑛 𝐼𝐶𝑛+1 𝐶𝑛+1
• Generalization in (12) to find 𝐶𝑛+1 , 𝐶𝑛 ,….
14
3) Static shielding:
• For equal voltage distribution, capacitance of guard ring with respect to
pins of insulators as per (12).
• In practice, very difficult to achieve capacitance of guard ring.
• Pros: (i) improved equalisation of voltage drop across all units (e.g. for
14-unit string, voltage across bottom unit without guard ring = 0.183𝑉,
and with guard ring = 0.118𝑉);
(ii) protection of string from flashover (whenever over voltage between
tower and conductor), when used with arcing horn.

15
4) Special design insulators:
• Applicability: for transmission line passing through areas where lot of
smoke or chemical industry (resulting in high frequency of lightning
strokes).

16
Lecture Exercises: Problem 1 [Ref: [2], pp. 96]
An insulator string consists of three units, each having a safe working
voltage of 13 kV. The ratio of self-capacitance to shunt capacitance
of each unit is 10:1. Find the maximum safe working voltage of
the string. Also find the string efficiency..

17
Lecture Exercises: Problem 1 Ans
• From (6), maximum voltage to appear across lowest unit in string, i.e.
𝑉3 = 13 kV. Given, 𝑚 = 10, 𝑛 = 3.
𝑚+1 1
• From (3), 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 1.1𝑉1 ⇒ 𝑉1 = 𝑉.
𝑚 1.1 2
𝑚+1 2 +𝑚 1.31
• From (4), 𝑉3 = 𝑉1 = 1.31𝑉1 = 𝑉 (replacing above).
𝑚2 1.1 2
1.1
⇒ 𝑉2 = × 13 kV ≈ 10.916 kV.
1.31
1
⇒ 𝑉1 = × 10.916 kV ≈ 9.924 kV.
1.1
• From (1), 𝑉 = 9.924 + 10.916 + 13 = 33.84 kV. Maximum safe working voltage of string
33.84
• From (9a), string efficiency 𝜂 = ≈ 87%.
3 × 13

18
Sag and Tension
• The overhead line conductors need to be under safe tension.
• To save conductor material if the conductors are too stretched between
supports, the conductor may break due to excessive stress.
• To keep conductor tension within safe level, they are not completely
stretched but allowed to have a dip or sag.
• The difference in level between support points and the conductor
lowest point is called sag.
• The conductor lowest point is O and the sag is S.
• Span – the distance between two consecutive supports of a
transmission / distribution line.
19
Sag and Tension
• When conductor is suspended between two supports at same level, if
sag is very small compared to span, then sag-span curve is a parabola.
• Tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. So, tension TO
at the lowest point O acts horizontally as in Figure.
• Horizontal tension component is constant throughout
the wire length.
• Tension at supports is roughly equal to horizontal tension acting at any
point on the wire. Therefore, if T is tension at the support B, then T=TO.
• Sag and Tension are important parameter in overhead line design.

20
Sag and Tension
• Main factors in stringing of conductors are:
 Conductor load per unit length
 Tension on conductor
 Span and
 Temperature.
• Conductor load is due to:
 Weight of conductor itself
 Weight of ice or snow on conductor
 Wind blowing against conductor.
 Effective weight of conductor is the vector sum of vertical weight of
conductor and the horizontal wind pressure.
21
Sag and Tension
• For design the wind is considered to be blowing at right angle to line.
• The requirements of the design are:
 Sag should be minimum so as to keep pole height low,
 To have enough ground clearance,
 To avoid excessive horizontal space between conductors to prevent
them swinging together in midspan.
• Tension on conductor elongates the conductor and so sag increases.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• The elongation of conductor =
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Sag depend on span and span limited by strength and height of tower.
• Temperature rise increase length of conductor - sag increases and
tension decreases.
22
Sag and Tension: Support at same level
• Conductor suspended freely from two supports at same level.
• Span L meter.
• Conductor perfectly flexible,
weight is uniformly distributed
along the length of conductor.
• Sag ‘s’ is small compared to span, it means
the curved length is equal to horizontal projection i.e. OP=x.
• Two forces acting on OP of conductor are:
 Conductor weight acting downward at a distance (x/2) from O
 Tension T acting at O tangentially.
23
Sag and Tension
• For equilibrium:
The moment of the two forces at O will be equal.
𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
𝑇𝑦 = 𝑤𝑥 × ⇒ 𝑦 =
2 2𝑇
The maximum sag will be at the supports, at support 𝑥 = 𝑙Τ2
𝑤𝑙 2
Sag, 𝑆 =
8𝑇
• Unequal Level: For hilly areas supports are
at different heights and the difference in
levels of two supports is ‘h’.
• Distance of lowest point O from two supports are x1 and x2.
24
Sag and Tension
𝑤𝑥12 𝑤𝑥22
• Sag 𝑆1 = and 𝑆2 =
2𝑇 2𝑇
𝑤𝑙
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 𝑙 and 𝑆1 − 𝑆2 = ℎ ⇒ ℎ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
2𝑇
Hence, solving we get:
𝑙 𝑇ℎ 𝑙 𝑇ℎ
𝑥1 = − and 𝑥2 = +
2 𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤𝑙
• The sag values are correct only in still air and at normal temperature
when the conductor is acted only by its weight only.
• In real life a conductor may have ice coating and simultaneously
exposed to wind pressure.

25
Sag and Tension1; Wind and Ice loading
• The weight of ice acts vertically downwards, in the same direction as
the conductor weight.
• The force due to the wind is assumed to act horizontally for example, at
right angle to the conductor projected surface.
• Therefore, the complete force on the conductor is the vector sum of
horizontal and vertical forces.
𝑤𝑡 = 𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 2 + 𝑤𝑤 2
• With both wind and ice loading:
 Conductor makes an angle with vertical plane
𝑤𝑤
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖
26
Sag and Tension: Numerical
• A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level supports. The
conductor has a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. The tension in the
conductor is 2000 kg. If the conductor material specific gravity is 9.9
gm/cm3 and wind pressure is 1.5 kg/m length, find the sag. Calculate
also the vertical sag.
• Solution: Weight of conductor/m length,
w = Specific Gravity × Volume of 1 m conductor
=9.9×2×100=1980 gm=1.98 𝑘g
𝑤𝑙 2 −1 𝑤𝑤
Sag, 𝑆 = This sag is making an angle with the vertical = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
8𝑇 𝑤

27
Issues about Mechanical Design of overhead lines:
• Tower height: Dependent upon the span length.
• With long spans, few towers are needed but they have to be tall and
correspondingly costly.
• The lightning hazards highly increase as the height of the conductors
above earth is increased.
• Conductor clearance to earth: Conductor clearance to earth at the
biggest sag should not be less than specified distance (6 and 12 m),
depending on voltage.
• The biggest sag happens on hottest day of summer due to expansion
of wire or it may happen in winter owing to the formation of a heavy
coating of ice on wires.
28
Sag and Tension
• Sag and tension: In overhead transmission lines, it is mandatory to
allow a safety factor in respect of the conductor tension.
• The tension is governed by the wind effects, ice loading and
temperature changes.
• The relationship between tension and sag depends on the loading
conditions and temperature changes.
• For instance, the tension increases when the temperature reduces and
there is a corresponding sag reduction.
• Icing-up of the line and wind loading will cause conductor stretching by
an amount dependent on the line tension.
29
Stringing Chart:
• For use in the installation work of stringing the conductors,
temperature-sag and temperature tension charts are printed for the
given conductor and loading conditions.
• Such curves are known as stringing charts and are shown in Figure.
• These charts are very useful while stringing
overhead transmission lines.

30
Conductor Spacing
• Conductor spacing has to be such to provide safety against flash-over
when the wires are swinging in the wind.
• The adequate spacing is a function of span length, voltage and weather
conditions.
• The use of horizontal spacing removes the danger caused by unequal
ice loading.
• Small wires or light material wires are exposed to more swinging by the
wind than heavy conductors.
• Hence, light wires need to be provided bigger spacing.

31
Conductor Vibration
• Wind exerts pressure on the exposed conductor area. If wind velocity is
small, conductor swinging is harmless if clearance is sufficiently big so
that conductors do not come within the sparking distance of each other.
• A totally different vibration type, known as dancing, is caused by the
action of fairly strong wind on a wire covered with ice.
• When the ice coating happens to take a form which makes a good air-
foil section. Then the complete span may sail up like a kite until it
reaches the limit of its slack, stops with a jerk and falls or sails back.
• Harmful impact of these vibrations happens at clamps or supports
where conductor suffers fatigue and finally breaks. In order to save the
conductors, dampers are used.
32
Sag Template:
• Sag template is a device used in the design of a transmission line to
determine the location and height of support structures.
• Sag template provides:
 Economic layout,
 Minimum error in design
 Proper grading of structure
 Prevention of excessive
insulator swing.
• Templates show: minimum ground clearance ny plotting a curve
parallel to conductor shape curve.
33
References
1. C L Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, Sixth edition, New Academic Science Ltd., 2012.
2. P K Sadhu and S Das, Elements of Power Systems, CRC Press, 2016.
4. A Ingole, Power Transmission and Distribution, Pearson Education, 2017.
5. A Chakrabarti and S Halder, Power System Analysis: Operation and Control, Third edition, PHI Learning, 2010.
6. S Sivanagaraju and S Satyanarayana, Electric Power Transmission and Distribution. Pearson Education, 2008.
7. M N Bandyopadhyay, Electrical Power Systems: Theory and Practice, PHI Learning, 2006.

34
UNIT – IV
Lecture 30: Performance of Line

[ ABCD parameters; Short line approximation;
Medium line approximation: Nominal-𝜋,
Nominal-T representations ]
Dr. Mala De
Transmission line models: Classification
• Transmission line models to be classified based on length of lines 
i. Short line approximation: for lines less than 80 km long.
ii. Medium line approximation: for lines with lengths between 80 km and
250 km.
iii. Long line model: for lines longer than 250 km.
• Noteworthy: for overhead transmission lines,

line conductance → always negligible
⇒ shunt admittance → capacitive susceptance.

1
ABCD parameters
• ABCD parameters: four parameters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 defined as transmission
parameters in power system; also called generalized circuit constants.
• Used for relating “sending-end voltage and current” to “receiving-end
voltage and current”.
• ABCD parameters are defined based on two-port representation of
transmission network (Fig.1):
• Here, 𝑉𝑆 and 𝑉𝑅 to denote sending
and receiving-end voltages; 𝐼𝑆 and
𝐼𝑅 to denote currents entering and Fig.1: Two-port representation of
leaving the network, respectively. transmission network.
2
ABCD parameters
• The sending end voltage and current in 2-port network represented in
terms of ABCD parameters as:
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (1)
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (2)
• Alternate matrix representation of Eqn.(1) and Eqn.(2):
𝑉𝑆 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉𝑅
= (3)
𝐼𝑆 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
• Parameter ‘𝐴’: 𝐴 to be defined as follows, based from Eqn.(1):
𝑉𝑆
𝐴= ቚ (4)
𝑉𝑅 𝐼 =0
𝑅
• 𝐴 = ratio of ‘sending-end voltage’ to ‘open circuit receiving-end voltage’.
• 𝐴 dimension-less.
3
ABCD parameters
• Parameter ‘𝐵’: 𝐵 to be defined as follows, based from Eqn.(1):
𝑉𝑆
𝐵= ቚ (5)
𝐼𝑅 𝑉 =0
𝑅
• 𝐵 = ratio of ‘sending-end voltage’ to ‘short circuit receiving-end current’.
• Unit of 𝐵: dimension of impedance, i.e. Ω.
• Parameter ‘𝐶’: 𝐶 to be defined as follows, based from Eqn.(2):

𝐼𝑆
𝐶= ቚ (6)
𝑉𝑅 𝐼 =0
𝑅
• 𝐶 = ratio of ‘sending-end current’ to ‘open circuit receiving-end voltage’.
• Unit of 𝐶: dimension of admittance, i.e. ℧.
4
ABCD parameters
• Parameter ‘𝐷’: 𝐷 to be defined as follows, based from Eqn.(2):
𝐼𝑆
𝐷= ቚ (7)
𝐼𝑅 𝑉 =0
𝑅
• 𝐷 = ratio of ‘sending-end current’ to ‘short circuit receiving-end current’.
• 𝐷 dimension-less.
• Noteworthy fact: for any symmetrical network, 𝐴 = 𝐷.
• For cases when 𝑉𝑆 , 𝐼𝑆 known:
𝑉𝑅 𝐷 −𝐵 𝑉𝑆
= (8)
𝐼𝑅 −𝐶 𝐴 𝐼𝑆
• ABCD constants satisfy following identity: 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 1. (9)

5
ABCD parameters
• ABCD constants used extensively in power system analysis,
particularly in representations of short transmission line, medium
transmission line and long transmission line models.
• Common notations:
𝑧: series impedance/unit-length/phase. (10a)
𝑦: shunt admittance/unit-length/phase to neutral. (10b)
𝑟: resistance/unit-length/phase. (10c)
𝐿: inductance/unit-length/phase. (10d)
𝐶: capacitance/unit-length/phase to neutral. (10e)

6
ABCD parameters: Short line approximation
• Short line approximation: for transmission lines less than 80 km long.
• Shunt admittance for short line
→ almost negligible.
• Series impedance for short line
→ assumed to be ‘lumped’ (Fig.2).
• Total impedance of (approximately Fig.2: Short transmission line
represented) short line (as per Fig.2): representation.
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 𝑙𝑟 + 𝑗𝑙𝑥 (11)
where, impedance per km line: 𝑧0 = 𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥
length of line: ‘𝑙’ km. (12)
7
• Sending-end voltage (as per Fig.2):
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 (13)
• Sending-end current (as per Fig.2):
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 (14)
• Comparing Eqn.(1) and Eqn.(2) with Eqn.(13) and Eqn.(14), ABCD
parameters for short line approximation:
𝐴=1 (15)
𝐵=𝑍Ω (16)
𝐶 =0 (17)
𝐷 =1 (18)
8
• Simple matrix representations of ABCD parameters for short line
approximation from Eqn.(13) and Eqn.(14), based on Eqn.(15),
Eqn.(16), Eqn.(17) and Eqn.(18):
𝑉𝑆 1 𝑍 𝑉𝑅
= (19a)
𝐼𝑆 0 1 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑅 1 −𝑍 𝑉𝑆
= (19b)
𝐼𝑅 0 1 𝐼𝑆

9
ABCD parameters: Medium line approximation
• Medium line approximation: applicable for transmission lines having
lengths between 80 km and 250 km.
• Medium transmission lines to be modeled with ‘lumped’ shunt
admittance.
• Two different representations of medium line approximation, depending
on nature of network:
A. Nominal-𝜋 representation method: representation of medium line (as
well as long line); used for load flow studies.
B. Nominal-T representation method.

10
A) Nominal-𝜋 Representation:
• Nominal-𝜋 representation: ‘lumped’
series impedance 𝑍 [defined similar to
Eqn.(11)] to be placed in middle, while Fig.3: Nominal-𝜋 representation of
shunt admittance 𝑌 to be divided into medium transmission line.
two equal parts and placed at two ends (Fig.3).
• 𝐼1 and 𝐼3 to be defined (as per Fig.3):
𝑌
𝐼1 = 𝑉 (20a)
2 𝑆
𝑌
𝐼3 = 𝑉𝑅 (20b)
2

11
• 𝐼2 to be defined (as per Fig.3), after applying KCL at node N, and
substituting Eqn.(20b):
𝑌
𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 (21)
2 𝑅
• Sending-end voltage (as per Fig.3), after applying KVL, and substituting
Eqn.(21):
𝑌 𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 = + 1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 (22)
2 𝑅 2

12
• To determine the ABCD parameters of the medium line we need to
represent 𝐼𝑆 in terms of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝐼𝑅 ; hence,
• Sending-end current (from Fig.3), after applying KCL at both nodes M
and N, and substituting Eqn.(20a), Eqn.(21) and Eqn.(22):
𝑌 𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝑉+ 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 = + 1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
2 𝑆 2 2 2 2
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
⇒ 𝐼𝑆 = 𝑌 +1 𝑉𝑅 + + 1 𝐼𝑅 (23)
4 2

13
parameters for nominal-𝜋 representation of medium line approximation:
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= +1 (24)
2
𝐵=𝑍Ω (25)
𝑌𝑍
𝐶 =𝑌 +1 ℧ (26)
4
𝑌𝑍
𝐷 = +1 (27)
2

14
• Simple matrix representations of ABCD parameters for nominal-𝜋
representation of medium line approximation from Eqn.(22) and
Eqn.(23), based on Eqn.(24), Eqn.(25), Eqn.(26) and Eqn.(27):
𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑆 +1 𝑍 𝑉𝑅
2
= (28a)
𝐼𝑆 𝑌
𝑌𝑍
+1
𝑌𝑍
+1 𝐼𝑅
4 2
𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑅 +1 −𝑍 𝑉𝑆
2
= (28b)
𝐼𝑅 −𝑌
𝑌𝑍
+1
𝑌𝑍
+1 𝐼𝑆
4 2

15
B) Nominal-T Representation:
• Nominal-T Representation:
shunt admittance 𝑌 to be
placed in middle and series
Fig.4: Nominal-T representation of
impedance 𝑍 to be divided into medium transmission line.
two equal parts and placed on either side of 𝑌.
• Midpoint voltage (denoted as 𝑉𝑀 ) to be defined (Fig.4):
𝑍
𝑉𝑀 = 𝐼 + 𝑉𝑅 (29)
2 𝑅

16
• Sending-end current (as per Fig.4), after applying KCL, and substituting
Eqn.(29):
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑌𝑉𝑀 + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑌𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑌𝑉𝑅 + + 1 𝐼𝑅 (30)
2 2
• Sending-end voltage (as per Fig.4), after applying KVL, and substituting
Eqn.(29) and Eqn.(30):
𝑍 𝑌𝑍 𝑍 𝑌𝑍 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆 + 𝑉𝑀 = 𝑉 + +1 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼 + 𝑉𝑅
2 2 𝑅 2 2 2 𝑅
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
= +1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍 + 1 𝐼𝑅 (31)
2 4

17
parameters for nominal-T representation of medium line approximation:
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= +1 (32)
2
𝑌𝑍
𝐵=𝑍 +1 Ω (33)
4
𝐶 =𝑌℧ (34)
𝑌𝑍
𝐷= +1 (35)
2

18
• Simple matrix representations of ABCD parameters for nominal-T
representation of medium line approximation from Eqn.(30) and
Eqn.(31), based on Eqn.(32), Eqn.(33), Eqn.(34) and Eqn.(35):
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑆 +1 𝑍 +1 𝑉𝑅
2 4
= (36a)
𝐼𝑆 𝑌
𝑌𝑍
+1 𝐼𝑅
2
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑅 +1 −𝑍 +1 𝑉𝑆
2 4
= (36b)
𝐼𝑅 −𝑌
𝑌𝑍
+1 𝐼𝑆
2

19
Summary
Focus: ABCD parameters; ABCD parameters for short line and medium
line approximation models.
• Classification of transmission line models.
• ABCD parameters, and their significances.
• Short transmission line approximation model for representation as
ABCD parameters.
• Types of representations of medium transmission line approximation.
• Nominal-𝜋 representation method for approximation model of
medium transmission line as ABCD parameters.
• Nominal-T representation method for approximation model of
medium transmission line as ABCD parameters.
20
References
3. https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108104051/chapter_2/2_intro.html.

21
Lecture Exercises: Problem 1
A 50 Hz transmission line (200 km long) has a total series impedance of
40 + j125 ohms and a total shunt admittance of 10-3 mho. The receiving-
end load is 50 MW at 220 kV with 0.8 lagging power factor. Find the
sending-end voltage and current using nominal-𝜋 representation method.

22
28-04-2020
UNIT – IV
Lecture 31: Performance of Line
[ Long line model: rigorous, equivalent- ,

equivalent-T representations ]
Dr. Mala De
ABCD parameters: Recap

• Definition of sending and receiving-end voltage and current:
= + (1)
= + (2)
• Alternate matrix representation of Eqn.(1) and Eqn.(2):
= (3)
• For cases when , known:
−
= (4)
−

1
28-04-2020
ABCD parameters: Long line model

• Long line model: applicable for transmission lines longer than 250 km.
• Long line model parameters distributed (and ‘not lumped’) throughout
long transmission line for accurate modeling of transmission line.
• Three different representations of long line model, depending on nature
of network’s representation:
A. Rigorous (exact) representation method.
B. Equivalent- representation method.
C. Equivalent-T representation method.

2

A) Rigorous representation:
• Model of long line based on
single-line diagram of
long transmission line.
• Rigorous analysis of
small strip (i.e. elemental
section) of line. Fig.1: Single-line representation of long transmission line.
• Length of strip = ∆ .
• Distance of strip from receiving-end: .
• Length of line: .
3
28-04-2020

• Series impedance of strip: × ∆ . (5.a)
Shunt admittance of strip: ×∆ . (5.b)
• Total impedance of line: = × . (6a)
Total admittance of line: = × . (6b)
• Voltage and current at end of strip (as per Fig.1): , .
Voltage and current at beginning of strip: +∆ , +∆ .
• Here, ≡ complex expression of RMS voltage, with magnitude and
phase vary with distance along line.

4

• Current through strip (as per Fig.1), after applying KCL:
∆ = ∆ +∆ = ∆ + ∆ ∆ (7a)
• Neglecting second term of Eqn.(7a), due to product of two small
quantities, current through strip: ∆ = ∆ (7b)
• Voltage drop across strip (as per Fig.1): ∆ = ∆ . (8)
• For infinitesimally-small strip, i.e. ∆ → 0, rearranging Eqn.(7b) and
∆
Eqn.(8): → = (9a)
∆
∆
∆
→ = (9b)

5
28-04-2020

• Another derivative with respect to on both sides of Eqn.(9a), and then
substituting Eqn.(9b) and rearranging:
= = = ⇒ − =0 (10)
• General solution of linear differential equation in Eqn.(10), noting that
roots of this equation located at ‘± ’:
= + (11)
where, , = arbitrary constants to be evaluated next, and
γ= = propagation constant of transmission line. (12)

6

• Another derivative with respect to x of both sides of Eqn.(11):
= γ − γ (13)
• Comparing Eqn.(9a) with Eqn.(13), and then rearranging:
= − = − (14)
⁄ ⁄
where, = ⁄ Ω = characteristic impedance of line. (15)

• Substituting values of , at end conditions (when = 0, = , =
) in Eqn.(11) and Eqn.(14): = + (16a)
= − (16b)
7
28-04-2020

• Solving Eqn.(16a) and Eqn.(16b): = (17a)
= (17b)
• Substituting values of and from Eqn.(17a) and Eqn.(17b) in
Eqn.(11) and Eqn.(14):
= + = + + −
⇒ = + (18a)
= − = + − +
⇒ = + (18b)
8

• Noteworthy fact: = cosh γ , = sinh γ . (19)
• Also, when = , values of and matched with sending-end voltage
and current: = , = .
• Substituting above values in Eqn.(18a) and Eqn.(18b):
= cosh γ + sinh γ (20a)
= sinh γ + cosh γ (20b)
where, sinh γ , cosh γ : hyperbolic functions on line parameters.

9
28-04-2020

• Comparing Eqn.(1) and Eqn.(2) with Eqn.(20a) and Eqn.(20b), ABCD
parameters for rigorous long line model:
= cosh γ | (21)
= sinh γ | Ω (22)
= sinh γ ℧ (23)
= cosh γ | (24)
• Need for determining ‘sinh γ ’ and ‘cosh γ ’ to evaluate ABCD
parameters from Eqn.(21), Eqn.(22), Eqn.(23) and Eqn.(24).
10

 Computing hyperbolic functions on line parameters: 3 methods
• Basis: propagation constant in general of nature complex number
= = + , (25)
where = attenuation constant (in Nepers/unit-length) and = phase
constant (in radians/unit-length).
I) Method 1: Defining hyperbolic functions of complex no. in Eqn.(25):
cosh γ = cosh cos + sinh sin (26a)
sinh γ = sinh cos + cosh sin (26b)
• Standard tables for values of sinh , cosh , sin , cos of real numbers.
11
28-04-2020

II) Method 2: Expanding exponential definitions of Eqn.(19), based on
complex no. in Eqn.(25):
cosh γ = = ∠ + ∠− (27a)
sinh γ = = ∠ − ∠− (27b)
• Standard calculations for expressions in Eqn.(27a) and Eqn.(27b).

12

III) Method 3: Taylor series expansion of Eqn.(19), and approximating,
due to quick converge of series for usual values of γ in power lines:
cosh γ = 1 + + + ⋯∞ ≈ 1 + (28a)
! !
sinh γ = γ + + + ⋯∞ ≈ 1+ (28b)
! !
• Approximations in Eqn.(28a) and Eqn.(28b) computationally
convenient, and quite accurate for transmission lines up to 400/500 km.

13
28-04-2020

• Simple matrix representations of ABCD parameters for rigorous long
line model from Eqn.(20a) and Eqn.(20b), based on Eqn.(21), Eqn.(22),
Eqn.(23) and Eqn.(24) [with methods to evaluate their values as per
Eqn.(26) or Eqn.(27) or Eqn.(28)]:
cosh γ sinh γ
= (29a)
sinh γ cosh γ
cosh γ − sinh γ
= (29b)
− sinh γ cosh γ

14

B) Equivalent- representation:
• Equivalent- representation of long line of
length (Fig.2): equivalent series impe-
-dance in middle of line, with shunt admi- Fig.2: Equivalent- representation
-ttance divided into 2 equal parts at two ends. of long transmission line.
• Above representation meaningful w.r.t. end conditions of long line.
• ABCD parameters’ expression: similar to ABCD parameters’ expression
in nominal- representation of medium transmission line.
• Consider: series impedance of line = ; shunt admittance of line = .

15
28-04-2020

• Based on nominal- representation of medium line from Eqn.(30.24) –
Eqn.(30.27) (of Lecture 30), ABCD parameters for long line:
= +1 (30)
= Ω (31)
= +1 ℧ (32)
= +1 (33)
• Next tasks: to express and in terms of and .

16

• in terms of : comparing Eqn.(22) with Eqn.(31), and substituting
from Eqn.(6a), Eqn.(12) and Eqn.(15): = sinh γ (34a)
⇒ = ⁄ × sinh γ = × sinh γ = (34b)
from Eqn.(6b), Eqn.(12), Eqn.(15) and Eqn.(34a), as well as based on
half-argument hyperbolic function: cosh γ = +1= sinh γ + 1
⇒ = = tanh = tanh = = (35)

17
28-04-2020

• ABCD parameters for equivalent- representation of long line model:
= +1 (36)
= Ω (37)
= +1 ℧ (38)
= +1 (39)

18

• Matrix representations of ABCD parameters for equivalent- long line
model, based on Eqn.(36) – Eqn.(39):
+1
= (40a)
+1 +1
+1 −
= (40b)
− +1 +1

19
28-04-2020

• Terms and to be regarded as multiplying factors for
and of nominal- to get and respectively of equivalent- network.

• Note: for small values of , i.e. in case of medium/short line:
sinh γ ≃ γ and tanh ≃ (41)
• Substituting Eqn.(41) in Eqn.(34b) and Eqn.(35):
≃ (42a)
≃ ⁄ (42b)
Eqn.(42a) and Eqn.(42b) to indicate that nominal- representation of
medium/short line with lumped parameters to be fairly accurate.
20

C) Equivalent-T representation:
• Equivalent-T representation of long line of
length (Fig.3): equivalent shunt admittance
in middle, with series impedance divided Fig.3: Equivalent-T representation
into two equal parts on line at two ends. of long transmission line.
• Above representation meaningful w.r.t. end conditions of long line.
• ABCD parameters’ expression: similar to ABCD parameters’ expression
in nominal-T representation of medium transmission line.
• Consider: series impedance of line = ; shunt admittance of line = .

21
28-04-2020

• Based on nominal-T representation of medium line from Eqn.(30.32) –
Eqn.(30.35) (of Lecture 30), ABCD parameters for long line:
= +1 (43)
= +1 Ω (44)
= ℧ (45)
= +1 (46)
• Next tasks: to express and in terms of and .

22

from Eqn.(6b), Eqn.(12) and Eqn.(15): = sinh γ (47a)
⇒ = sinh γ = sinh γ = (47b)

⁄
from Eqn.(6a), Eqn.(12), Eqn.(15) and Eqn.(47a), as well as based on
half-argument hyperbolic function: cosh γ = +1= sinh γ + 1
⇒ = = tanh = tanh = = (48)

23
28-04-2020

• ABCD parameters for equivalent-T representation of long line model:
= +1 (49)
= +1 Ω (50)
= ℧ (51)
= +1 (52)

24

• Matrix representations of ABCD parameters for equivalent-T long line
model, based on Eqn.(49) – Eqn.(52):
+1 +1
= (53a)
+1
+1 − +1
= (53b)
− +1

25
28-04-2020
Summary
Focus: ABCD parameters for long line models.
• Types of representations of long transmission line model.
• Rigorous (exact) representation method for model of long
transmission line as ABCD parameters.
• Equivalent- representation method for model of long transmission
line as ABCD parameters.
• Equivalent-T representation method for model of long transmission
line as ABCD parameters.

26
References
3. https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108104051/chapter_2/2_intro.html.
4. https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108104051/chapter_2/examp_2.1.html.
5. https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108104051/chapter_2/examp_2.2.html.
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions.

27
28-04-2020
Lecture Exercises: Problem 1 [Ref: [4]]

Consider a transmission line of 500 km long, for which the per kilometer
line impedance and line admittance are given respectively as 0.1+j0.5145
ohm and j3.1734x10-6 mho. Determine the ABCD parameters of the
system following rigorous representation method.

28
Lecture Exercises: Problem 1 Ans

• Given: = 500 km; = 0.1+ 0.5145 = 0.5241∠79° Ω;
= 3.1734×10-6 = 3.1734×10-6∠90° ℧.
• = ⁄ Ω= 0.5241 ∠ 79° 90° = 406.4024∠−5.5° Ω.

3.1734×10−6 2
[Eqn.(15)]
• γ = 500 × = 500 × 0.5241 × 3.1734 × 10−6∠ 79° 90° =
2
0.6448∠84.5° = 0.0618 + 0.6419. [Eqn.(12) and Eqn.(25)]
• cosh γ = cosh 0.0618 × cos 0.6419 + sinh 0.0618 × sin 0.6419 =
0.8025 + 0.037. [Eqn.(26a)]
• sinh γ = sinh 0.0618 × cos 0.6419 + cosh 0.0618 × sin 0.6419 =
0.0495 + 0.5998. [Eqn.(26b)]
29
28-04-2020
Lecture Exercises: Problem 1 Ans (contd.)

• = 0.8025 + 0.037. Eqn.(21)
• = 406.4024∠−5.5° × 0.0495 + 0.5998 = 43.4 + 240.72 Ω.
Eqn.(22)
• = 1 × 0.0495 + 0.5998 = −2.01 × 10−5 + 0.0015 ℧.
406.4024∠−5.5°
Eqn.(23)
• = 0.8025 + 0.037. Eqn.(24)

30
Lecture Exercises: Problem 2 [Ref: [5]]

Consider a transmission line of 500 km long, for which the per kilometer
line impedance and line admittance are given respectively as 0.1+j0.5145
ohm and j3.1734x10-6 mho. Determine the ABCD parameters of the
system following 
i. equivalent- representation method;
ii. equivalent-T representation method.

31
UNIT – IV
Lecture 33: Transmission Line Transients
[ Travelling wave]
Dr. Mala De
Transmission line Transients:
• When a transmission line is connected to a voltage source, whole
line is not instantly energized. Some time elapses between initial
and final steady states due to distributed parameters of the lines.
• The travelling voltage wave also called surge, caused by lightning
or switching. Voltage wave always accompanied by current wave.
• As waves travel along line, wave shape and magnitude modifies.
• Knowledge of voltages and currents at all points in power system
helps in design of insulators, protective equipment, insulation of
end point equipment and overall system insulation coordination.

1
• Power system generally operates under a steady-state condition.
• Transients are initiated due to switching, short-circuit faults or
lightning resulting in current and voltages higher in magnitude.
• Types of transients depending upon the speed of the transients:
• Surge phenomena (extremely fast transients)
• Short circuit phenomena (medium fast transients)
• Transient stability (slow transients)
• Lightning and switching causes transient or surge phenomena,
travel along transmission line with velocity of light (3x108 m/s),
i.e., in one millisecond, it travels 300 km along a transmission line.
2
• Thus, the transient phenomenon associated with these travelling
waves occurs during the first few milliseconds after their initiation.
• The present line losses cause fast attenuation of these waves,
which die out after a few reflections.
• Reflection of surges at open line ends, or at transformers which
presents high inductance, causes maximum voltage buildup.
• The high voltages eventually damage the insulation of high-
voltage equipment with consequent short circuit.

3
Transmission line transients:
• A transmission line is a circuit with distributed parameters which
supports travelling waves of voltage and current.
• Changes in voltage and current due to switching or lightning are
spread out in all parts of circuit in form of travelling waves/surges.
• Connected to a source of electrical energy due to lightening or
switching, the transmission line encounters a travelling wave of
voltage and current passing through it at a finite velocity.
• For a lossless transmission line which has series inductance
(LΔx) of length Δx and shunt capacitance (CΔx) of length Δx.

4
• After switch S closed:
 Applied voltage will not
appear instantly at load end
because of inductance and
capacitance of lossless transmission line.
 Current passing through first inductance is zero as it doesn’t
allow sudden change in current and acts as an open circuit.
 Voltage across the first capacitor is zero because it acts as a
short circuit at the same time.

5
• At this instant, the next sections cannot be charged because the
voltage across the first capacitor is zero.
• When the first capacitance is charged through first inductance,
the capacitance of the next section starts charging and so on.
• It is therefore clear from the discussion that the voltage at the
successive sections builds up gradually and finally the voltage
wave reaches the other end of the line.

6
• The wave equations for a lossless transmission line:
𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑖 𝜕2 𝑖
= 𝐿𝐶 2 and = 𝐿𝐶 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡
• Represent voltage and current distribution along the line in terms
of time and distance.
• Solutions of these equations show that these waves can travel in
1
any direction i.e. forward or backward with a velocity of .
𝐿𝐶
1 ′
𝑖= 𝑣 − 𝑣 ′′ = 𝑖 ′ − 𝑖 ′′
𝑍𝑆
• 𝑖 ′ represents forward travelling incident current wave and 𝑖 ′′
represents the reverse travelling reflected current wave.
7
• Consider a voltage wave which
propagates in forward direction
and a wave which propagate in
the backward direction (Figure).
• Backward wave is called the
reflected wave. Positive direction
of current is taken as direction of
propagation of the wave itself.
• In case of a forward wave, the
direction of current and voltage are the same.
8
• For a backward wave, direction of propagation of current is
opposite to that of voltage, so it is taken as negative.
• Figure represent the wave shapes for forward and reflected
waves for voltage and current, and their resultant at any instant.

9
Importance of Surge Impedance:
• Surge impedance for overhead lines are approximately 500 
and for underground cables 50  due to presence of ∈𝑟 in cables.
• Zs enables calculation of transient voltages and currents. If a line
carrying current I gets interrupted, maximum value of oscillating
voltage is IZS, which may reach very high value if ZS is high.
• Transmission system consist of elements: generator, transformer,
transmission line, and load having different electrical constants.
• Due to variations in Zs, oscillations harmful in one port of the
circuit may reach a dangerous state in another port.

10
• If transmission line is connected to underground cable, an
oscillation current in cable of lower impedance (50 Ω)gives rise to
high oscillating voltages when it enters overhead part of the line
due to far higher natural impedance of the overhead line (500 Ω).
• Similarly, transformer has impedance between 2000-4000 Ω is
connected at end of an overhead line.
• An oscillating current which produces moderate oscillating voltage
in line, produce destructive voltage in transformer winding.
• Consideration of Zs of different apparatus gives huge information
regarding relative danger & preventive action to take.
11
Effect of line connection on travelling wave:
• Line terminated at resistance
• Line terminated at cable
• Line connected at junctions.
1. Line terminated at resistance: Lossless
transmission line having surge impedance ZS terminated at a R.
 When current wave travelling along the line experiences change
(line end, change of series or shunt impedance), it is partly or
𝑣"
totally reflected. Expression for reflected current is: 𝑖 " =
𝑍𝑆
 𝑣 " and 𝑖 " are reflected voltage and current waves, respectively.
12
Travelling wave for Line terminated at Resistance:
• 𝑣, 𝑖 - transmitted and 𝑣 ′ , 𝑖 ′ - incident voltage and current waves.
𝑣′ 𝑣"
Incident current, 𝑖 ′ = ; Reflected current 𝑖 " = −
𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆
𝑣
and, transmitted current, 𝑖 =
𝑅
Since, 𝑖 = 𝑖 ′ + 𝑖 " and 𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣 "
𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑣" 𝑣′ 𝑣−𝑣 ′ 2𝑣 ′ 𝑣
= − = − = −
𝑅 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆
2𝑅
Therefore, the transmitted voltage, 𝑣 = 𝑣′ and
𝑍𝑆 +𝑅
𝑣 2 𝑣 ′ 2𝑍𝑆 2𝑍𝑆
transmitted current, 𝑖 = = 𝑣 ′= × ′
=𝑖 ×
𝑅 𝑍𝑆 +𝑅 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 +𝑅 𝑍𝑆 +𝑅
13
2𝑍𝑆
• Coefficient of transmitted or refraction current waves:
𝑍𝑆 +𝑅
2𝑅
• Transmitted coefficient for voltages waves ,
𝑍𝑆 +𝑅
𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑣"
= − replacing 𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣 "
𝑅 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆
𝑣′ + 𝑣" 𝑣′ 𝑣" " ′
𝑅 − 𝑍𝑆
= − ⇒𝑣 =𝑣 ×
𝑅 𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 𝑅 + 𝑍𝑆
𝑣" 𝑣′ 𝑅−𝑍𝑆
And 𝑖" = − = − ×
𝑍𝑆 𝑍𝑆 𝑅+𝑍𝑆
𝑅−𝑍𝑆
• Therefore, coefficient of reflection of current wave = −
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
𝑅−𝑍𝑆
• Reflection coefficient of voltage wave =
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
14
• A rectangular wave travels along a 500 km line terminated with a
resistance of 1000 Ω. The line has a resistance of 0.3 Ω/km and a
surge impedance of 400 Ω. If the voltage at the termination point
after two successive reflections is 200 kV, determine the
amplitude of the incoming surge.
Solution:
2𝑅𝑣 ′
The amplitude of the incoming surge, 𝑣 =
𝑅+𝑍𝐶

15
Travelling wave for Line Open-circuited at receiving end:
• Receiving end is open-circuited, R=∝, the equivalent circuit is:
2𝑅
• coefficient of transmitted voltage =
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
• Putting value of R we get, the transmitted
2
voltage wave coefficient = 𝑍𝑆 = 2, it means
1+ 𝑅
voltage at open-ended line is 2𝑣 ′ , voltage is raised by reflection.
2𝑍𝑆
• Transmitted coefficient of current wave = =0
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
𝑅−𝑍𝑆
• Reflection coefficient of voltage wave = =1
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
𝑅−𝑍𝑆
• Reflection coefficient of current wave =− = −1
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
16
Travelling wave for Line Open-circuited at receiving end:
• Transmitted wave = incident wave + reflected wave.
• For an open-ended line, a travelling voltage wave is reflected
back with a positive sign and the reflection is unity.
• Transmission coefficient of current for open-ended line iszero
which means the current at open end line is zero.
• This means the current reflects back with a negative sign and
same magnitude.

17
Travelling wave for Line Short-circuited at receiving end:
• Receiving end is short-circuited, i.e., R=0,
2𝑅
• The transmitted coefficient of voltage wave = ,
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
• the transmitted voltage wave coefficient =0, it means
voltage at short circuited line is 0.
2𝑍𝑆
• Transmitted coefficient of current wave = = 2, means current
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
is raised by reflection.
𝑅−𝑍𝑆
• Reflection coefficient of voltage wave = = −1
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
𝑅−𝑍𝑆
• Reflection coefficient of current wave =− =1
𝑅+𝑍𝑆
• voltage reduces to zero and current increase with each reflection.
Current value will be limited by the resistance of the line.
18
Travelling wave for Line connected to a cable:
• When wave travels towards the cable from the
line, because of the difference in impedances
at junction, part of the wave is reflected and rest is transmitted.
2𝑅
• The transmitted voltage wave is given by: 𝑣 = 𝑣′
𝑍𝑆 +𝑍𝐿
2𝑍𝑆 ′
• Transmitted current wave is given by: 𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑍𝑆 +𝑍𝐿
• Refelcted voltage wave and current waves are:
𝑍𝑆 −𝑍𝐿 ′ 𝑍𝑆 −𝑍𝐿 ′
𝑣" = 𝑣 and 𝑖" = − 𝑖
𝑍𝑆 +𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝑆 +𝑍𝐿

19
Reflection and Refraction at a T-Junction:
• voltage wave travelling over lossless transmission
line with natural impedance Z1 towards junction.
• At the junction, due to change of impedance, part
of the wave is reflected back and the other is transmitted over the
parallel lines having natural impedances Z2 and Z3, respectively.
• v2, i2 and v3, i3 be the voltages and currents in parallel branches.
• Reflected portion will be same for both branches, i.e.,v2 = v3 = v,
since they are parallel to each other.
• At the transition point 𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣 "

20
Effect of line connection on travelling wave:
′ 𝑣′ ′′ 𝑣 ′′ 𝑣 𝑣
𝑖 = ; 𝑖 = − ; 𝑖2 = ; 𝑖3 = and 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 𝑖 ′ + 𝑖 ′′
𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑣 ′′
Hence, + = − and substituting for 𝑣 ′′ = 𝑣 − 𝑣 ′
𝑍2 𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍1
2𝑣′ൗ
𝑍1
The transmitted voltage is: 𝑣 = 1 1 1
+
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍2
+
1 1 1
− −
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍2
The reflected voltage is: 𝑣 ′′ = 1 1 1 × 𝑣′
+ +
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍2

21
Line terminated at reactance:
• A line is terminated through a capacitor C.
• The wave is travelling along the line with
natural impedance Z0 and terminated at C.
• the transmitted voltage is:
1
2× 𝑣 ′ 2𝑣 ′ 1 1
𝑣 𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 × = = 2𝑣 ′
−
1 𝑠 1 𝑠 1
𝑍0 + 𝑍0 𝐶𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑠+
𝐶𝑠 𝑍0 𝐶 𝑍0 𝐶
Taking Laplace inverse:
𝑡ൗ
′
𝑣 𝑡 = 2𝑣 1 − 𝑒 𝑍0 𝐶
The final value of voltage at its terminal is 2𝑣 ′ .
22
Line terminated at reactance:
• Effect of capacitance causes the voltage
at terminal to rise to full value gradually,
instead of abruptly.
• So, capacitance flattens the wave front.
• Flattening the wave front is beneficial
because it reduces the stress on line-end
windings of transformer connected to line.

23
Capacitor Connection at T:
2𝑣 ′ 𝑍 +𝑍
− 𝑍1 𝑍 𝐶2
𝑣 𝑡 = 1−𝑒 1 2
𝑍1 + 𝑍2

24
Capacitor Connection at T:

25
References
1. V K Mehta and R Mehta, Principles of Power System, S Chand.

26
13 January 2021 11:24 AM
Resistance-Trans line Page 1

09 February 2021 09:35 AM



Inductance - Transmission Line

Total Inductance of conductor


09 March 2021 09:34 AM

10 March 2021 10:26 AM

10 March 2021 11:07 AM

13 January 2021 11:24 AM







09 March 2021 09:34 AM

10 March 2021 10:26 AM

10 March 2021 11:07 AM

16 March 2021 09:26 AM

13 April 2021 09:34 AM
New Section 2 Page 1

13 January 2021 09:51 AM

14 January 2021 09:49 AM

14 January 2021 10:06 AM

14 January 2021 09:31 AM






09 March 2021 09:34 AM

07 January 2021 09:02 AM

CH05:Transmission Line Transients 6/6/2008 4:28 PM Page 181
181
5
Transmission Line Transients
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Provide an analysis of travelling waves on transmission lines
Derive a wave equation
Understand the effect of travelling wave phenomena when line is terminated
through resistance, inductance and capacitance
Draw the Bewley Lattice Diagram
5.1 INTRODUCTION
When a transmission line is connected to a voltage source, the whole of the line is not instantly energized.
Some time elapses between the initial and the final steady states. This is due to the distributed parameters
of the transmission lines. The process is similar to launching a voltage wave, which travels along the
length of the line at a certain velocity. The travelling voltage wave also called surge, may be caused by
switching or lightning. The voltage wave is always accompanied by a current wave. The surge reaches
the terminal approach such as cable boxes, transformers and switch gears, and may damage them if they
are not properly protected. As the waves travel along the line their wave shapes and magnitudes are also
modified. This is called distortion. The study of travelling waves helps in knowing the voltages and
currents at all points in a power system. It helps in the design of insulators, protective equipment, and the
insulation of the terminal equipment and overall insulation coordination.
Generally, a power system operates under a steady-state condition. However, transients are
initiated due to disturbances like switching, occurrence of short-circuit faults or lightning discharge
which may result in current and voltages higher in magnitude as compared to those in steady-state
conditions.
182 ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
5.2 TYPES OF SYSTEM TRANSIENTS

Depending upon the speed of the transients, these can be classified as:
• Surge phenomena (extremely fast transients)
• Short circuit phenomena (medium fast transients)
• Transient stability (slow transients)
Lightning and switching causes tran-
sient or surge phenomena. These transients
(surges) travel along the transmission line
with a velocity of light (3 108 m/s), i.e.,
in one millisecond, it travels 300 km along
a transmission line. Thus, the transient phe-
nomenon associated with these travelling
waves occurs during the first few millisec-
onds after their initiation. The present-line
losses cause fast attenuation of these waves,
which die out after a few reflections.
The reflection of surges at open line
ends, or at transformers which presents high
inductance, causes maximum voltage build-
up which may eventually damage the insu-
lation of high-voltage equipment with
consequent short circuit. Lightning on
33/11 kV substation is shown in Fig. 5.1.
5.3 TRAVELLING WAVES ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

A transmission line is a circuit with distributed parameters. A typical characteristic of a circuit is to support
travelling waves of voltage and current, in addition to which, it also has a finite velocity of electromagnetic
field propagation. In such a circuit, the changes in voltage and current due to switching or lightning are
spread out in all parts of the circuit in the form of travelling waves or surges.
Connected to a source of electrical energy due to sudden lightening or switching, the transmission line
encounters a travelling wave of voltage and current passing through it at a finite velocity.
For explanation of the travelling wave phenomenon, consider a lossless transmission line which has
series inductance (LΔx) of length Δx and shunt capacitance (CΔx) of length Δx as shown in Fig. 5.2.
After the switch S is closed, the applied voltage will not appear instantly at the load end because of
S
L⌬x L⌬x L⌬x L⌬ x L⌬ x L⌬x
L
V ⵒ o
a
C⌬ x C⌬ x C⌬ x C⌬ x d
Fig. 5.2 Equivalent circuit of a long transmission line

TRANSMISSION LINE TRANSIENTS 183
inductance and capacitance of the lossless transmission line. When the switch S is closed, the current
passing through the first inductance is zero because it acts as an open circuit, and the voltage across the
first capacitor is zero because it acts as a short circuit at the same time. At this instant, the next sections
cannot be charged because the voltage across the first capacitor is zero. When the first capacitance is
charged through first inductance, the capacitance of the next section starts charging and so on. It is there-
fore clear from the discussion that the voltage at the successive sections builds up gradually and finally
the voltage wave reaches the other end of the line.
5.4 THE WAVE EQUATION
Assume a transmission line with distributed parameters as shown in Fig. 5.3.

Let R Resistance of line per unit length
L Inductance of line per unit length
C Capacitance of line per unit length
G Shunt conductance of line per unit length
S
⌬x
L
o
V ⵒ a
d
Fig. 5.3 Transmission line representation with distributed parameters
For a small section of the line Δx, the resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance are RΔx,
LΔx, CΔx and GΔx, respectively.
The voltage at distance (x Δx) from the sending-end is V (x Δx).
By Taylor theorem,
∂v
v ( x + Δ x) = v ( x ) + Δx (5.1)
∂x
The difference in voltages between the distances x and (x Δx) due to the resistance and inductance
from Eq. (5.1) is
⎡ ∂v ⎤
v( x) − v ( x + Δx ) = v( x) − ⎢v( x) + Δx ⎥
⎣ ∂x ⎦
∂i
= ( RΔx ) i + ( LΔx )
∂t
−∂v ∂i
∴ Δx = ( RΔx ) i + ( LΔx )
∂x ∂t
∂v ∂i
or − = Ri + L (5.2)
∂x ∂t
Similarly, the difference in current can be written as:

⎡ ∂i ⎤ ∂v
i ( x) − ⎢i ( x) + Δx ⎥ = ( G Δx ) v + ( C Δx )
⎣ ∂x ⎦ ∂t
−∂i ∂v
or = Gv + C (5.3)
∂x ∂t
When we consider a lossless transmission line, i.e., R 0, G 0, then the Eqs. (5.2) and (5.3) become
∂v ∂i
= −L (5.4)
∂x ∂t
∂i ∂v
and = −C (5.5)
∂x ∂t
Differentiating Eq. (5.4) partially with reference to distance x and Eq. (5.5) with reference to time t
∂2v ∂ 2i
= −L (5.6)
∂x 2
∂x ∂t
∂ 2i ∂2v
and = −C 2 (5.7)
∂x∂t ∂t
∂ 2i ∂ 2i
Also, =
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t
From Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7)
∂2v ∂2v
= LC (5.8)
∂x 2 ∂t 2
Similarly differentiating Eq. (5.4) with reference to t and Eq. (5.5) with reference to x
∂ 2v ∂ 2i
= −L (5.9)
∂x ∂t ∂t 2
∂ 2i ∂2v
and = −C (5.10)
∂x 2
∂x ∂t
From Eqs. (5.9) and (5.10), we get
∂ 2i ∂ 2i
= LC 2 (5.11)
∂x 2
∂t
The Eqs. (5.8) and (5.11) are identical in form and give similar solutions. They are called the travelling
wave equations in a lossless transmission line.
They represent the distribution of voltage and current along the line in terms of time and distance.
Solutions of Eqs. (5.8) and (5.11) represent the voltage and current waves that can travel in either
direction, i.e., in the forward or backward direction without change in shape or magnitude with a velocity
1
equal to .
LC
If the wave travelling in the forward or positive x direction can be expressed as a function of
( LC x − t ) then the function, v = f ( LC x − t ).
Similarly, the wave travelling in the backward or negative x direction can be expressed as another
function, v = φ ( LC x + t ). It can be proved that v = f ( LC x − t ) is a solution of Eq. (5.10). To do this,
let us write
( LC x − t = s) (5.12)
One solution is v = f (s) (5.13)

Differentiating Eq. (5.13) with reference to x
∂v ∂f ∂s
= ⋅
∂x ∂s ∂x
∂s
But from Eq. (5.12), = LC
∂x
∂v ∂f
= LC ⋅
∂x ∂s
Taking the second derivative with reference to x, we obtain
∂2v ∂2f
= LC (5.14)
∂x 2 ∂s 2
∂ 2 v ∂ 2f
In a similar way, it can be shown that = (5.15)
∂t 2 ∂s 2
∂2v ∂2v
= LC which is same as Eq. (5.8).
∂x 2 ∂t 2
This equation satisfies the function f ( LC x − t ) and also v = φ ( LC x + t ).
Hence, the complete solution can be written as:
v= f ( LC x − t + φ ) ( LC x + t ) (5.16)
This may be written in the form:

v = v + v (5.17)
Where v= f ( )
LC x − t represents the incident wave, i.e., the wave travelling in x increasing
direction and v= φ ( )
LC x + t represents the reflected wave, i.e., the wave travelling in x decreasing
direction.
Thus, the transient voltage wave is seen to have two voltage wave components v travelling in the
forward direction (i.e., when x is increasing) and v travelling in the backward direction (i.e., when x is
decreasing).
The wave travelling in the forward direction is called the “Forward travelling wave” and the wave
travelling in the backward direction is called the “Backward travelling wave”.
The solution for the current may be written similarly.
∂i
=
⎡
C ⎢ ∂f ( LC x − t ) − ∂φ ( )
LC x + t ⎤
⎥ (5.18)
∂x LC ⎢ ∂x ∂x ⎥
⎣ ⎦
After integrating Eq. (5.18), we get
i=
1 ⎡f
LC⎣
( ) (
LC x − t − φ )
LC x + t ⎤
⎦ (5.19)
The quantity L / C is defined as the “characteristic impedance” of the line and is denoted by symbol
Z0. The characteristic impedance of a lossless line is a real quantity. It has the characteristics of resistance
and the dimensions of ohm. Therefore, it is also called characteristic resistance or surge resistance. The
surge resistance is denoted by R0.
L Inductance of the line/km/phase
∴ Z 0 = R0 = = for a lossless line.
C Capacitance of thee line/km/phase
Substituting Z0 from the above equation in Eq. (5.19), we get
i=
1 ⎡
Z0 ⎣
( ) (
f LC x − t − φ LC x + t ⎤
⎦ )
1
i= [v−v ]
Z0
v v
i= − (5.20)
Z0 Z0
This may be written as,
i = i + i (5.21)
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ −v ⎞
where, i= ⎜ ⎟ and represents the incident current wave, i = ⎜ ⎟ and represents the reflected
⎝ Z0 ⎠ ⎝ Z0 ⎠
current wave.
Consider a voltage wave which propagates in the Direction of Direction of Total at
forward direction and a wave which propagates in propagation propagation instant
the backward direction, as illustrated in Fig. 5.4(a).
The backward wave is called the reflected wave. The
positive direction of current is taken as the direction i i i
of propagation of the wave itself. In case of a for- ᒂ ᒂ ᒂ
ward wave, the direction of current and voltage are
the same. But for a backward wave, the direction of
propagation of current is opposite to that of voltage, Fig. 5.4(a) Direction of wave propagation
so it is taken as negative. Figs. 5.4(b) and (c) repre-
sent the wave shapes for forward and reflected
waves for voltage and current, and their resultant at
ᒂ = i f Z0 ᒂ = – i r Z0 ᒂ ᒂ ᒂ
any instant. The mathematical relation between them f r f r
(i) Forward (ii) Reflected (iii) Total voltage

is given as: voltage voltage
v = iZ0 wave wave
v = iZ0
Fig. 5.4(b) Wave shapes of voltage
A function of the form f LC x ± t ( )
represents a travelling wave because, for any value of t, a corresponding value of x can be found such that
( ) ( )
LC x ± t has a constant value and, therefore, defines a fixed point on f LC x ± t . Corresponding values
of x and t which define the same points on a wave are given by ( LC x − t ) and ( )
LC x + t .
ir
if
i = if + ir
(i) Forward (ii) Reflected (iii) Total current
current current
wave wave
Fig. 5.4(c) Wave shapes of current
Test Yourself
1. Why is characteristic impedance also called characteristic resistance?
5.5 EVALUATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE
In this section, we will be calculating the surge impedance for overhead transmission lines and under-
ground cables.
(i) Overhead transmission line
L = 2×10−7 ln ( D r ) H/phase/m
C=
2πε
=
(
2π × 10−9 36π
=
)
10−9
F/phase/m
ln ( D r ) ln ( D r ) 18ln ( D r )
where, D is the distance between the centres of the conductors and r is the radius of the conductor and
D r.
2 × 10−7 ln ( D r )
Z0 = (L C) = = 60ln ( D r ) Ω
10−9 18 ln ( D r )
(ii) Cable
L = 2 × 10−7 ln ( R r ) H/phase/m
2πε
C= F/phase/m
ln ( R r )
10−9 ε r
=
18 ln ( R r )
where, R is the radius of the cable and r is the radius of the conductor.
Assuming a dielectric having a relative dielectric constant of ε r
⎛R⎞
60 ln ⎜ ⎟
⎛L⎞ ⎝r⎠
Z0 = ⎜ ⎟ = Ω
⎝C ⎠ εr
A value of 500 Ω is usually assumed for the surge impedance of an overhead line while a value of 50 Ω
is assumed for the surge impedance of a cable.
Test Yourself
1. Why is the surge impedance in overhead lines more than in underground cables?
5.6 IMPORTANCE OF SURGE IMPEDANCE
Knowledge of surge impedance is extremely useful as it enables the calculation of the transient voltages
and currents which may occur in a circuit. For example, if a line carrying a current I has been interrupted
suddenly, the maximum value of the oscillating voltage produced and is equal to IZ0, which may reach a
dangerous value if Z0 is high.
Power transmission systems are always complex in character, i.e., they consist of sections or ele-
ments, such as generators, transformers, transmission lines, and loads with different electrical constants.
In such a compound circuit, oscillations harmful in one port of the circuit may reach a dangerous state
in another port, due to variations in Zo. For example, consider the case of a long transmission line con-
nected to an underground cable. An oscillation current in the cable of lower impedance of its own, may
give rise to dangerously high oscillating voltages when it enters into the overhead part of the line owing
to the far higher natural impedance of the latter. Similarly, if a transformer is connected across the end
of an overhead line, the natural impedance of such a transformer may be between 2000 Ω and 4000 Ω,
which is very much higher than that of the line itself. Consequently, an oscillating current which only
gives rise to moderate oscillating voltages in the line may produce destructive voltages in the winding
of the transformer.
Therefore, a consideration of Z0 of different apparatus gives considerable information regarding the
relative danger and the preventive action to be taken.
5.7 TRAVELLING WAVE

Voltage (kV)
A lightning discharge or sudden switching in or out

results in the impression of an electric energy suddenly
in a transmission line. This moves along the line at a
speed of light (approximately) as a travelling wave or
impulse until it has been diverted from the wave front 100%
and has, by piling up the voltage locally in the wind-
50%
ings of reactive apparatus, had destructive conse-
quences. The travelling wave is also called impulse
wave. This is shown in Fig. 5.5.
At point ‘a’ the voltage of the wave is zero. As the a b
T1 Time(μs)
wave moves along the line, the voltage at ‘a’ will rise T2
from zero to the peak value at ‘b’ and again fall to zero
on moving further. The left portion of the peak value Fig. 5.5 Travelling wave shape
is called the wave front and the right portion is called the “tail” of the wave. Usually, the impulse wave
is designated by time T1 taken to attain maximum value and the time T2 taken for the tail to fall 50% of
the peak value. Thus, suppose T1 is 1s and T2 is 50 s, then the wave is designated as 1/50 wave.
The equation of an impulse wave is of the form:
(
V = V0 e −α t − e − β t ) (5.22)
where, V0 represents a factor that depends on the peak value.
α and β are constants which control the wave front and wave tail times, respectively. Their values are
α –0.01436 and β –2.467 for 1.2/50 μs, impulse wave.
5.8 EVALUATION OF VELOCITY OF WAVE PROPAGATION
Consider the Eq. (5.12),
s= ( LC x − t )
Differentiating this expression with respect to time t, we get
∂x
0 = LC −1
∂t
∂x 1
=
∂t LC
where, ∂x is the rate of change of distance, which is equivalent to velocity.

∂t
1
Velocity of wave propagation, υ = m/s (5.23)
LC
(i) Overhead transmission line

L = 2 × 10−7 ln ( D R ) H/phase/m
C=
2πε
=
(
2π × 10−9 36π
=
)
10−9
F/phase/m
ln ( D R ) ln ( D R ) 18ln ( D R )
Where, D is the distance between the centres of the conductors and R is the radius of the conductor and
D > R.
1 1
υ= = = 3 × 108 m/s
( LC ) 2 × 10 ln ( D R ) × 10
−7 −9
18 ln ( D R )
(ii) Cable
L = 2×10−7 ln ( R r ) H/phase/m
2πε
C= F/phase/m
ln ( R r )
10−9 ε r
=
18 ln ( R r )
where, R is the radius of the cable and r is the radius of the conductor.
Assuming a dielectric having a relative dielectric constant of ε r
1 1
υ= =
( LC ) 2 × 10 ln ( R r ) × 10−9 ε r 18 ln ( R r )
−7
3 × 108
= m/s (5.24)
εr
Example 5.1
A cable has a conductor of radius 0.75 cm and a sheath of inner radius 2.5 cm. Find (i) the inductance
per meter length (ii) capacitance per meter length (iii) surge impedance and (iv) velocity of propagation,
if the permittivity of insulation is 4.
Solution:
Radius of conductor, r 0.75 cm
Inner radius of sheath, R 2.5 cm
Permittivity of insulation, ε r = 4
(i) The inductance per metre length of the cable is,
R
L = 2 × 10−7 ln H/m
r
2.5
= 2 × 10−7 × ln
0.75
= 2.41 × 10−7 H/m
(ii) The capacitance per metre length of the cable is,

2πε 0ε r
C= F/m
R
ln
r
4 × 10−9
=
2.5
18 × ln
0.75
= 0.1846 × 10−9 F/m
(iii) Surge impedance of the cable is,

L
ZC =
C
2.41 × 10−7
=
0.1846 × 10−9
= 36.13 Ω
(iv) The velocity of wave propagation is,
1
υ=
LC
1
=
2.41 × 10 × 0.1846 × 10−9
−7
= 1.5 × 108 m/s

5.9 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ZO

COEFFICIENT (LINE TERMINATED
THROUGH A RESISTANCE)
Consider a lossless transmission line which has a surge V R
impedance of Z0 terminated through a resistance R as
shown in Fig. 5.6. When the wave travels along the line
and absorbs any change (line end, change of series or
shunt impedance), then it is partly or totally reflected.
The expression for reflected current is: Fig. 5.6 Line terminated through a resistance
⎛ −v ⎞
i= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z0 ⎠
where, v and i are the reflected voltage and current waves, respectively.
Let v and i be the transmitted voltage and current waves and v and i be the incident waves.
From Fig. 5.6,
v
Incident current, i=
Z0
v
Reflected current, i = −
Z0
v
and, transmitted current, i =
R
Since i = i + i and v = v + v
v v v
∴ = − (5.25)
R Z0 Z0
v v − v
= − (∵ v = v − v)
Z0 Z0
2v v
= −
Z0 Z0
2R
Therefore, the transmitted voltage, v = v′ (5.26)
Z0 + R
v 2
and, transmitted current, i = = v′
R Z0 + R
v′ 2Z 0
= ×
Z0 Z0 + R
2Z 0
= i′ × (5.27)
Z0 + R
2Z 0
From Eq. (5.27), the coefficient of transmitted or refraction current waves is (5.28)
Z0 + R
2R
and, transmitted coefficient for voltage waves = (5.29)
Z0 + R
Similarly, substituting for v in terms of v v, the Eq. (5.25), becomes
v + v v v
= −
R Z0 Z0
R − Z0
v = v × (5.30)
R + Z0
v v R − Z 0
and i = − =− × (5.31)
Z0 Z0 R + Z0
R − Z0
Coefficient of reflection for current waves = −
R + Z0
R − Z0
and, reflected coefficient for voltage waves = +
R + Z0
Example 5.2
A rectangular wave travels along a 500 km line terminated with a resistance of 1000 Ω. The line has a
resistance of 0.3 Ω/km and a surge impedance of 400 Ω. If the voltage at the termination point after
two successive reflections is 200 kV, determine the amplitude of the incoming surge.
Solution:
Length of the line 500 km
Terminated resistance, R 1000 Ω
Line resistance 0.3 Ω/km
Surge impedance, ZC 400 Ω
Termination voltage 200 kV
The line resistance for 500 km,
0.3 500 150 Ω/km
2 Rv
The amplitude of the incoming surge, v =
R + ZC
2 × 1000 × 200 × 103
=
1000 + 150 + 400
= 258 kV
Example 5.3
A voltage having a crest value of 3000 kV is travelling on a 750 kV line. The protective level is 1700 kV
and the surge impedance of the line is 300 Ω. Calculate (i) the current in the line before reaching the
arrester, (ii) current through the arrester, (iii) the value of arrester resistant for this condition and
(iv) reflect voltage. Verify the reflection and refraction coefficients.
Solution:
Zc = 300 Ω, v = 3000 kV, va = 1700 kV
(i) i= v = 3000×10 =104 A

3
Zc 300
(ii) The voltage equation is

2v = Zcia va
2 3000 103 300ia 1700 103
6000 × 103 − 1700 × 103

∴ ia = = 14333 A
300
va 1700×103
(iii) Resistance of arrester, R = = = 118.61 Ω
ia 14333
(iv) Reflected voltage, v = v + v
1700 3000 + v
or v –1300 kV
1300
Reflection coefficients = − = −0.433
3000
1700
Refraction coefficients = = 0.567
3000
R − Z c (118.61 − 300 )
Reflection coefficients = = = −0.433
R + Z c (118.61 + 300 )
2R 2 × 118.61
Refraction coefficients = = = 0.567
R + Z c 118.61 + 300
5.9.1 LINE OPEN-CIRCUITED AT THE RECEIVING END
Consider Fig. 5.6, when the receiving end is open-circuited, i.e., R ∞, the equivalent circuit is shown
in Fig. 5.7.
2R
Consider the transmitted coefficient of voltage wave =
Z0 + R
When R ∞,
2 2
the transmitted coefficient of voltage wave = = =2 (5.32)
1 + Z0 R 1 + Z0 ∞
dx
S
+
V_
Fig. 5.7 Case of an open-circuit ended line

2Z 0
and transmitted coefficient of current wave = =0 (5.33)
∞+R
R − Z0
and reflection coefficient of voltage wave = + =1 (5.34)
R + Z0
R − Z0 1 − Z0 R
Similarly, reflection coefficient of current wave = − =− = −1 (5.35)
R + Z0 1 + Z0 R
From Eq. (5.32), the transmitted coefficient is two, i.e., the voltage at the open-ended line is 2v′. This
means that the voltage of the open-ended line is raised by v′ due to reflection.
Transmitted wave incident wave + reflected wave
For an open-ended line, a travelling voltage wave is reflected back with a positive sign and the
coefficient of reflection is unity [from Eq. (5.34)]. From Eq. (5.33), the transmission coefficient of current
is zero, i.e., the current at the open-ended line is zero. This means a current wave of magnitude i′ travels
back with a negative sign and the coefficient of reflection is unity [from Eq. (5.35)]. The above cycle is
repeated for voltage and current waves. This cycle occupies the time taken for a wave to travel four times
the length of line and is explained through Fig. 5.8.
Voltage Current
V I
At t = O
+
At l V' I'
At 2l 2V '
I ' =0
At 3l V' -I '
At 4l V '= 0 I ' =0
Fig. 5.8 Variation of voltage and current in an open-circuit ended line
5.9.2 LINE SHORT-CIRCUITED AT THE dx

S
RECEIVING END
Consider Fig. 5.6. when the receiving end is short-

circuited, i.e., R 0, the equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. 5.9 (a). V ±
Consider the transmitted coefficient of voltage
2R
wave =
Z0 + R
When R 0, Fig. 5.9(a) Case of a short-circuit ended line
2R
the transmitted coefficient of voltage wave = =0 (5.36)
Z0 + R
2 Z0
and transmitted coefficient of current wave = =2 (5.37)
Z0 + R
R − Z0
and reflection coefficient of voltage wave = + = −1 (5.38)
R + Z0
R − Z0
Similarly, reflection coefficient of current wave = − =1 (5.39)
R + Z0
From Eq. (5.36), the transmitted coefficient is zero, i.e., the voltage at the short-circuit ended line is
zero. This means that a voltage wave of magnitude v′ travels back with a negative sign and the coefficient
of reflection is unity [from Eq. (5.38)].
Transmitted wave incident wave + reflected wave
From Eq. (5.37), the transmission coefficient of current is two, i.e., the current at the short-circuit ended
line is 2i′ as seen in Fig. 5.9(b). This means that the current of the short-circuit ended line is raised by i′
due to reflection.
From this discussion, we can conclude that the line voltage is periodically reduced to zero but at
⎛ v ⎞
each reflection of either end, the current is increased by the incident current, ⎜ i= ⎟ . Theoretically, the
⎝ Z0 ⎠
current will become infinite for infinite reflections, but practically the current will be limited by the
v
resistance of the line in an actual system and its final value will be, i = .
R
Voltage Current
V I
At t = O +
At l V′ I′
At 2l V ′= 0 2I ′
3I ′
At 3l V′
4I ′
At4l V ′= 0
Fig. 5.9(b) Variation of voltage and current in short-circuit ended line
Test Yourself
Is the reflection coefficient of current wave in an open-circuit condition 1? If yes, justify.
5.10 LINE CONNECTED TO A CABLE
When a wave travels towards the cable from the line (see ZL ZC
Fig. 5.10), because of the difference in impedances at the
junction, part of the wave is reflected and the rest is
transmitted. Fig. 5.10 Line connected to a cable
The transmitted voltage wave [from Eq. (5.26)] is
given by
2Z c
v = v′ ×
ZL + Zc
and, the transmitted current wave [from Eq. (5.27)] is given by

2Z c
i = i′ ×
ZL + Zc
Similarly, reflected voltage and current waves are
Zc − ZL
v = v ×
Zc + ZL
Z − ZL
and i = −i × c
Zc + ZL
Example 5.4
An overhead line with inductance and capacitance per km
length of 1.3 mH and 0.09 F, respectively is connected in
series with an ungrounded cable (see Fig. 5.11) having ZL ZC
inductance and capacitance of 0.2 mH/km and 0.3 F/km,
respectively. Calculate the values of reflected and refracted Fig. 5.11 Circuit diagram for Example 5.4
(transmitted) waves of voltage and current at the junction
due to a voltage surge of 100 kV travelling to the junction
(i) along the line towards the cable and (ii) along the cable
towards the line.
Solution:
L 1.3×10−3
The natural impedance of overhead line, Z L = = = 120.18 Ω
C 0.09×10−6
L 0.2×10−3
The natural impedance of cable, Z c = = = 25.82 Ω
C 0.3×10−6
(i) The voltage wave of magnitude 100 kV which is initiated in an overhead line is partly reflected and
partly transmitted on the cable at the junction of the line and the cable.
2 Z cv
Therefore, transmitted (refracted) voltage, v =
Zc + ZL
2 × 25.82 × 100
= = 35.37 kV
25.82 + 120.18
Zc − ZL
and, reflected voltage, v = × v
Zc + ZL
25.82 − 120.18
= × 100 = −64.63 kV
25.82 + 120.18
2Z L
Transmitted current, i = i′ ×
Z c′ + Z L
v′ 2Z L
= ×
ZL Zc + ZL
100 2 × 120.18
= × = 1.37 kA
120.18 25.82 + 120.18
v
and, reflected current, i = −
ZL
64.63
=− = −537.74 A
120.188
(ii) The voltage wave of magnitude 100 kV which is initiated in the cable is partly reflected and partly
transmitted on the overhead transmission line at the junction of the cable and the line.
2 Z L v′
Therefore, transmitted voltage, v =
ZL + Zc
2 × 120.18 × 100
= = 164.63 kV
120.18 + 25.82
Z − Zc
and, reflected voltage, v= L × v′
ZL + Zc
120.18 − 25.82
= × 100 = 64.63 kV
120.18 + 25.82
2Z c
Transmitted current, i = i×
ZL + Zc
v 2Z c
= ×
Zc ZL + Zc
100 2 × 25.82
= × = 1.37 kA
25.82 120.18 + 25.82
v
and, reflected current, i = −
Zc
64.63
=− = −2.503 kA
25.82
Example 5.5
Two stations are connected together by an underground
cable having a surge impedance of 50 Ω joined to an
overhead line with a surge impedance of 400 Ω. If a surge
ZL ZC
having a maximum value of 110 kV travels along the cable
towards the junction with the overhead line, determine the
Fig. 5.12 Circuit diagram for Example 5.5
value of the reflected and the transmitted wave of voltage
and current at the junction.
Solution:
Surge impedance of the cable, Zc 50 Ω
Surge impedance of the overhead line, ZL 400 Ω

The voltage wave (magnitude of 110 kV) initiated in cable is partly reflected and partly transmitted on
the overhead transmission line at the junction of cable and line.
2 Z L v′
Therefore, transmitted voltage, v =
ZL + Zc
2 × 400 × 110
= = 195.56 kV
400 + 50
ZL − Zc
and, reflected voltage, v′′ = × v′
ZL + Zc
400 − 50
= × 110 = 85.56 kV
400 + 50
2Z c
Transmitted current, i = i′ ×
ZL + Zc
v′ 2Z c
= ×
Zc ZL + Zc
110 2 × 50
= × = 488.89 A
50 400 + 50
−v′′
and, reflected current, i′′ =
Zc
−85.56
= = −1711.2 A
50
Example 5.6
The ends of two long transmission lines, A and C are connected by a cable B of length 1 km. The surge
impedances of A, B and C are 400, 50 and 500 Ω, respectively. A rectangular voltage wave of 25 kV
magnitude and of infinite length is initiated in A and travels to C. Determine the first and second
voltages impressed on C.
Solution:
Referring to Fig. 5.13, the voltage wave of magnitude Transmission Transmission
25 kV is initiated in line A and is partly reflected and partly line A Cable B
J1 J2 line C
refracted onto cable B when reaching the junction J1.
The transmitted wave,
20kv
2 Z B v′
v2 =
ZA + ZB
v1 v2 v3 v4
2 × 50 × 25
= = 5.56 kV ) ) (Trans.
400 +50 a ve (Trans. wave) ave wave)
e fl.w ef l . w
This transmitted wave, when reaching the junction (R (R
J2, again observes that a part of it is reflected and another First
refracted onto line C. This transmitted voltage wave impressed
voltage on C
thus is calculated as:
2 Z c v2 v5 v 6 Second
v4 = impressed
ZB + Zc voltage on C
2 × 500 × 5.56
= =10.11 kV
50 +500 Fig. 5.13 Circuit diagram for Example 5.6
v4 10.11 kV is the first voltage impressed on C.

The reflected wave v3 at junction J2 is,
Zc − ZB
v3 = × v2
Zc + ZB
500 − 50
= × 5.56 = 4.55 kV
500 + 50
v3 is transmitted and has reached junction J1. From here, it is partially reflected and partially transmitted
onto A. Let v5 be the reflected wave at junction J1. Then,
ZA − ZB
v5 = × v3
ZA + ZB
400 − 50
= × 4.55 = 3.54 kV
400 + 50
However, v5 on reaching the junction J2, gets partially transmitted onto line C. Let this be v6.
Then,
2 Z cv5
v6 =
ZB + Zc
2 × 500 × 3.54
= = 6.44 kV
50 + 500
Then, second impressed voltage v4 v6
10.11 6.44 16.55 kV
5.11 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT A T-JUNCTION
A voltage wave v is travelling over the lossless transmission line with natural impedance Z1 towards the
junction as shown in Fig. 5.14. At the junction, due to the change of impedance, part of the wave is
reflected back and the other is transmitted over the
parallel lines which have natural impedances Z2 and
Z3, respectively. Let v2, i2 and v3, i3 be the voltages and
currents in parallel branches. Z2
As far as the voltage wave is concerned, the
reflected portion will be the same for both branches,
Z1
i.e.,v2 = v3 = v, since they are parallel to each other.
The following relations hold good at the transition
point.
v = v+v Z3
v
i=
Z1
v Fig. 5.14 T-Junction
i= −
Z1
v v
i2 = , i3 =
Z2 Z3
and,
i2 i3 i i (5.37)
Substituting the values of currents in Eq. (5.37)

v v v′ v′′
+ = −
Z 2 Z 3 Z1 Z1
Substituting for v v v
v v v′ v − v′
+ = −
Z 2 Z 3 Z1 Z1
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ 2 v′
v⎢ + + ⎥=
⎣ Z1 Z 2 Z 3 ⎦ Z1
The transmitted voltage is
2v′ Z1
v= (5.38)
1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
and, the reflected voltage is
1 1 1
− −
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
v′′ = × v′ (5.39)
1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
Example 5.7
A 220 kV surge travels on a line of 400 Ω surge impedance and reaches a junction where two branch
lines of surge impedances 550 Ω and 350 Ω, respectively are connected with the transmission line (see
Fig. 5.15). Find the surge voltage and current transmitted into each branch line. Also find the reflected
voltage and current.
Solution:
2v Z × Z2 2 × 220 ⎧ 550 × 350 ⎫
Surge voltage, v = × 1 =
Z1 × Z 2 Z1 + Z 2 550 × 350 ⎨⎩ 550 + 350 ⎬⎭
Zc + 400 +
Z1 + Z 2 550 + 350
= 153.3 kV
Z 1 550 Ω
Z C 400 Ω
Z 2 350Ω

v 153.3×103
i1 = = = 278.7 A
z1 550
v 153.3×103
i2 = = = 438 A
z2 350
Reflected voltage, v = v − v= 153.3 − 220 = −66.7 kV

220×103
Reflected current, i = i1 + i2 − i= 278.7 + 438 − = 166.7 A
400
Example 5.8
A surge of 110 kV travels on a line of surge impedance 500 Ω and reaches the junction of the line with
two branch lines as in Fig. 5.16. The surge impedances of the branch lines are 450 Ω and 50 Ω,
respectively. Find the transmitted voltage and currents. Also find the reflected voltage and current.
Z 2 500 Ω
Z 1 500 Ω
Z 3 50 Ω
Solution:
The various impedances are
Z1 500 Ω, Z2 450 Ω, and Z3 50 Ω
The surge voltage (magnitude), v′ 110 kV
The surge reaches the junction and experiences reflection due to change in impedance and here the two lines
(Z2 and Z3) are parallel. Therefore, the transmitted voltage will have the same magnitude and is given by,
2 v Z1
v=
1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
2 × 110 500
= = 18.156 kV
1 1 1
+ +
500 450 50
The transmitted current in branch line 1,
v 18.165×103
i1 = = = 40.37 A
Z2 450
The transmitted current in branch line 2,

v 18.165×103
i2 = = = 363.3 A
Z3 50
The reflected voltage,
1 1 1
− −
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
v= × v
1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
1 1 1
− −
= 500 450 50 × 110
1 1 1
+ +
500 450 50
= 91.91 kV
−v 91.91 × 103
The reflected current, i = = = 183.82 A
Z1 500
Example 5.9
An overhead line has a surge impedance of 450 Ω. A surge voltage V 250(e– 0.05t e– t) kV, where t is
in s, travels along the line. The termination of the line is connected to two parallel overhead line
transformer feeders. The surge impedance of the feeder is 350 Ω. These two transformers are protected
by surge diverters each of surge impedance being 40 Ω. Determine the maximum voltage which would
initially appear across the feeder-end windings of each transformer due to the surge. Assume the
transformer to have infinite surge impedance.
Solution:
Figure 5.17 shows the circuit. Since AB and AC are parallel to each other, the voltage transmitted in them
will be the same. The transmitted voltage in AB or AC is given by
1 1
z1 450
v = 2v = 2v = 0.14776v
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
z1 z2 z3 450 350 40
B
Ω
0
35 40 Ω
450 Ω A
V'
35
0
Ω
C
40 Ω

The conditions at junctions B and C are identical. The voltage transmitted at B or C

2 z4
v1 = v ×
z2 + z4
where,
z4 surge impedance of a diverter 40 Ω
2 × 40
v1 = 0.14776v × = 0.03031v
350 + 40
where,
v′ = 250 (e–0.05t – e–t)
∴ v1 = 0.03031 250 (e–0.05t – e–t)
dv1
For maximum voltage to appear is zero, i.e.,
dt
d ⎡
dt ⎣
( )
7.5775 e −0.05t − e −t ⎤⎦ = 0
−0.05e −0.05t + e −t = 0
e −t = 0.05e −0.05t
e 0.95t
= 20
t = 3.1534 μ s
Substituting the value of t in the expression for v1 gives the maximum transmitted voltage. Therefore, the max-
imum voltage appearing across the feeder end winding of each transformer is
(
v1 = 7.5775 e −0.05×3.1534 − e −3.1534 )
= 7.5775 × (0.854 − 0.0427)
= 6.1485 kV
5.12 REACTANCE TERMINATION
In this section, we consider the line terminated through capacitive and inductive reactance.
5.12.1 LINE TERMINATED THROUGH CAPACITANCE

Assume that a line is terminated through a capacitor C as shown in Fig. 5.18(a). When the wave is
travelling along the line with natural impedance Z0 and terminated through C, then the transmitted voltage
is determined from Eq. (5.26).
S Z0
+
V _ C
Fig. 5.18(a) Line terminated through a capacitor

The transmitted voltage is,

1
2×
v( s ) = Cs × v′ = 2v
Z0 +
1 s ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z 0 Cs ⎜ s + ⎟
Cs Z0C ⎠
⎝
⎛1 1 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟
= 2v s 1
⎜⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ Z 0 C ⎟⎠
Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation
⎛ −
t
⎞
v(t ) = 2v′ ⎜1 − e Z0C ⎟ (5.40)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The shape of the voltage wave is as shown in Fig. 5.18(b). There is more practical importance for a
case with terminal capacitance.
Voltage
–t
v(t) 2v ′ (1 – e Z )
0
C
2v ′
Time
Fig. 5.18(b) Variation of voltage across the capacitor
The final value of the voltage at its terminals is 2v′. The effect of capacitance is to cause the voltage
at the terminal to rise to the full value gradually, instead of abruptly, so it flattens the wave front. Flattening
the wave front is beneficial because it reduces the stress on the line-end windings of a transformer
connected to the line.
Test Yourself
What is the benefit achieved by flattening the wave front of the incident wave in a transformer?
Example 5.10
A 210 kV, 2.5 s rectangular surge travels on a line of surge impedance of 400 Ω. The line is terminated
in a capacitance of 2500 p.f. Find the voltage across the capacitance.
Solution:
Voltage wave magnitude V ′ = 210 kV
Time duration, t = 2.5 μs
Surge impedence, Z0 = 400 Ω
Terminated capacitance, C = 2500 p.F.
Z c 400 Ω
VS ±
C 2500 pF
v(t ) = 2v(1 − e −t /CZ0 )

⎛ −
2.5 × 10−6 ⎞
⎜
= 2 × 210 × 1 − e 2500 × 10−12 × 400 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 385.5 kV
Example 5.11
A 500 kV, 2.5 s duration rectangular surge passes through a
line having surge impedance of 400 Ω and approaches a Z1 Z2
station at which the concentrated earth capacitance is 3 103
p.f. Calculate the maximum value of surge transmitted to the
second line.
C
Solution:
Voltage wave magnitude, v 500 kV
Time duration, t 2.5 μs
Surge impedance, Z 400 Ω
Earth capacitance, C 3 103 p.F.
The maximum value of surge transmitted to the second line is Fig. 5.20 Capacitor connected at T
given by,
v(t ) = 2v(1 − e −t /ZC )
(
= 2 × 500 1 − e − 2.5×10
−6
400×3×103 ×10−12
)
= 875.49 kV
Capacitor Connection at T From Fig. 5.20, the transmitted voltage across the capacitor of the
circuit is calculated from Eq. (5.26).
The transmitted voltage is
2v′ 1
Z1 s 2v′Z 2 Z1 Z 2 C
v (s) = = ×
1 1 s Z1 + Z 2
+ + Cs +s
Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2 C
2v ′ 1
= ×
sZ1C Z1 + Z 2
s+
Z1 Z 2 C
Let,
Z1 + Z 2
=α
Z1 Z 2 C
Then
1
2v′ Z1C
v (s) = ×
s s +α
Z2
Z1 +
2v ′ Z2 Z1 Z 2 C
v (s) = × ×
s Z1 + Z 2 s +α
α
2v ′ Z2 ZZC
= × × 1 2
s Z1 + Z 2 s + α
2v′Z 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= −
Z1 + Z 2 ⎣ s s + α ⎥⎦
⎢
Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation,
2v′Z 2 ⎛ ⎛ Z +Z ⎞
−⎜⎜ 1 2 t ⎟⎟ ⎞
v (t ) = ⎜1 − e ⎟
⎝ Z1Z 2C ⎠

Z1 + Z 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
5.12.2 LINE TERMINATED THROUGH INDUCTANCE
From Fig. 5.21, the transmitted voltage across the inductor of the circuit is calculated from Eq. (5.26).
2 × Ls v′
The transmitted voltage, v ( s ) = ×
Z 0 + Ls s
2 v′
=
( s + Z0 L )
Take inverse Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation,
Z0
− t
v ( t ) = 2v ′ e L
(5.42)
Z0 iL
V L
Fig. 5.21 Transmission line terminated by inductance
Z0
− t
Reflected voltage, v( t ) = v(2e L
− 1) (5.43)
Example 5.12
A step wave of 110 kV travels through a line having a surge impedance of 350 Ω. The line is terminated
by an inductance of 5000 H. Find the voltage across the inductance and reflected voltage wave.
Solution:
Voltage wave magnitude, v 110 kV
Surge impedance, Z0 350 Ω
Inductance connected, L 5000 H
Let, time duration t s
Then, the voltage across the inductance is,
⎛ Z0 ⎞
⎜− t⎟
v ( t ) = 2v′e⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 350 ⎞
⎜− −6
×t ×10−6 ⎟
= 2 × 110 × e⎝ 5000×10 ⎠
= 220 × e −0.07 t kV
⎛ − Z0 t ⎞
Reflected voltage, v′′ ( t ) = v′ ⎜⎜ 2e L − 1⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎛⎜ − 350 −6 ×t×10−6 ⎞⎟ ⎞
= 110 ⎜ 2e⎝ 5000×10 ⎠
− 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(
= 110 2e −0.07t − 1 kV )
Example 5.13
A rectangular surge of 2.5 μs duration and magnitude 120 kV travels along a line of surge impedance
400 Ω. The latter is connected to another line of equal impedance through an inductor of 500 H.
Calculate the maximum value of the surge transmitted to the second line.
Solution:
Voltage wave magnitude, V 120 kV
Time duration, t 2.5 μs

Surge impedance, Z0 400 Ω
Inductance connected, L 500 H
The maximum value of surge transmitted to the second line is given by,
⎛ Z0 ⎞
⎜− t⎟
v ( t ) = 2v′e⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 400 ⎞
⎜⎜ − −6
× 2.5×10−6 ⎟⎟
= 2 × 120 × e⎝ 500×10 ⎠
= 240 × e −2
= 240 × 0.1353
= 32.48 kV
5.13 BEWLEY’S LATTICE DIAGRAM
This is a graphical representation of the time-space relation, which shows the position and direction of
motion at any instant of incident, reflected and transmitted current or voltage surges. In a Lattice diagram,
the horizontal axes represent the distance travelled along the system and vertical axes represent the time
taken to travel. At each instant of change in impedance, the reflected and transmitted values (current or
voltages) can be calculated by multiplying incident wave values with reflected and transmitted
coefficients.
Case-1: Receiving End is Open-circuited
Consider a line connected to a source of constant voltage v at one end and open circuited at the other, as
shown in Fig. 5.22(a). Let αs and α L be the reflection coefficients at the sending end and the load end
respectively, and t, the time taken by the wave to travel from one end to the other end. When time t 0 s,
the voltage v is connected to the source end (s) and starts travelling along the line reaching the load end
in time t s with the same magnitude. Since the load end is an open circuit, the wave reflected back with
a magnitude of α Lv v (because α L 1 for an open-ended line) at time t+ s, reaches source end in time
2t with a magnitude of v. The reflected wave is reflected back once again with a magnitude of sv from
the source end after reaching the source end at time 2t+ and this process is continued indefinitely. The same
procedure can be implemented for current waves also. This procedure is illustrated in the Lattice diagram
shown in Fig. 5.22(b).
Z0
RS
Fig. 5.22(a) Circuit diagram

Source end Load end
V
t0 V
V
V
2t
α SV
3t
α SV
4t
α S2 V
5t
Fig. 5.22(b) Lattice diagram
Case-2: Receiving End is Connected with Resistance R

Consider a line connected to a source of constant V at one end and the other end is connected by
a resistance R as shown in Fig. 5.23(a). Let αs and α L be the reflection coefficients at the sending-end
and the load-end respectively, and the time taken by the wave to travel from one end to the other in it.
Z0
Rs
Fig. 5.23(a) Circuit diagram

Source end Load end
V V
α LV
Zt
α Sα LV
3t
α Sα L V
2
α S α LV
2 2
5t
Fig. 5.23(b) Lattice diagram
When time t 0 s, the voltage V is connected to the source end (s) and starts travelling along the line, and
reaching the load end in time t s with the same magnitude. After reaching the junction, the wave is split
into two parts, one part of the wave is transmitted and the other is reflected back with a magnitude of α LV
at time t + it travels towards source and reaches the source end in time 2t with a magnitude of α LV. The
wave, which has reached the source end, splits into two parts once again. One part is transmitted and the
other is reflected back with a magnitude of αsα LV from source end at time 2t +. This process is continued
indefinitely. The same procedure can be implemented for current waves also. This procedure is illustrated
in the Lattice diagram shown in Fig. 5.23(b).
Example 5.14
Z0 = 400r
Construct a Bewley lattice diagram when a pulse source of
magnitude v volts with a resistance of 150 Ω, is applied
across a loss-free line with surge impedance of 400 Ω Zs=150r
terminated with a resistance of 200 Ω (see Fig. 5.24).
Assume the line to be of 10 km length.
R = 200r
Solution:
V
Z − Z 0 150 − 400
αs = s = = −0.4545
Z s + Z 0 150 + 400
R − Z 0 200 − 400
αL = = = −0.33
R + Z 0 200 + 400 Fig. 5.24 Circuit diagram for Example 5.14
S L
α –0.33
α –0.4545
S
t 0
8/11V
t
–0.24V
0.1091V
3t
–0.036V
0.01636V
5t
Fig. 5.25 Lattice diagram for Example 5.14
At the input of the line, the impressed voltage on line

Z0 400 8
= ×V = V= V
Zs + Z0 400 + 150 11
The reflected voltage at load end.
8 8
= αL × V = −0.33 × V = −0.24 V
11 11
This 0.24 V backward pulse reaches the source after t s and gets reflection. The reflection voltage at
source s ( 0.24 V) 0.4545 0.24 V 0.10908 V.
This reflected voltage 0.10908 V reaches the load-end and is again reflected back. This processes is
continued and is shown in Fig. 5.25.
5.14 ATTENUATION OF TRAVELLING WAVES
So far we have studied the lossless overhead transmission lines, so there is no attenuation. It is not true
for practical systems. The analysis is more difficult due to the presence of losses. However, these losses
are very much attactive because the energy of waves is dissipated through these losses. These losses are
due to the presence of resistance R and conductance G of overhead lines.
Consider r, L, C and g as the parameters per unit length of an overhead transmission line and V0 and
I0 as the voltage and current waves at x = 0 as shown in Fig. 5.26. The aim is to determine the voltage (V)
and current (I) waves after traveling a distance x with time t s.
I0 I
V0 V
x ⌬x
x=0
Fig. 5.26 Wave travelling on a lossy line
I r ⌬x L⌬ x
V g ⌬x C⌬ x
⌬x
Fig. 5.27 Equivalent circuit of differential element of overhead line
Let us consider a small distance dx traveled by the wave in time dt. The differential length, Δx, of the
overhead line is shown in Fig. 5.27
2
Power loss, P = I 2 r + V 2 g = V r + V 2 g (5.44)
Z 02
On differentiation of Eq. (5.44) with respect to x, we get
V2
dP = 2 rdx + V 2 rdx (5.45)
Z0
V2
Power at a distance x, P = VI = − (5.46)
Z0
Negative sign indicates there is reduction in power as the wave travels with time.
Differentiation of Eq. (5.46) with respect to V is
2V
dP = − dV (5.47)
Z0
From Eqs. (5.45) and (5.47)
2V V2
− dV = 2 rdx + V 2 rdx
Z0 Z0
dv V
dx
=−
2Z 0
( r + gZ02 )
dv r + gZ 02
=− dx
V 2Z 0
dv r + gZ 02
∫V = −
2Z 0 ∫
dx
r + gZ 02
ln V = − x+K
2Z 0
At x = 0, V = V0
∴K = lnV0
r + gZ 02
ln V = − x + ln V0
2Z 0
V r + gZ 02
ln = − x
V0 2Z 0
⎛ r + gZ 02 ⎞
− ⎜⎜ ⎟x
V 2 Z 0 ⎠⎟
=e ⎝ = e −α x
V0
where
r + gZ 02
α =−
2Z 0
−α x
∴V = V0 e (5.48)
Similarly we can derive the expression for current, I = I0e–αx (5.49)

From eqs. (5.48) and (5.49) the voltage and current waves are attenuated exponentially as they travel
over the transmission line and the magnitude of attenuation depends upon the overhead line parameters.
From the empirical formula of Foust and Menger, voltage and current at any point of the overhad line
after traveling x distance can be calculated as
V0
V= kV
1 + KxV0
where K = attenuation constant
= 0.00037 for chopped waves
= 0.00019 for short waves
= 0.0001 for long waves
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
1. A lightning discharge or a sudden switching in or out in a power system suddenly impresses electrical
energy in a transmission line, which moves along the line at nearly the speed of light and is called a
travelling wave.
2. Types of system transients: Depending upon the speed of the transients, these can be classified as:
surge phenomena, short circuit phenomena and transient stability.
∂2v ∂2v ∂ 2i ∂ 2i
3. Wave equations: = L C or = L C
∂x 2 ∂t 2 ∂x 2 ∂t 2
4. Incident wave: v= f ( )

LC x − t or i= (v/ Z 0 )
5. Reflected wave: v = φ ( )
LC x + t or i = (−v / Z 0 )
6. Evaluation of surge resistance:

Overhead transmission line, Z0 = 60ln(D/R) Ω
Underground cables, Z 0 =
( r) Ω
60 ln R
εr
7. Importance of surge impedance: Knowledge of surge impedance is extremely useful as it enables

the calculation of the transient voltages and currents which may occur in a circuit.
8. Evaluation of velocity of wave propagation
• Overhead transmission line, v = 3 108 m/s
3 × 108
• Underground cables, υ = m/s
εr
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is a travelling wave?

2. What are the factors that cause a travelling wave?
3. What are the values of characteristic impedance for transmission lines, cables and transformers?
4. What is the velocity of propagation of a surge in overhead lines and cables?
5. Write the equation of an impulse wave explaining the significance of each term.
6. What is the effect when the reflected wave meets (i) a short-circuited line (ii) an open-circuited line,
and (iii) a resistance equal to characteristic impedance of the line?
7. What are the expressions for the voltage and current when a line is terminated by an (i) inductance
(ii) a capacitance?
8. Why is the velocity of propagation same for all overhead lines?
9. What is meant by crest of a wave?
10. What is meant by “wave front”?
11. A transmission line of surge impedance Z0 is terminated through a resistance R. Give the coefficients
of refraction and reflection.
12. What is the effect of shunt capacitance at the terminal of a transmission line?
13. What is the application of Bewley’s diagram?
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. For lossless line terminated by its surge impedance, the natural reactive power loading is
a. V 2/X b. V 2/Z c. V 2/Zc d. V 2/R
2. A lossless line terminated with its surge impedance has

a. flat voltage profile
b. transmission line angle greater than actual length of line
c. transmission line angle less than actual length of line
d. a and b
3. An overhead transmission line having a surge impedance of 400 Ω is connected in series with an
underground cable having a surge impedance of 100 Ω. If a source of 50 kV travels from the line end
towards the line-cable junctions, the value of the transmitted-voltage wave at the junction is
a. 30 kV b. 20 kV c. 80 kV d. 30 kV
4. When a transmission line is energized through , propagate on it.

a. voltage wave b. current wave
c. both voltage and current d. power wave
5. The coefficient of reflection for current at an open-ended line is

a. 1.0 b. 0.5 c. 1.0 d. zero
6. The reflection between travelling voltage and current waves is given as

L v L v
a. vi = b. = c. vi = LC d. = LC
C i C i
7. Travelling voltage and current waves have the same waveforms and travel together along the trans-
mission line at a
a. velocity of sound b. velocity of light
c. slightly lesser than light d. more than the light
8. For an open-circuited line, the resulting current will be

a. zero b. infinity
c. equal to the incident voltage d. twice the incident voltage
9. For a short-circuited line, the resulting voltage will be

a. infinity b. zero
c. equal to the incident voltage d. twice the incident voltage
10. Steepness of the travelling wave is attenuated by

a. line resistance b. line inductance
c. line capacitance d. both b and c
11. The steepness of the wave front can be reduced by connecting

a. an inductor in series with the line
b. a capacitor between line and earth
c. both a and b
d. an inductor between line and earth or a capacitor in series with the line
12. The reflection coefficient of the voltage wave in overhead lines is given by
R0 Rl R − Ro Rl + Ro
a. b. c. l d.
R0 − Rl R0 − Rl R0 − Rl R0 − Rl
13. The reflection coefficient of a short circuit line is

a. –1 b. 1 c. 0.5 d. 0
14. The propagation constant of a transmission line is (0.15 10 3

j1.5 10 3) and the wave length
of the travelling wave is
−3
2π −3 π
a. 1.5 × 10 b. c. 1.5 × 10 d.
2π 1.5 × 10−3 2π 1.5 × 10−3
15. The reflection coefficient at the load end of a short-circuited line is

a. 0 b. 1∠00 c. 1∠900 d. 1∠1800
16. The reflection coefficient of the wave when load connected to a transmission line of surge impedance
equals the load surge impedance is
a. 1 b. 1 c. 0 d. infinity
17. A surge voltage of 1000 kV is applied to an overhead line with its receiving end open. If the surge
impedance of the line is 500 Ω, then the total surge power in the line is
a. 2000 MW b. 500 MW c. 2 MW d. 0.5 MW
18. A surge of 260 kV travelling in a line of neutral impedance of 500 Ω arrives at the junction with two
lines of neutral impedances of 250 Ω and 50 Ω , respectively. The voltage transmitted in the branch
line is
a. 400 kV b. 260 kV c. 80 kV d. 40 kV
19. The coefficient of reflection for current for an open-ended line is

a. 1.0 b. 1.0 c. 0.5 d. 0
20. The real part of the propagation constant of a transmission line is

a. attenuation constant b. phase constant c. reliability factor d. line constant
21. Two transmission lines each having an impedance of 200 Ω is separated by a cable. For zero reflection
the impedance of the cable should be
a. 100 Ω b. 200 Ω c. 400 Ω d. 600 Ω
22. An overhead line with surge impedance of 400 Ω is terminated through a resistance R. A surge
travelling over the line will not suffer any reflection at the junction, if the value of R is
a. 100 Ω b. 400 Ω c. 200 Ω d. 600 Ω
21. b, 22. c
Answers: 1. d, 2. a, 3. b, 4. c, 5. c, 6. b, 7. c, 8. a, 9. b, 10. a, 11. c, 12. c, 13. a, 14. b, 15. d, 16. a, 17. a, 18. d, 19. b, 20. a,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Develop an equivalent circuit at the transition points of transmission lines for analyzing the behaviour
of travelling waves.
2. Discuss the phenomena of wave reflection and refraction. Derive an expression for the reflection and
refraction coefficients.
3. Describe the construction and the working principle of a zinc oxide gapless arrester with a neat sketch.
4. Starting from the first principles, show that surges behave as travelling waves. Derive expressions for
surge impedance and wave velocity.
5. Explain Bewley’s Lattice diagram and give its uses.
6. Define surge impedance of a line. Obtain the expressions for voltage and current waves at a junction
or at a transition point.
PROBLEMS
1. A voltage having a crest value of 2000 kV is travelling on a 400 kV line. The protective level is
1200 kV. The surge impedance of the line is 200 Ω. Calculate (a) the current in the line before reaching
the arrester, (b) the current through the arrester and (c) the value of arrester resistance for this condition
(d) the reflected voltage. Verify the reflection and refraction coefficients.
2. A 500 kV surge travels on an overhead line of surge impedance 400 Ω towards its junction with a
cable which has a surge impedance of 4 Ω. Find (a) transmitted voltage and current (b) reflected
voltage and current.
3. A 200 kV surge travels on a transmission line of 400 Ω surge impedance and reaches a junction where
two branch lines of surge impedances of 500 Ω and 300 Ω respectively are connected with the
transmission line. Find the surge voltage and current transmitted into each branch line. Also, find the
reflected voltage and current.
4. A transmission line has an inductance of 0.93 H/km and a capacitance of 0.0078 F/km. This overhead
line is connected to an underground cable having an inductance of 0.155 mH/km and a capacitance of
0.187 F/km. If a surge of crest 100 kV travels in the cable towards its junction with the line, find the
surge transmitted along the line.
5. A 200 kV, 3 s, rectangular surge travels on a line of surge impedance of 400 Ω. The line is terminated
in a capacitance of 3000 p.f. Find an expression for voltage across the capacitance.
6. An inductance of 700 H connects two sections of a transmission line each having a surge impedance
of 350 Ω. A 400 kV, 1 s rectangular surge travels along the line towards the inductance. Find the
maximum value of the transmitted wave.
CHAPTER
5
CAP ACITANCE
OF
TRANS MISS ION
LINES
M w e d iscussed briefly a t t h e beginn i n g o f C h a p . 4, t h e s h u n t admittance of a

transmissio n line consists of con ductance a n d capacitive reactance. We h ave
also men tion e d that conductance is usually neglected because its contribution to
shunt admitt a nce is very smal l . For this reason this chapter has been given the
title of capacitance rather than shunt a d m ittance.
Capacitance of a transmission l i ne is the resu l t of the potential d i fference
betwee n the conductors; it causes t h e m to be c h a rged i n the same m a n n e r as
the p lates of a capacitor when there is a poten t i a l d ifference between t h e m . The
capacitance between conductors is the charge per unit of potential d i ffe rence.
Cap acitance between parallel conductors i s a constant depending on the size
and spacing of the conductors. For power lines l ess than about 80 k m ( 5 0 m i )
long, the effect of capacitance can be slight a n d is often neglected . For longer
lines o f h igher voltage capaci t a nce becomes i ncreasin gly impor t a n t .
An alternating voltage impressed o n a transmission line causes the c h a rge
o n the cond uctors a t a ny point t o i n crease and d e c rease with the i ncrease and
decrease of the instantan eous val u e of the vo ltage between conductors at t h e
point. The flow o f charge i s current, a n d t h e current caused b y t h e a l t e r n a t e
chargin g a n d d ischarging o f a l i n e d u e t o a n a l t er nating voltage is c a l l e d the
charging current of the l i n e. Since capacitance is a s h u n t between con d uctors,
affects the voltage d rop a long the lines as well as efficiency and power fact or of
charging c urrent flows in a transmission line even when it is open-circuited. It
the line a n d the stab i l i ty of the system of wh ich t h e 1 i n c is a D 'l f t .
170
5.1 ELECT R I C F I ELD O F A LON G , STR A I G HT CONDUCTOR 171
The basis of our analysis of capacitance is Gauss's l aw for electric fields .

The l aw states that the total e l ectric charge with i n a closed surface equals the
tot al electric flux emerging from t h e surface. In other words, t h e total charge
within the closed surface e quals t h e i ntegral ove r t h e su rf a ce of the normal
component of the electric fl ux d ensity.
The l ines of electric flux originate on posit ive charges and terminate on
equals kE, where k is the perm ittivity of t h e m aterial su rrounding t h e surface

negative charges. Charge density n ormal to a surface is d esignated Df and
and E is the electric field i n tensity. I
5.1 ELECTRIC FIELD OF A L O N G , S T RAI G HT

CON D U CTOR
If a long, s t r a i g h t cy l i n d r i c a l conductor l i es in a u n i form medium such as air and

is iso l a ted from other charges so t ha t t he c h a rge is u n i formly distributed around
its periphery, the flux is ra d i a l . All poi nts e q u i d i s t a n t from such a conductor are
poi n ts of equipotential and have t h e same electric fl u x de nsity. Figure 5 . 1 shows
sllch an i sol a ted conductor. T h e electric fl u x d e ns ity at x meters from the
con ductor can be computed by imagining a cyl i n drical surface concentric with
the con d uctor and x meters in radius. S ince a l l p arts of the surface are
equ i d istant from the conductor, the cyl i n drical s u r face is a surface of equipoten
tial and the electric flux density on t he surface is equal to the flux leav i ng the
length of 1 m. The electric fl ux densi ty is

conductor per meter of length d ivided by t h e area of the surface in an axial
(5. 1)
where q i s the charge o n t h e con d u ctor i n coulombs per meter o f l e ngth and x
is t he d istance in meters from t h e conductor t o t h e p oint where the electric flux
g r a d i e n t , is e q u a l t o t h e e l e c t r i c fl u x d e nsity d ivided by the pe rm i t tivity of the

density is comp uted. The el ectric fi e l d intens i ty, or the negat ive of t he potential
medium. Therefore, t h e e l ectric field i n tens i ty is
q
E = Vim ( 5 .2)
2 TT Xk
E and q bot h may be instantaneous, p hasor, or d e expressions.
l
of f r e e s p a c e ko is 8.85 X 1 0 - 1 2 F 1 m (fa ra d s p er m eter). Relat ive
I n 5 1 u n i t s t h e p e r m i t t i vity
p e rm i t t iv i t y k r is t h e ratio of t h e act u a l p e rm i t t iv i t y k of a material of t h e p e r m i t tivity of free space.
Th us, k , = k l k Q • For d ry air k r is 1 . 00054 a n d is ass u m e d equal to 1 .0 in c a l c u l a t i o n s for overhead
l i nes.
172 CHAPTER 5 CAPAClTANCE OF TRAN S M ISSION LINES
/ .,... - - ...... ,
FIG U RE 5. 1
Lines o f electric flux origi n a t i n g on the pos i t ive charges u n i
formly d istribu ted over t h e su rface o f an isolated cyl i n drical
conductor.
S.2THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN lWO POINTS DUE TO A CHARGE
The potential diffe rence between two points in volts is numerically equal to the
work i n joules per coulomb necessary to move a coulomb of charge b etween t h e
two points. The electric field intensity is a measure of t h e force o n a charge i n
the field. T h e electric field intensity i n vol ts p er m eter i s equal t o t h e force i n
newtons p e r coulomb on a coulomb of charge a t t h e p o i n t considered. B e tween
two points the line integral of the force i n n ewtons a cting on a coulomb of
positive c harge is the work done i n moving the charge from the point of lower
potential to the point of higher potential and is numerically equal to t h e
poten t i a l d ifference between the two poin ts.
Consider a long, straight wire c arrying a positive charge of q elm, as
shown in Fig. 5.2. Points P I and P 2 are located a t distances D ) and D 2 meters,
respectively, from the center of t h e w i re. The wire is an equipotential surface
concen tr ated at t he ce n t e r of the wire fo r ca l c u l a t i n g flux exte r n al to t h e wire.

and t h e u ni fonnly distributed c harge on the wire is equivalent to a c harge
The positive c h a rge on t h e w i re w i l l exe r t t I r e p e l l i n g fo rce 0 1 1 , \ pos i t iv e c h a rge

placed in the field. For this reason a n d because D 2 in t h i s case i s g re a t e r t h a n
Path of
i ntegration
I ,
�-��I P2
I
/ I
I I
I I F IG U RE 5.2
/ /
I
Path of i n tegra t i o n be tween two points ext ernal to a
I
/ I cyl i n d rical conductor h aving a u n i formly d ist.-ibuted
I
/ pos i t ive charge.
5.3 CAPACITANCE OF A TWO·WI R E L I N E 1 73
D I , work must be done on a posit ive charge to move i t from P2 to P I ' and PI is
at a h igher potential than P2 . The d ifference i n potential is the amount of work
done per coulomb of charge move d. On t h e other hand, i f the o n e coulomb o f
charge moves from P I t o P2 , it expends energy, a n d the amoun t of work, o r
energy, in newton-meters i s t h e vol tage drop f r<? m P I t o P2• T h e potent i a l
diffe rence is i ndependent of the path fol lowed. The simplest way to compute
the vol tage drop between two points is to com pute the voltage betwee n the
i n tensity over a radial path between t h e equipotential su rfaces. Thus, the

equipotential surfaces passing t h rough P I and P2 by i n tegrating the field
instantaneous volt age d rop between P I a nd P2 is
(5 .3 )
w h e r e q i s the instanta neous charge on t he wire in coulombs per meter of

length. Note that t he voltage d rop between two poi nts, as given by Eq. (5.3),
pote n t i a l d i ffe r e n c e is positive or negative and on whether the vol t age d rop i s
may be posit ive or negative depending on whether the charge causing the
computed from a point n e a r t h e conductor t o a poin t farther away, o r vice versa.
e i ther positive or negative depending on whether D2 is greater or less than D I .

The sign of q may be either positive or negative, and the logarithmic term is
5.3 CAPACITANCE OF A TWO -WI RE LI NE

Capacitance between t he con ductors of a two-wire l ine is defined as the c harge
on the cond uctors per u n i t of potential d ifference between them. In the form of
an equation capacitance per u n i t l ength of the line is
C F jm
q
= - (5 .4)
v
d i l le r e n ce b e t w e e n t h e co n d u c t ors i n vo l t s . H e re a ft e r, for c o n ve n i e n ce, we re fe r

w h e r e q i s t h e c h ,lr g e on t h e l i n e i n co u l o m b s p e r me t e r ,I n d v is
the potential
[or t h e e q u a t i ons d e r ived . T h e capaci t a n ce be tw e e n two condu ctors can b e

to cul)(lcit u l / cC !)(.'r i ll / it h'l I/.',r/t , I S c([pa citallce el ml i n d i c ,l t e the correct d i mens ions
fou n d by subst ituting in Eq . (SA) th e expression fo r v i n terms of q from E q .

(5 . 3 ) . T h e vol t age U " h b e twe e n t h e two con d uctors of t h e two-wire line shown in
F i g . 5 . 3 c a n be fo u n d by d e t e rm i n i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l d i ffe r e n ce between t h e two
co n d uctors of t h e line, first by comp uting t he vol tage d rop due to the charge q a
on c o n ducto r a a nd then by com puting the voltage d rop d ue to the charge q b on
conductor b . By the principle of s up e rposition the vol tage d rop from cond uctor
a t o conductor b due to the cha rges on both conductors is the sum of the
The c h a rge q a on conductor a of Fig. 5 . 3 causes surfaces of equipotential

vol t age drops caused by each c ha rge alone.
i n the vicinity of conductor b , which are shown in Fig. SA. We avoid the I
174 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRAN SMISSION L I N ES
FIGURE 5.3
Cross section of a paralle l-w i re l i n e .
rather t ha n t h e direct path o f Fig. 5 .4 . In determ i n i n g V a b due to q u ' w e fo l l ow

distorted equ ipotential surfaces by i n tegrating Eq . (5.3) a long the a l te rnate
the p a t h t hrough the u n distorted region a n d see t h a t d istance D \ o f Eq. (5.3) is
between conductors a and b . S i m i l a r ly, in d e t e rm i n ing v a /> due to q" , we fi n d

the r a d i u s ra of conductor a and d istance D2 is the cen ter- to-center d i sta nce
that the d istances D 2 and D \ a r e t il a n d D , respectively. Conve rt i n g t o p h asor

notation ( q n a nd q ,} become phasors), we obt a i n
- ( 5 .5 )
-
due to qa due to qb
and s ince qa = qb for a two-wire l in e ,
Va b = --qa ( -D - )
2 rr k
In
ra
- In
rb
D
V ( 5 . 6)
Equipotential
suriaces
Direct path of integration

FIG U RE 5.4
from a to b
Eq u i po t e n t i a l s u r faces of a por
t i o n of the e l e c t r i c fi e l d c a u s e d by
a c h a rged c o n d u c t o r a ( n o t
shown). Cond uctor b causes t h e
equipot e n t i a l s u rfaces to become
distorted. A r rows i n d ic a t e op
tional paths of i n te g r a t i o n be
tween a p o i n t o n the e q u i p o t e n
tial s u rface o f conductor b a n d
t h e con d uctor a , whose c h a rge qa
creates t he equ i pote n t i a l' s u rfaces
show n .
5.3 CAPACITANCE OF A nvO-W I R E L I N E 1 75
or by combining the logarithmic terms, we obtain
( 5 . 7)
The capacitance between conductors is
2 7T k
----- Fjm ( 5 .8 )
In( D2jra rb )
If r u
= rb = r'
=
'TT k
I n ( D jr )
Cu b Fjm ( 5 .9)
l in e . If the l i n e i s supp l i e d by a transformer h av ing a grou nded center tap, t h e

Equation (5.9) gives the capacitancc betwe en the conductors of a two-wire
potential difference between each conductor and ground i s h a l f t h e pote nt i a l

d ifference between the two conductors a n d t h e capacitance t o ground, o r
capacitance r o neutral, is
Ca n Cbn ---- F j m to neutral (5 . 1 0 )

In( Djr )
=
= =
The concept of capacitance to neutral is i llustrated i n Fig. 5 . 5 .

Equation (5 . 1 0) corresponds t o E q . (4.25) for inductance. O n e difference
between the equations for capacitance and inductance shou l d b e noted c a re
fully. The radius in the equation for capacita nce is the actual outside radius of
t h e i n d u c t a nce fo rm u l a .
the conductor and not the geometric mean ra tio (GMR) o f the con d u ctor, as in
Equa t ion (5.3), from \vh ich Eqs. ( 5 . 5 ) t h rough (5. 1 0) were d erived , i s based
on the assumpti on o f u n i form charge d is tribution ove r the su rface of the
conductor. Whcn other charges are present, the d istribu tion of c h arge o n the
surface of the conductor is not u ni fo rm a n d the equations derived from Eq. (5 . 3 )
are not strictly correct. The nonuniformity of charge distrib ution, h owever, c a n
aO _______ --I1 ,---

( ----0
--1 b
eM
(a) R e p re s e n lation o f l i n e -to - l i n e c a pa c i t a n c e (b) R e p rese ntation of l i n e - to - n e utral c a p a c i t a nce
FI G U RE 5.5
R e l a t io n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e c o n ce p t s of l in e - t o - l i n e c a p a ci t a n c e a n d l i n e - t o -n e u t ra l c a p a c i t a n c e .
I
176 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRAN S M ISSJ O N LINES
be n eglected e n t irely in overhead l in es since t h e error in Eq . ( 5 . 10) is o n l y

0.01 %, even for such a close spacing as that where t h e ratio D Ir = SO.
argument o f the l ogar i t h m in Eq. (5 . 10) w h e n the con ductor is a stra nded cable
A question arises about the val u e to be used in the denominator o f t h e
because the equation was derived for a sol id round conductor. Since electric
t h e surface of a stranded conductor is not the s a m e a s the field at t h e su rface o f

flux is p e rp e n d icular to the surface of a pe rfect conductor, the electric fi e l d at
a cylin drical conductor. Therefore, t h e capaci tance calcula ted for a s t r a n d e d
c o n ducto r by subst i t u t ing t h e ou t side r a d i u s of t h e conductor fo r r in Eq. ( 5 . 10)
n eighborhood o f such a cond uctor anci t he fi e l d ncar a so l id con d u c t o r fo r w h ich

will be slightly in e rror because o f t h e d i fference b e tween the field in t h e
Eq. (5. 1 0) was d erive d . The error is ve ry small, however, si ncc only the fi e l d very
close to t h e surface of the conductor is a ffected . The outside radius of the
stranded conductor is used in calculating the capacitance.
Afte r the capacitance to n e u t r a l h a s been determined, the capacitive
k = 1 is fou n d by using t h e expression for C given in Eq. (5 . 10) to y i e l d

reactance existing between one con d uctor a n d neutral for relative per m i t tivity
r
.n
1
Xc
2 .862 D
- =
X 109 In -
. m to neutral (5 . l 1 )
2Tf f C f r
-
Since C i n Eq. (5. 1 1) is in fa rads p e r m eter, the p roper un its for Xc m u s t b e

ohm-meters. W e should also note t h a t Eq. (5. 1 1) expresses t he reactance from
line to n eutral for 1 m of line. S i nc e capacitance reactance is in para llel a l o ng
t h e line, Xc i n ohm-meters must b e divided b y the length of the l ine i n m e ters
to obtain t h e capaci tive reactance i n ohms to neutral for thc ent ire length of t h e
line.
When E q . ( 5 . 1 1 ) is d ividcd by 1 6 09 t o convcrt t o ohm-miles, we obtain
D
Xc .n
1 . 779
= -- X 1 0 () I n -
. O1 i to neutral ( 5 . 1 2)
f r
Table A.3 l ists the outside d i a meters of the most widely used s izes of
ACSR. If D and r in Eq. (5 . 1 2) a re in feet, capacitive reactance at l -ft spacing
X� is t h e first term a n d capacitive reactance spacing factor X� is the seco n d term
w h e n t h e e q uation is expanded as fol lows :
1 . 779
+
1 1 . 779
Xc = -- X 106 In - -- X 106 I n D n . m i to neutral ( 5 . 13 )
f r f
Table A . 3 i ncludes values o f X� for c o m m on sizes o f ACSR, a n d similar tables

. a re readily available for other types and sizes o f cond uctors. Tab l e A.S i n t h e
Append ix lists values o f X� which, o f course, i s different from t h e synchronous
mach i n e t ransient reactance bearing the same symbol.
5.4 CAPA C I T A N C E OF A TH R EE - P HASE L I N E W ITH EQU I LATERAL SPACING 177
operating at 60 Hz. The conductor is Partridge, and spacing is 20 ft between

Find the capacitive susceptance per mile of a single-ph ase line
Exa mple 5 . 1 .
centers.
Solution. For t h i s conductor Table A.3 lists an o u t s i d e d iameter of 0.642 in, and so
0 .642
r = = 0 .0268 ft
2 x 12
and from Eq. (5. 12)
"60
1 .779 20
Xc = x 1Q6 ln = 0 . 1961 x 106 n . mi to neutral
0 .0268
-
1
Be = = 5.10 X 1 0 - 6 Simi to neutral
Xc
o r i ll t e rm s o f c J p a c i t ivc re a c t a n ce at l - n spacing and c a p ac i t ive reactance spacing

factor from Tables A.3 and A.5
X; = 0 . 1 074 Mn . mi
X�. = 0 . 0889 MD . mi
Xc = 0 . 1 074 + 0 .0889 = 0 . 1 963 Mn . m i per conductor
106
Line-to-line capacit ive reactance and susceptance are
Xc = 2 x 0 . 1 963 X 106 = 0 .3926 X n . mi
-
1
Be = = 2 .5 5 X 10- 6 Simi
Xc
5.4CAPACITAN CE OF A THREE-PHASE LINE

WITH EQUILATERAL S PACING
5.6 .
E q u a t i o n (5 . 5 ) exp r e s s e s t h e vol t a g e between two
The t hree identical conductors of radius r of a three-phase l ine wit h equilateral
s p a c i n g a re shown i n Fig.
con d u c tors due to the c harges on e a ch one if the charge d istrib ution o n the
cond uctors can be assu med to b e u n iform. Thus, the vol tage Vab of the
t hree-phase line due only to the cha rges on conductors a and b I S
Vab = . -�- -
2 Tfk
(q a
In
D
r
+ b inq �) D
y ( 5 . 14)
178 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRANSM ISS I O N LI N ES
FI G U R E 5 . 6
a c
Cross sec t i o n of a t h r e e - p h ase l i ne w i t h e q u i l a t e r a l s p a c i n g .
Equation (5 .3) enab les us to i nc l u d e the e f fe c t o r q c s i nce u n i fo r m c h 'lrge
charge at the center of the conductor. Therefore, due only to the c h a rge CJ( ,
d istribution ove r the surface of a con d u ctor is eq uivalent to a conce n t ra ted
Vab = --
qcD
2Tfk D V In -
w h ich is zero since qc is equi distant from a and b. However, to s how t h a t we

are considering all three charges, we c a n write
( qa D D]V
=
2Tfk +
D D
1 r
Vab -- In -
r
qb I n - + qc In (5 . 15 )
( 5 . 1 6)
Adding Eqs. (5 . 1 5) and (5 . 1 6) gives
(5 . 17)
I n deriving these equations, we have assumed t h a t gro und i s far e nough away to
h ave negligible effect. Since the voltages a re assumed to be s i nusoidal and
expressed a s phasors, the charges are sinusoidal and expressed a s p hasors. I f
there a r e n o o ther charges i n t h e vici n i ty , t h e sum of t h e charges on t h e thre e
conductors is zero and we can substitute - qa in Eq. ( 5 . 1 7) for q b + qc and
obtain
( 5 . 18)
Figure 5.7 is the phasor d iagram of voltages. From this figure we obtain the
following relations between the line v ol t ag e s Vab and Vac and t he vol tage Va n
5.4 CAPA CITANCE OF A T H R E E , P H AS E L I N E WITH E Q U I LATERAL SPACI N G 179
F IG U R E 5 . 7
P h asor d i agram of the balanced volt ages o f a t h re e - phase l i n e .
13- V:1I1�
from l ine a to the neutral of the th ree-phase circuit:
V:I1> = = 13 V:'1I( 0 .866 + )0 . 5 ) ( 5 . 19)
Val = - Veil = /3 V:'" I - 30 ° = 13 Va,, ( 0 .866 - )0.5 ) ( 5 .20 )

Add i ng Eqs. ( 5 . 1 9) and (5.20) gives
( 5 .2 1 )
S u hs t i t u t in g 3 Va n for Va b + Va c in Eq. (5 . 1 8 ), we obta i n
V
qa D
Va n = -- In - ( 5 .22)
2 TTk r
S ince capaci tance to neutral is the ratio of t he charge on a conductor to the

vol tage b e tween that condu ctor and neutra l ,
F j m to neutral
2 7T k
---- ( 5 . 23 )
I n ( Dj r )
Comparison of Eq s. ( 5 .23) a n d (5. 10 ) shows t h a t t h e two a re i d e n tica l .

These e q u a tions express t h e capacitance to neu t ral for single-phase a n d equi
l a t e r a l l y spaced t h ree-phase l ines, respective ly. S i m i l a r ly, we reca l l t h a t the
equ ati ons for inductance per conductor are the same for single-phase a nd
e q u i l at eral ly sp ac�d t h ree-phase l ines.
The t e rm cha rging current is appl ied to the current associated w i t h the
t h e l i ne- to- l i ne
c a p �l c i t a n c e o f a l i n e . F o r a single-ph ase c i rc u i t t h e ch a rg i n g c u rre n t i s the
p ro d u c t of the l i n c - t o- l i n e v o l t a g e and suscepta nce, or as a
p h asor,
(5 .24 )
For a three-phase line t h e c h a rging current is found by multiplying the voltage

to n e u t r a l by t h e capaci tive susceptance to neutral. This gives t h e charging I
180 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRA NSM I SS ION L I NES
curren t per p hase and is in accord with t h e calculation of balanced three-phase

circuits on t h e basis of a single p hase with n eutral return. The phasor c harging
current in p h ase a is
( 5 .25)
Since t h e rms voltage varies along the line, t h e charging current is not t h e same
everywhere. Often the voltage used to obtain a value for charging current is the
normal vol tage for which the line is designed, such as 220 or 500 kY, which is
probably not t he actual vol tage at either a generating station or a load.
5.5 CAPACITANCE OF A THREE-PHASE LINE

WITH UNSYMMETRICAL SPACING
When the conductors o f a t hree-phase l i n e a re not equilaterally spaced, t h e
problem o f calculating capacitance becomes more d i fficult. In the u s u a l u n t rans
pose d line the capacitances of e ac h p h ase to n e u tral are unequal. In a t rans
posed line the average capacitance to neutral of any phase for the com plete
t ransposition cycle is the same as the average capacitance to neutral of any
other p h ase since each phase con ductor occupies the same position as every
other p h ase conductor over an equal distan ce along the transposition cycle. The
dissymmetry of the u ntransposed line is slight for the usual configuration, and
capacitance calculations are carried out as though all lines were transposed.
For t h e line shown i n Fig. 5 . 8 three e q u ations are found for Vab for the
three d ifferent parts of t he transposition cycle. With phase a in position 1 , b i n
position 2 , and c i n position 3 ,
V;l /J =
( D1 2
q n
2 7T k " I
1
- r- + q ,) In D
r
1
2 + (j, I n
D21 ) V
D 3"\
( 5 . 26 )
With p h ase a i n position 2, b i n position 3 , a n d c in position 1 ,
( 5 . 27)
FIGURE 5.8
Cross s e c t i o n o f a t h ree -phase line with u nsy m m etrical
1 3 spacing.
5.) CAPACITANCE OF A TH R E E- P H A S E f . I N E WITH UNSYMMET R I CA L SPACING 181
a n d with a in posi tion 3, b i n posi tion 1 , and c i n position 2,
( 5 .28)
Equations (5 .26) through (5.28 ) a re sim i l a r to Eqs. (4.5 1 ) t hrough (4.53) for
the magnetic flux l i nkages of o n e cond uctor of a transposed line. However, i n
t h e equations for magn e tic fl ux l i n kages w e note t h a t t h e current i n a n y p h ase
is the same in every part of the transposition cycle. In Eqs. (5 .26) through (5.28),
if we d isregard the voltage d ro p along the l ine, the voltage to neutral of a p hase
in one p a r t of a transpos i t io n cycle is e q u a l to the voltage to neutral of t h a t
p h ase i n a ny part of t h e cyc l e . H e nce, t h e vol t age between any two conductors i s
t h e same in a l l p a r t s of t h e t r a n sposition cyc l e . It fo l lows t h at t h e charge o n a
co n d uctor m ust be d i ffe re n t w h e n the pos i t ion of the conductor changes with
respect to other conductors. A tre a t m e n t of Eqs. (5 .26) th rough (5 .28) analogous
to that of Eqs. (4.5 1 ) through (4.53) is not rigorous.
The rigorous solu tion for capacita nces is too i nvolved to be p ractical
except perhaps for fiat spacing with equal d istances bet\veen adjacent conduc
tors. With t h e usu a l spacings a n d cond uctors, sufficient accuracy is obtained by
assuming t h a t the charge p e r u n i t length on a cond uctor is the same i n every
part of the transposition cycle. When the above assumption is made with rega rd
to charge, the voltage between a pair of cond uctors is different for each p a rt of
the transposition cycle. Then an average val u e of voltage betwee n the cond u c
tors can b e found and the capacitance calcul ated from the average voltage. We
obtain the average voltage by a d d ing Eqs. (5 .26) through (5 .28) and by dividing
the resu lt by 3. The average voltage between cond uctors a and b, assum i ng
the same charge on a conductor regardl ess of i ts position i n the transposit i o n
cyc.e,
•
1 IS
( 5 29 )
.
where ( 5 .30)
S imilarly, t h e average vol tage d rop from conductor a to conductor C IS
Va c
1 ( Dcq
qa
1
D V 1
2 7T k
r
= -- In -
. + q
C
In - (5 . 3 )
t eq
182 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRANSM ISSION LINES
Applying Eq. (5.21) to fi n d the vol tage to neutral, we h ave
3 Va n - Va b + Vac
_
= 2k
1 ( D eq
2 qa I n - + qb I n -
r
+ qc In
r )
- V ( 5 .32 )
Tr r Deq De q
( 5 .3] )
and e" =
q"
= ----
(
I n D cq / r )
F / m to neutral ( 5 .34)
Equ ation (5 .34) for capacitance to neutral of a transposed t h ree-phase l i n e

correspo n d s to Eq. (4.56) for the i n ductance p e r p hase of a similar l i n e . I n
fi nding capacitive reactance t o neutral corresponding t o en , w e can spl i t t h e
reactanc e into compone n ts o f capacitive reactance t o neutral a t I - ft spacing X�
and capaci t ive reactance spacing factor X� , as defined by Eq. (5 . 13).
Example S.2. Find the capaci tance and the capacitive reactance for 1 m i o f the
line described i n Example 4.4. I f the length o f the line is 1 75 mi and the norma)
operating voltage is 220 kV, find capacitive reactance to neutral for the entire
leng t h of the line, the charging current per mile, and the total charging
megavoltamperes.
Solution
1 . 1 08
r = = 0. 0462 ft
2 X 12
Dcq = 24 .8 ft
ell =
2 IT x 8 .85 x 1 0 1 2 -
= 8. 8466 x 1 0- 1 2 F/m
1 n (24.8/0 .0462)
Xc =
1012
2-rr x 60 x 8 . 8466 x 1609
= 0 . 1 864 X 106 .0. . mi
or from tables
X� = 0.0912 X 10 6 x� = 0 .0953 X 106
Xc = (0.0912 + 0.0953) x 1 0 6 = 0 . 1 865 X 1 0 6 .0. . m i t o neutral J

5.6 EFFECf OF EARTH ON TH E CA PACITANCE OF THREE-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES 183
For a length of 175 mi
6
0 . 1 865 X 1 0
Capacitive reactance = = 1 066 n to neutral
1 75
I fchg l
13
220 , 00 0 220 ,000 X 10 - 6
13
= = 0 .6 8 1 Ajmi
Xc x 0 . 1 865
or 0 . 68 1 x 1 75 = A for the l ine. Reactive power is Q = 13 X 220 X 1 1 9 X

119
10-3 43.5 Mva r. This amou n t of reactive power a b s o rb e d by t he d istributed
=
capacitance is negat ive i n keeping with the convention d iscussed in Chap. 1. In

o t h e r w o r d s , p o s i t i v e re(lctive power is b e i n g [?('l I eratecl b y t h e distributed
C <l fl a c i t ( l I l C C o r t h e l i l l c .
5.6 EFFECT O F EA RTH O N T H E

CAPACITAN C E OF TH REE-PHASE
TRA N S M I S S I O N L I N E S
Earth affects the capacitance of a transmission line because its presence a lters
t he electric field of the l i ne. I f w e assume that the earth is a perfect cond u ctor
in the form of a horizontal p l a n e of i n fi nite extent, we realize that the electric
field of charged conductors above t h e earth is n o t the same as it wou l d b e i f t h e
equ ipotential su rface o f t h e e a r t h were not p resent. The electric fi e l d o f t h e
charged conductors i s forced t o conform t o t h e presence of t h e earth's s u rface.
The assumption of a flat, equ i pot e n t i a l su rface is, of course, l imited by t h e
i rregularity o f terrain a n d the type o f surface o f t h e e a r th. The assumption
enables us, however, to understa n d the effect o f a conducting earth on capaci
t ance calculations.
Consider a circuit consisting o f a s i ngle overhead conductor with a re turn
p a t h through the earth. In c ha rging t h e cond uctor, charges come from the earth
conductor and the eart h . T h e e a r t h has a charge e q u a l i n magni tude t o t h a t o n

to reside on the con ductor, and a potential d i fference exists between t h e
t h e conductor b u t of oppos ite sign . T h e e l ectric fl ux from the cha rges o n t h e

conductor to the charges o n t h e e a r t h is perpend icu l a r to t h e earth's equipoten
tiel l su rface since the su rface is assumed to be a perfect conductor. Let us
i m agine a fictit ious con d uctor of t h e same size and shape as the ove r h e a d
cond uctor lying di rectly below t h e o r i g i n a l conductor at a d istance e q u a l to
t w i ce t h e d i s t a n ce o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a bove the p l ane o f t h e gro u n d . The fi c t i t i o u s
o f the overhead cond uctor ahove the e a rt h . If the earth is removed and a c h a rg e
conductor is be l ow the su rface of tbe e a rth by a distance equal to the distance
e q u a l a n d opposite t o that o n t h e overhead cond uctor i s assume d o n t h e

fictitious conductor, t h e p l a ne m idway between the original conductor a n d t h e
fictitious conductor is an equ i pot e n t i a l surface a n d occupies t h e same position
a s the equipotential surface o f t h e e a r t h . The el ectric flux between the overhead
con d uctor and this eq u ip ot e n t i a l surface is the same as that w � ich existe d
184 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE O F TRANS M I S S I O N LINES
capacitance t h e earth m ay be replaced by a fictitious charged conductor b e l ow

between the conductor and the earth. Thus, for purposes of calcu l a tion of
the surface of the earth by a distance equal to that of the ove rh e ad cond u c t or
above the e arth. Such a conductor h a s a charge equal i n mag n i t u d e a n d
opposite i n sign t o that of the origi n a l con ductor a n d i s ca l l e d t h e image
The method of calculat ing capacit a nce by replacing th e e a r t h by t he i m age

conductor .
of an overhead conductor can be extended to more than one con d uctor. I f w e

locate a n i m a g e cond uctor for e a c h ove rhead conductor, t h e A u x h c twc c n t h e
original conductors a n d their images i s perpen d icula r t o the p l a n e w h ich
repl aces the earth, and that plane is a n equ i potenti a l su rface . T h e A u x above
the plane is the same as it i s when t h e earth is prese n t i n stead u r t he i m age
conductors .
three-phase line, refe r to F i g . 5 .9. We a s s u m e that t h e l i n e is t r a n sposed a n d

To apply t h e met hod of i mages to t h e ca l c u la t i o n o f c a r a c i l a n c c ror a
77/ 7
FIGURE 5.9
T h r e e-phase l i n e and its i m a g e .
5.6 EFFECT OF EA RTH ON T H E CA PA CITA NC E OF T H R E E - P H A SE T R A N S M IS S ION L I N ES 1 85
that conductors, a , b, a n d c c a r ry t h e c h a rges q qb ' and q c a n d occupy

a'
positions 1, 2, and 3, respec tively, in the first p a r t of the transposition cycle. The
charges - q a ' - q b ' and - qc Equ ations for the t hree p arts of the transposition
plane of the earth is show n , a n d below it a re the conductors with the i mage
cycle can be written for the voltage drop from conductor a to conductor b as
determined by the three c harged conductors a n d their images. With conductor
a in position 1 , b in position 2, a n d c in pos ition 3, by Eq. (5.3)
(5 .35)
Similar equ ations for Vall a re written for the other parts of the t ra nsposition
cyc l e . Accepting t h e approxim ately correct assu mption of constant charge per
unit length of each conductor t h roughout the transposit ion cycle allows u s to
of the p h asor Vac is fou nd in a s i m i l a r m an ner, and 3 Var. is obtained by a d di ng

obta i n a n average value of the p hasor Va ll ' The equat ior. for the average value
t he average values of Vlln a n d Vac - Knowing t h a t the sum of the charges is zero,
1
we then fi n d
cn
( - ) - ..,; --
F1m to neutral ( 5 .36)
H l � HZ3 H3 1
=
""\
DCq
In r- In J r- -
yH) H2 H3
Comparison of Eq s . (5. 3 4) and (5.36) shows that t h e effect of the earth is

to in c r e a s e th e cI [J <1 c i t il n c c o f ,I I i n c . T o ,ICCO li n t fo r t h e e a r t h , t he denominator
of Eq . (5.34) m u s t !l,IVC s u b t r a c t e d fro m i t t h e term
I f the con ductors are h i g h a bove ground compared with the d istances between
them, the d i agonal distances i n t he numera tor of the correction term a re nearly
equal to the vertical distances in the denominator, and the term is very small.
This is the usual case, a n d the effect of groun d is ge nerally neglected for
186 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRANSM ISSI ON LI NES
three-phase l ines except for calculations by symmetrical components when t h e

sum o f t h e three l in e currents i s n o t zero.
5.7 CAPACITANCE CALCULATIONS

FOR BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
Figure 5 . 1 0 shows a bu ndled-conductor l i ne for which we ca n write an equat ion
for the voltage from conductor a t o con d uctor b a s w e did i n deriving Eq . ( 5 .2fl),
except t h a t now we must consider t h e c h a r g e s on a l l s i x i n d iv i d u a l conductors.
The conductors of any one bundle a re in para l l el , and we can assume the charge
per bundle d ivides equa l ly between the con d u ctors of the bund I e since t h e
separation between bundles i s usu a l ly m o r e t h a n 15 t i mes the spaci ng between
-
use D J 2 i n p lace of the d is ta nces D I 2 d and D I 2 + d and m a ke o t h e r s i m i l a r
the conductors of the bundle. A l so, si nce D 1 2 is m uc h greater than d, we can
substitutions o f b u n d l e separation d istances i nstead of u s i n g t h e m o re exact

expressions that occur in fi n ding Val) ' The d i ffere nce due to this a p p roxima tion
cannot be d etected i n the final res u l t for usual spacings even when the
If charge on p hase a is q a ' each of conductors a and a f has the ch arge

calc ulat ion is carried to five or s ix significant figures.
l(-
qa/2; similar division of charge is assumed for p hases b a n d c . Th e n ,
1
--
2rrk
qa
- In
2
D 12
r
+ In
D
--
d
J2 ] +
� �
'
a a b'
b
+ - ( D21 D21 1 j
qc
2
In
�--
--"
f) .1 \
+ I n -'
D -:, \
-------
( 5 .37)
c c'
The l etters u nder each loga r i thmic term indicate the con ductor whose charge is
accounted for by that term. Combi n i n g te rms gives
( 5 .38 )
1�----- D3 1 --------�� 1
1
a
..--- D 1 2
1.... D 23 -----...
----· ----- �
FIGURE S.lO
b o O o Cross section of a b u n d l ed-con
I- d-\
a' c o o c'
I- d - I
0 0
I� d -l ductor t h ree-phase l i n e .
5.7 CA P A C ITA N C E CA LCU LAT I O NS F O R B U N D L E D C O N D UCTORS 1 87
Equation (5 .38) is the same as Eq. (5.26), except that VrJ has replaced r. I t
therefore follows that if w e consider t h e l i n e t o b e t ransposed, w e fi n d
e'l =
D)
--(--- --
eq
F 1 m to n eutral ( 5 .3 9)
Vrd
In
The Vrd is the same as D:' for a two-conductor bundle except t h a t r has
r e p l a c ed DJ • T h is leads us to the very i mport ant conclusion that a modified
,
geom e t ric m e a n d istance ( G M D ) m e t h od a p p l ies to t he calculation of capaci
t a n c e of a h u n d l e d -cond u c t o r I h r e e - r h a se l i ne h a ving two conductors per
G M R o f a s i n g k conduct o r.
h u n d l e . Thc mOll i fi c a t i o n is I h ,1 I w c a rc l I s i n g o u t s i d e r a d i u s in p l a ce o f the
I t i s l og i e <i l to c on c l u d e t h a t t h e m o d i fl e d G M D method a pplies to ot her

b u n d l i n g co n fi g ur a t i o n s . If we l e t f):� s t a n d for t h e mod i fi e d G M R to be used
in capa c i t a n ce cal cu l a t i o n s to d is t i ngu i s h i t from D;" u sed in inductance calcula
t i o n s . w e h a ve
2 ... k
( )
-�n--D-�q- F1 m to neutral ( S AO)
Dsc
The n , for a two-strand bund l e
( S Al )
-
fo r a t h r e e s t r a n d b u n d l e
( 5 .42)
a nd fo r a four-strand hu n d l e
..;rd J
4
1 . 09 . ( 5 .43)
Exa m p l e 5 . 3 . Fi n d t h e capac I t I ve reac t a nce t o n e u t r a l of the l i n e d e s c ribed i n

Example 4 . 5 i n o h m - k i l o m e t e r s ( a n d i n o h m - m i les) per phase.
188 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRANSMISSION L I N ES
Solution. Computed from the diameter given i n Table A.3
1 .382 X 0 .3048
r = = 0 .01755 m
2 X 12
D:c = JO .01755 X 0.45 = 0.0889 m
Deq ""{8 X 8
3 �----=--...,.
- .
= X 16 = 1 0 .08 m
ell = ( ) -
271 X 8 .g5 X 1 0 - J 2
1 1 .754 X 10 2 F/m
1 0 . O /)
J
In
O.08�9
10J2 X 10-3
Xc = = 0 .2257 X 1 0 (' f2 . km per p h a s e to n e u t ra l
27160 X 1 1 .754
( )
0.2257 X 1 0 6
Xc = = 0 . 1403 X 1 0 6 11 . m i per phase to neutral
1 .609
5.8 PARALLEL-CIRCUIT THREE-PHASE

LINES
If two t hree-phase circuits that are identical i n construction and operating i n
parallel a r e so close together t h a t cou pling exists between them , t h e GMD
method can be used to calcul ate the inductive and capacitive reactances of t heir
equ ivalent circuit.
Figure 5 . 1 1 shows a typical a rrangement of parallel-circui t th ree-phase
obtain practical values for inductive and capaci tive reactances j f transposition is
l i n es on the same tower. Although the l i ne will probably not be transposed, we
assumed. Conductors a and a ' are in p a rallel to compose phase a. Ph ases b a n d
a O---- 18· ---0 �

1 0'
8-----2 1' -----0
J
b
----0
b'
1 81
FIGURE 5. 1 1
Typical arrangement o f co n d u ctors o f a p a r a l lel
circu i t t h ree-p h a s e l i n e .
'.
5 . l'i PA RA LLEL-C I R C UIT TH R EE - P H A S E L I N E S 189
c are similar. We assume t h a t a and a ' take the positions of b a nd b' and then
o f c and c' as those conductors are rotated similarly in the transposition cycle .
To calculate Deq the GMD method requires that we use D:b , D bc ' and
D(� , where the superscript indicates that these quantities are for p a rallel l ines
and where D:b means the GMD between the conductors of p hase a and those
of p hase b.
For inductance calculations Ds of Eq . (4.56) is replaced by D/, which is ·
the geometric mean of t h e GMR values of the two cond uctors occu pying fi rst
the p o siti o n s of a and a' ) then the positions of b and b', and fi n a l ly the
Because of the sim i l a ri ty b e t w e e n i n d uctance and capacitance calcula tions,

positions of c and c'.
we c a n ass u m e t h a t the D/c for ca p a c i t a nce i s t h e same as D! for i nductance,

excep t that r i s used ins tead of D} of the i n d ivid ual condu ctor.
s t a n d i ng the procedure .
Fol lowi n g each step of Ex a m p l e S A is possibly the best means of u nd er
Exa m p l e 5 .4 A t h re e - p h ase d o u b l e - c i rc u i t I i n e i s c o m pos e d o f 300,OOO-cm i l 2 6 / 7

. .
Ostrich cO l l d u c t o r s a r r a ll g e d a s s h o w n i n F i g . 5 . 1 1 . F i n d t h e 6 0 - H z i n d u c t ive
r e a c t a n c e and c a p a c i t i ve su sce p t a n ce in o h m s per m i l e p e r p h ase a n d s i e m e n s p e r
m i l e pe r p h a s e , respe c t i v e l y .
Solution . From Table A.3 for Ostrich
Ds = 0 .0229 ft
D i stance a to b : o r igi n a l pos i t ion = /1 0 2 + 1 .52 1 0 . 1 ft
D is t a n ce a to b' : o r i g i n a l p os i t i o n = /1 02 + 1 9. 5 2 = 21 . 9 ft
T h e G M D s b e t w e e l l p h a s e s a rc
1 8 . 9 7 ft
DC Q = �1 4 .88 X 1 4 .88 X 1 8 .97 = 1 6 . l ft
For i n d u c t a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s the G M R fo r t h e p a ral l e l -ci rcu i t l i n e is fou n d after

fi rs t obta i n i n g the G M R v a l u e s for t h e t h r e e posi t i o n s . The a c t u a l d is t a nce from a
190 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRANSM ISSION L I NES
to a' is ';20 2 + 18 2 = 2 6 . 9 ft. Then, G M R o f each p hase is

I n position '
a - a : ../26 .9 X 0 . 0229 = 0 . 785 ft
In position b - b' : ../2 1 X 0 . 0229 = 0 . 69 3 ft
In position c - c' : -./26 .9 X 0 . 0229 = 0 . 785 ft
Therefore,
D;' = �O.n5 X 0 . 693 X (�7H5 = 0 .7 53 It
1 O - 7 1 n --
16.1
L = 2 x = 6.13 X 10-7 Him per phase
0 . 753
XL = 2 11- 60 x 1 0 9 x 6 . 1 3 x
6 10 - 7 = 0 . 3 -:- 2 D/ mi per phase
For capacitive calculations Die is t h e same as t h a t of Dj' , except that the ou tside
radius of the Ostrich conductor is used i nstead of i t s G M R . Th..-: o u ts i de d i ameter
of Ostrich i s 0 . 680 i n :
0 . 680
r = = 0 . 0283 ft
2 x 12
0 .02S3 ) /
1 3
Dj'e = ( ";26 .9 x 0 .0283 /21 x 0 . 0283 ";26 . 9 x
= /0 .0283 ( 26 . 9 x 21 x 26.9) 1 / 6 = 0 . 837 ft
1m
2 11" X � . �5 x 10 12
12
ell = l H . H07 10 - F
-
x
O .�37
1 (> . 1
111
Be = 2 11" X 6 0 x 1 8 . � 07 x 1 609
= 1 1 .4 1 X 10-6 Simi per phase to neu tral
5.9 SUMMARY
The similarity between inductance a n d capacitance calculations has been em
phasized t h roughout our discussions. As in inductance calculations, computer
programs are recommended i f a large n umber of calcul ations of capacitance is
required. Tables l ike A.3 a n d A.S make t h e calculations quite simple, however,
except for p arallel-circuit l ines.
P R O B LEMS 191
The important equation for capacitance to n e utral for a s in g l e-circuit,

three-phase l ine is
cn
Dcq
.
= --=-- F / m to n eutral (5 .44 )
In
Ds c
-
DSL' is the outside r ad ius of the conductor for a l i n e consisting of one

r
2
cond uctor per phase. For overhead l ines k is 8.854 X 1 0 - 1 since k r for air is
1 .0 . Capacitive reactance i s ohm-meters is 1 /2 1T!C, v,,' here C is in farads per
meter. So, at 60 H z
D
eq
XC' = 4 . 77 X 1 0 4 In -- n . km to n e u t ral ( 5 ,45 )
D
se
o r upon d ivid ing by 1 .609 km / m i , wc have
Deq
Xc = 2 . 965 X 1 0 4 In n . mi to neutral ( 5 ,4 6 )
Dsc
-
Values for capacit Ive susce p t ance in siemens per kilometer a n d SIemens per
m i l e are the reciprocals of Eqs. (5 ,45) a n d (5 ,46), respectively.
Both Deq and Dsc must be in the same u nits, usual ly feet. For bund led
conductors DsbC is substituted for Dsc, For both single- and b u n d led-conductor
l ines
(5 4 7 )
,
For bundled-conductor l i nes Da b ' Dhc ' and Dca a re d istances b e tween the
centers of the bundles of phases a , h, and c .
For l i nes with one conductor per phase i t i s convenient to determine X c
by adding X:/ for the conductor as fou n d in Tabl e A . 3 to X:, as found in Table
A . S correspond i ng to D"q '
I nd u c t ance, capaci t a n c e , <l ncl t h e assoc i a t e d re a c t a n ces of p a ra l l e l -c i rc u i t
l ines are found by fol lowing the p roce d u re of Example 5 ,4.
PROB LEMS
5. 1 . A t h re e - p h a s e t ra n s m i s s i o n l i n e h a s fl at horizontal spacing with 2 m between
adjacent conductors. At a c e r t a i n instant the charge on one of t he outside
condu ctors is 60 ,u C/km, and the charge on the center conductor and on the other
outside conductor is 30 J.L C/km. The radius of each conductor is 0.8 cm. Neglect
-
the effect of the ground and find the vol tage d rop between the two identically
charged conductors at the i n s t a n t s p e c i fi e d .
192 CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCE OF TRANS M ISS I O N L I NES
5.2. The 60-Hz capacitive reactance to neutral of a solid conductor, which is one
conductor of a single-phase line with 5-ft spacing, is 1 96.1 k O-mi. W h at value of
reactance would b e specified in a table l isting the capac itive reactance i n oh m - m i l es
to neutral of the conductor at I -ft spacing for 25 Hz? W hat is the cross-sectional
area of the conductor in circular mils?
Using Eq. (5 .23), determine the capacita nce to neutral (in p, F / k m ) of a t h re e - p h ase
5.3 . Solve Example 5.1 for 50-Hz operation and 1 0 ft spacing . -
l i ne with t h re e Cardinal ACS R c o n d u c t o r s e q u i l a t e ra l l y s pa c e d 2(j f t a p a r t . W h a t is

5.4.
[he c h a rg i ng current of t h e l i n e (in A / k m ) at 60 H z and 1 00 k Y l i n e t o l i ne ?
formation so t h a t two of t h e d is t a n c e s b e t w e e n co n d u c t o rs a rc 25 :'[ a n d t h e t h i r d is

5.5. A t h ree-phase 60- H z t ra ns m i ss i o n l i n e h a s i t s c o n d u c t o rs a rr a n g e d i n d t r i ,l l1 g u L l r
42 [t . The c o n q u c t o r s arc ACS R Os"I'ey . D e t e r m i n e t h e e a p a e i L t nee t o n e u t r a l i n

l i n e i s 1 50 m i l o n g , fi n d t he c a pac i t a n c e t o n e u t r a l a n d c a pa e i t i e r e a c t a n c e o t' t h e
m icrofa rads p e r m i l e and t h e c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a nce t o n e u t ra l i n ll h m - l11 i l es . If t h e
\'
line.
5.6. A thr ee -ph a s e 60-Hz l i n e h a s fl a t h o r i zo n t a l spac i n g . T h e c o r. J u e t o r s h a v e a n
out s i d e d i a m e t e r o f 3 . 2H c m w i t h J 2 III b e t w e e n c () n d u c t o r � . D e t e r m i n e t h e
c a pac i t i ve r e a c t a nce t o n e u t r a l i n o h m - m e t e rs a n d t h e capac i t ivc r C tl c t d n ce o f t h e
line in o h ms i f its length is 1 25 m i .
5.7. ( a ) Derive an equation for the capacitance to n e u t r a l i n far a d s p e r m et e r of a
single-phase l ine, t a k i ng into account t h e e ffe ct of ground. Use t h e same n o m e n cla
tu re as i n the equation derived for t h e c a pac i tance of a t hree-phi:: s e l i ne where t h e
effect of ground is represented b y i m a ge c harges.
meter of a single-phase line c o m p o s e d o f two s o l i d c i rcu l a r co n d u c o rs , each having

(b) Using the derived equation, calculate the capacitance to n e u , r a l i n farads per
a d i ameter of 0.229 in . The conductors are 10 ft apart and 2 5 f t abov e grou nd.
5.8. Solve Proh . 5.6 while t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t the e ffe c t o f gro u n d . .-\ s s u m e t h a t the
Co m pare the result with the value obtained by applying Eq. (5. 10).
conductors a r c horizont a l ly p l ace d 20 m above g ro u n d .
flat horizontal spacing of 1 1 m b e tw e e n a dj ac e n t co n d u c t o rs . C o m p a re the c a p a c i

5.9. A 60-Hz t hree-phase line composed of one ACSR Blllejay conductor per phase has
tiv e reactance in o h m - k i l o m e t e rs p e r p h ase of th i s l i n e w i t h t h a : o f ,I l i n e u s i n g a

t w o-co n d uctor b undle of ACS R 26/7 conductors having t he s a m e t o t a l cross
measured between b u n dl es. The spacing between conducto r s in the b u n d l e is

sec t i o n a l area of a l u m i n u m as t h e s i n g l e conduc t or l i ne a n d t he I l -m spacing
-
40 c m .
5.10. C a l cu l a t e the capacitive reactance i n ohm-kilometers of a bund led 60-Hz three

phase line having three A C S R R ail cond uctors per b undle with 45 em between
conductors of the bundle. The spacing between bundle cen ters is 9, 9, and 18 m.
arranged a s shown i n Fig. 5 . 1 1 . T h e vertical spacing, howeve r , i s 1 4 ft; t h e longer

S . U . S ix conductors of ACSR D ra ke cons titute a 60-Hz double-circu i t three-phase l i n e
(a) The inductance pe r ph ase (in H / mi) and the inductive reactance Un D / mi) .
horizontal d istance is 32 ft ; and the shorter horizontal d i st ances are 25 ft. Find
( b ) T h e capacitive reactance to ne u t ra l (in n · m i ) and the charging current in

A / m i per phase and per con ductor a t 138 kY.
Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines
Electric power can be carried either by underground cables or overhead transmission

and distribution lines. The underground cables are not typically used for power
transmission due to two reasons.
1. Power is carried over long distances to remote load centres. Obviously, the
installation costs for underground transmission will be huge.
2. Electric power has to be transferred at high voltages for economic reasons. It is very
difficult to achieve proper insulation to the cables to withstand higher pressures.
Therefore, power transfer over long distances is done by using overhead lines. With
the power demand increase and consequent voltage level rise, power transmission by
overhead lines has assumed significant importance.
Nevertheless, an overhead line is subjected to various weather conditions and other

external interferences. This asks for the use of adequate mechanical safety factors in
order to ensure the continuity of line operation. Typically, the strength of the line needs
to be such so it can withstand the worst probable weather conditions. This course
focuses on the different aspects of mechanical design of overhead lines.
Overhead Line Main Components
An overhead line may be used to transfer or distribute electric power. The proper
overhead line operation depends to a big extent upon its mechanical design. While
constructing an overhead line, it has to be verified that line mechanical strength is such
so as to provide against the most probable weather conditions. Typically, the main
elements of an overhead line are:
- Conductors which transfer power from the sending end station to the receiving
end station.
- Supports which may be poles or towers. They keep the conductors at an

appropriate level above the earth.
- Insulators that are connected to supports and insulate the conductors from the
earth.
- Cross arms which give support to the insulators.
- Miscellaneous elements such as phase plates, danger plates, surge arrestors,

etc.
The overhead line operation continuity depends upon the judicious selection of above
elements. Hence, it is beneficial to have detailed discussion on them.
Overhead Line Conductor Materials
The conductor is one of the crucial items as most of the financial outlay is invested for
it. Hence, correct selection of conductor material and size is of significant importance.
The conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power needs
to have the following characteristics:
- High tensile strength in order to sustain mechanical stresses
- High electrical conductivity
- Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small
- Low cost so that it can be used for considerable distances
All above demands cannot be found in a single material. Hence, while choosing a
conductor material for a particular application, a compromise is made between the
cost and the needed electrical and mechanical characteristics.
Typically used conductor materials
Typically used conductor materials for overhead lines are copper, aluminium, steel-
cored aluminium, galvanised steel and cadmium copper. The selection of a particular
material is dependant on the cost, the needed electrical and mechanical
characteristics and the local conditions. All conductors used for overhead lines are
typically stranded in order to increase the flexibility. In stranded conductors, there is
typically one central wire and around it, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12,
18, 24 ...... wires. Therefore, if there are n layers, the overall number of individual wires
is 3n(n+1)+1. In the production process of stranded conductors, the consecutive layers
of wires are twisted or spiralled in different directions so that layers are bound together.
- Copper. Copper is perfect material for overhead lines owing to its great
electrical conductivity and increased tensile strength. It is typically used in the
hard drawn form as stranded conductor. Even though hard drawing slightly
decreases the electrical conductivity, it considerably increases the tensile
strength. Copper has great current density. For example, the current carrying
capacity of copper per unit of cross-sectional area is significant. This leads to
two benefits. Firstly, smaller conductor cross-sectional area is needed and
secondly, the area offered by the conductor to wind loads is decreased. Also,
this metal is homogeneous, durable and has big scrap value. There is no doubt
that copper is perfect material for electric power transmission and distribution.
Nevertheless, due to its big cost and non-availability, it is not often used for
these purposes. Current trend is to use aluminium instead of copper.
- Aluminium. Aluminium is cheap and light in comparison to copper but it has

considerably smaller conductivity and tensile strength. The relative comparison
of the two materials is as follows:
o The aluminium conductivity is 60% that of copper. The lower aluminium

conductivity means that for any specific transmission efficiency, the
conductor cross-sectional area must be bigger in aluminium than in copper.
For the same resistance, the aluminium conductor diameter is around 1.26
times the copper conductor diameter. The increased aluminium cross-
section exposes a bigger surface to wind pressure and, hence, supporting
towers have to be designed for greater transverse strength. Typically, this
requires the use of higher towers with consequence of bigger sag.
o The aluminium specific gravity (2.71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8.9
gm/cc). Hence, an aluminium conductor has almost one-half the weight of
equivalent copper conductor. Due to this, the supporting structures for
aluminium need not be made so strong as that of copper conductor.
o Aluminium conductor being light is liable to bigger swings and therefore

bigger cross-arms are needed.
o Due to lower tensile strength and bigger co-efficient of linear expansion of

aluminium, the sag is bigger in aluminium conductors.
Considering the overall characteristics that include cost, conductivity, tensile strength,
weight etc., aluminium has an edge over copper. Hence, it is being predominantly used
as a conductor material. It is especially profitable to use aluminium for heavy-current
transmission where the conductor size is big and its cost forms a significant proportion
of the total cost of complete installation.
- Steel-cored aluminium. Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors have

bigger sag. This forbids their application for bigger spans and makes them
unsuitable for long distance transmission. In order to improve the tensile
strength, the aluminium conductor is strengthened with a core of galvanised
steel wires. The obtained composite conductor is known as steel-cored
aluminium or ACSR (aluminium conductor steel reinforced). Steel-cored
aluminium conductor has galvanised steel central core surrounded by a number
of aluminium strands. Typically, diameter of both steel and aluminium wires is
the same. Typically, the cross-section of the two metals are in the ratio of 1:6
but can be modified to 1:4 in order to get more conductor tensile strength.
Figure 1. presents steel-cored aluminium conductor having one steel wire
surrounded by six aluminium wires. The result of this composite conductor is
that steel core takes bigger percentage of mechanical strength while aluminium
strands transfer the bulk of current.
The steel-cored aluminium conductors have the following benefits:

Aluminum
Steel
Figure 1. Steel-cored aluminium conductor having one steel wire surrounded by six
aluminium wires
o The reinforcement with steel improves the tensile strength but at the same
time keeps the composite conductor light. Hence, steel-cored aluminium
conductors will create smaller sag and therefore longer spans can be used.
o Due to smaller sag with steel-cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller

heights can be installed.
- Galvanised steel. Steel has considerable tensile strength. Hence, galvanised

steel conductors can be applied for long spans or for short line sections
exposed to significantly high stresses due to climatic conditions. They are
considered as very suitable in rural locations where cheapness is the main
issue. Due to steel poor conductivity and high resistance, such conductors are
not appropriate for transferring large power over a long distance. Nevertheless,
they can be used to advantage for transferring a small power over a small
distance where the size of the copper conductor desirable from economic
considerations would be too small and therefore inappropriate for use because
of poor mechanical strength.
- Cadmium copper. The conductor material now being used in specific

installations is copper alloyed with cadmium. An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium
to copper improves the tensile strength by roughly 50% and the conductivity is
only decreased by 15% below that of pure copper. Hence, cadmium copper
conductor can be useful for extremely long spans. Nevertheless, due to
cadmium high cost, such conductors will be economical only for lines of small
cross-section i.e., where the cost of conductor material is relatively small in
comparison with the support cost.
Line Supports
The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are different pole and tower
types called line supports. Typically, the line supports should have the following
characteristics:
- Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength
- Big mechanical strength to sustain the conductor weight and wind loads etc.
- Longer life span
- Easy conductor accessibility for maintenance
- Cheap in cost and economical to service
The line supports used for electric power transmission and distribution are of different
types including wooden poles, steel poles, RCC poles and lattice steel towers. The
selection of supporting structure for a specific case is dependent upon the line span,
cross-sectional area, line voltage, cost and local circumstances.
- Wooden poles. They are made of seasoned wood and are appropriate for lines
of moderate cross-sectional area and of shorter spans, say up to 50 metres.
Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating features and,
hence, are widely used for distribution applications in rural locations as an
economical proposition. Typically, the wooden poles tend to rot below the earth
level, causing foundation failure. In order to avoid this, the portion of the pole
below the earth level is impregnated with preservative substances like creosote
oil. Double pole arrangements of the ‘A’ or ‘H’ type are typically used (Figure
2.) to obtain a bigger transverse strength than could be economically provided
by means of single poles. The main disadvantages to wooden supports are :
o Tendency to rot below the earth level

o Relatively smaller life (20-25 years)
o Cannot be used for voltages above 20 kV
o Decreased mechanical strength
o Need occasional inspection
Insulators
Cross arms
Steel bracing
Poles
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Wooden poles
- Steel poles. The steel poles are typically used as a substitute for wooden poles.
They have bigger mechanical strength, longer life and allow longer spans.
Typically, such poles are used for distribution purposes in the cities. These
supports need to be galvanised or painted in order to extend their life. The steel
poles are of three types:
o Rail poles
o Tubular poles
o Rolled steel joints
- RCC poles. The reinforced concrete poles have recently become popular as
line supports. They have bigger mechanical strength, longer life and allow
longer spans than steel poles. Nevertheless, they give good outlook, need little
maintenance and have good insulating features. Figure 3 presents RCC poles
for single and double circuit. The holes in the poles allow climbing of poles and
at the same time decrease the line support weight. The main issue with the use
of these poles is the high transport cost owing to their heavy weight. Hence,
such poles are typically produced at the site in order to avoid big transportation
cost.
- Steel towers. In reality, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used
for distribution installations at low voltages, say up to 11 kV. Nevertheless, for
long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably used.
Steel towers have bigger mechanical strength, longer life, can sustain most
severe climatic conditions and allow the use of longer spans. The risk of
interrupted operation due to broken or punctured insulation is significantly
decreased owing to longer spans. Typically, tower footings are earthed by
driving rods into the ground. This decreases the lightning troubles as each
tower acts as a lightning conductor. Figure 4(a) shows a single circuit tower.
Nevertheless, at a moderate extra cost, double circuit tower can be provided as
presented in Figure 4(b). The double circuit has the benefit that it ensures
continuity of supply. In situation there is breakdown of one circuit, the continuity
of supply can be kept by the other circuit.
1.5 m
10 m
7.5 m
0.35 m 0.35m
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) single circuit (b) double circuit
Insulators
The overhead line conductors need to be supported on the poles or towers in such a
way that conductor currents do not flow to ground through supports for example, line
conductors have to be adequately insulated from supports. This is accomplished by
securing line conductors to supports with the help of insulators. The insulators give
necessary insulation between line conductors and supports and therefore prevent any
leakage current from conductors to ground. Typically, the insulators need to have the
following desirable features:
5.75 m
11 m
4.5 m
3.35 m
41.6 m
12.5 m
110 kV, Span 320m 220 kV, Span 320m
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Steel towers (a) single circuit (b) double circuit
- Big mechanical strength in order to sustain conductor load, wind load etc.
- Big insulator material electrical resistance in order to avoid leakage currents to

ground.
- Big insulator material relative permittivity in order that dielectric strength is high.
- The insulator material needs to be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks
otherwise the permittivity will be decreased.
- Big ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
The most typically used material for insulators of overhead line is porcelain but glass,
steatite and specific composition materials are also applied to a certain extent.
Porcelain is made by firing at a high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and
quartz. It is mechanically stronger than glass, gives less trouble from leakage and is
less impacted by temperature changes.
Insulator Types
The proper overhead line operation depends to a significant extent upon the adequate
selection of insulators. There are few insulator types but the most typically used are
pin type, suspension type, strain insulator and shackle insulator.
- Pin type insulators. The section of a pin type insulator is presented in Figure 5.
As the name implies, the pin type insulator is linked to the pole cross-arm. There
is a groove on the insulator upper end for housing the conductor. The conductor
goes through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire of the same
material as the conductor. Pin type insulators are used for electric power
transmission and distribution at voltages up to 33 kV. Above operating voltage
of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and therefore uneconomical.
Insulators are required to sustain both mechanical and electrical stresses. The
electrical stress is caused by line voltage and may cause the insulator
breakdown. The insulator electrical breakdown can happen either by flash-over
or puncture. In flashover, an arc happens between the line conductor and
insulator pin (i.e., ground) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps,
following shortest distance. Figure 6 presents the arcing distance (a+b+c) for
the insulator. In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its
adequate capacity unless extreme heat generated by the arc destroys the
insulator. In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin
through the body of the insulator. When such breakdown happens, the insulator
is completely destroyed due to significant heat. In reality, proper thickness of
porcelain is provided in the insulator to prevent puncture by the line voltage.
The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor:
Groove for conductor
Shed or petti coats
Galvanised
steel pin
Figure 5. Pin-type insulator
a
Conductor
b
Pin
Cross arm
Figure 6. Arcing distance
Insulator
Line conductor
Figure 7. Suspension type insulator
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑡𝑡
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹ℎ − 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
It is preferable that the value of safety factor is big so that flash-over takes place before
the insulator gets punctured. For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is around
10.2.
- Suspension type insulators. The cost of pin type insulator quickly increases as
the working voltage is increased. Hence, this insulator type is not economical
beyond 33 kV. For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a typical practice to use
suspension type insulators presented in Figure 7. They consist of a number of
porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The
conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of
the string is secured to the tower cross-arm. Each unit or disc is designed for
low voltage, say 11 kV. The number of discs in series depends upon the working
voltage. For example, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series
will be needed in the string.
Suspension insulator advantages are:
o Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for
voltages above 33 kV.
o Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is made for low voltage,
typically 11 kV.
o Depending upon the working voltage, the required number of discs can
be connected in series.
o If any disc is destroyed, the whole string does not become useless
because the damaged disc can be replaced by the new one.
o The suspension arrangement gives line bigger flexibility. The connection

at the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any
direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses are
minimum.
o In case of increased power demand on the transmission line, it is found

better to provide the bigger power demand by increasing the line voltage
than to provide extra set of conductors. The extra insulation needed for
the increased voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension
arrangement by adding the needed number of discs.
o The suspension type insulators are typically used with steel towers.
Since the conductors run below the tower grounded cross-arm, this
arrangement gives partial protection from lightning.
- Strain insulators. When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp
curve, the line is subjected to bigger tension. In order to relieve the line of
excessive tension, strain insulators are installed. For low voltage lines (< 11
kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. Nevertheless, for high
voltage lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators
as presented in Figure 8. The discs of strain insulators are installed in the
vertical plane. When the tension in lines is exceedingly big, as at long river
spans, two or more strings are installed in parallel.
Bolt
Strain insulator
Shackle
insulator
Conductor
Pole Pole
D-strap
Figure 8. Strain insulators Figure 9. Shackle insulators
- Shackle insulators. The shackle insulators were used as strain insulators in the
past. These days, they are normally used for low voltage distribution lines. Such
insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position.
They can be directly connected to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. Figure
9 presents a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor in the groove is
linked with a soft binding wire.
Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String
A string of suspension insulators consists of porcelain discs connected in series

through metallic links. Figure 10(a) presents 3-disc string of suspension insulators.
The porcelain part of each disc is in between two metal links. Hence, each disc forms
a capacitor C as presented in Figure 10(b). This is known as mutual capacitance or
self-capacitance. If there were mutual capacitance alone, then charging current would
have been the same through all the discs and consequently voltage across each
element would have been the same for example, V/3 as presented in Figure 10(b).
Nevertheless, in reality, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and
tower or ground. This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance,
charging current is not the same through all the discs of the string as shown in Figure
10(c). Hence, voltage across each disc will be different. Apparently, the disc closest
to the line conductor will have the maximum voltage. Therefore, referring to Figure 10
(c), V3 will be higher than V2 or V1.
Tower
V1 C V1
C V/3
C1 I1
I i1
V
V2 C V2
C V/3
C2 I2
I
i2
I3
V3 V3
C V/3 C1 C
I
i3
Conductor
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 10. Disc equivalent circuit
The following points have to be noted regarding the potential distribution over a string
of suspension insulators:
- The disc closest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move
towards the cross-arm, the voltage across each disc continues to decrease.
- The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not equally
distribute itself across the individual discs due to the shunt capacitance
- If the voltage impressed across the string was DC, then voltage across each
unit would be the equal, since insulator capacitances are ineffective for DC.
- The unit closest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is
likely to be punctured. Hence, methods have to be provided to equalise the
potential across each element.
String Efficiency
As mentioned above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is
not equally distributed across different elements or discs. The disc closest to the
conductor has much bigger potential than the other discs. This one-sided potential
distribution is not desirable and is typically expressed in terms of string efficiency. The
ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the
voltage across the disc closest to the conductor is known as string efficiency:
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑛𝑛 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Where: n - number of discs in the string
String efficiency is vital consideration since it defines the potential distribution along
the string. The higher the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution.
Therefore, 100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each
disc will be exactly the same. Even though it is not possible to reach 100% string
efficiency, efforts need to be made to enhance it as close to this value as possible.
Figure 11 presents the equivalent circuit for a 3-disc string. Let us suppose that self-
capacitance of each disc is C. Let us further assume that shunt capacitance C1 is some
fraction K of self-capacitance for example, C1 = KC. Starting from the cross-arm or
tower, the voltage across each element is V1,V2 and V3 respectively. Using Kirchhoff’s
current law at node A, we get,
C
V1
C1 I1
i1
A
V
C V2
C1 I2
i2
B
V3
C
C1 I3
i3
C
Figure 11. Equivalent circuit for a 3-disc string
𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑖𝑖1
Or 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑉𝑉1 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶1
Or 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑉𝑉1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) (1)
Using Kirchhoff’s current law at node B, we get,
Or 𝑉𝑉3 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 )𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶1
Or 𝑉𝑉3 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 )𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Or 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉2 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 )𝐾𝐾
= 𝐾𝐾𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)
= 𝐾𝐾𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)2
= 𝑉𝑉1 [𝐾𝐾 + (1 + 𝐾𝐾)2 ]

𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉1 [1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 ] (2)
Voltage between conductor and ground (for example, tower) is
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3
= 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) + 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 )
= 𝑉𝑉1 (3 + 4𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 )
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)(3 + 𝐾𝐾) (3)
From formulas (1), (2), (3), we get,

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉
2 3 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
= 1+𝐾𝐾 = 1+3𝐾𝐾+𝐾𝐾 2 = (1+𝐾𝐾)(3+𝐾𝐾)
(4)
1
𝑉𝑉
Voltage across top element, 𝑉𝑉1 = (1+𝐾𝐾)(3+𝐾𝐾)
Voltage across second element from top, 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)
Voltage across third element from top, 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 )
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

%𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100
𝑛𝑛 × 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉
= × 100
3 × 𝑉𝑉3
The following points have to be noted from the previous mathematical assessment:
- If for example, K=0.2, then from formula (4), we get, V2=1.2V1 and V3=1.64 V1.
This indicates that disc closest to the conductor has maximum voltage across
it. The voltage across other discs decreasing progressively as the cross-arm in
reaches.
- The higher the value of K (=C1/C), the more unequal is the potential across the
discs and lower is the string efficiency.
- The difference in voltage distribution rises with the bigger number of discs.
Hence, shorter string has bigger efficiency than the larger one.
Ways of Enhancing String Efficiency
It has been previously seen that potential distribution in a string of suspension

insulators is not equal. The maximum voltage appears across the insulator closest to
the line conductor and progressively decreases as the cross arm is reached. If the
insulation of the most stressed insulator (closest to conductor) breaks down or flash
over takes occurs, the breakdown of other elements will happen in succession.
Therefore it is important to equalise the potential across the different string elements
in order to improve the string efficiency. The different methods for this are:
- By using longer cross-arms. The string efficiency is dependant upon the value
of K. For example, ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance. The lower
the value of K, the higher is the string efficiency and more uniform is the voltage
distribution. The value of K can be decreased by decreasing the shunt
capacitance. In order to decrease shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor
from tower needs to be increased for example, longer cross-arms need to be
used. Nevertheless, limitations of tower cost and strength do not allow the use
of very long cross-arms. In reality, K=0.1 is the limit that can be reached by this
method.
- By grading the insulators. In this approach, insulators of various dimensions are

selected in a way that each has a different capacitance. The insulators are
capacitance graded for example, they are assembled in the string in such a way
that the top element has the minimum capacitance, growing progressively as
the bottom element (closest to conductor) is reached. Since voltage is inversely
proportional to capacitance, this method tends to equalise the potential
distribution across the string elements. This approach has the disadvantage
that a big number of different-sized insulators are needed. Nevertheless, good
results can be found by using standard insulators for most of the string and
bigger elements for that close to the line conductor.
- By using a guard ring. The potential across each element in a string can be
equalised by applying a guard ring which is a metal ring electrically linked to the
conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator as presented in the Figure 13.
The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal parts and the line
conductor. The guard ring is contoured in a way that shunt capacitance currents
i1, i2 etc. are equal to metal fitting line capacitance currents i1’, i2’ etc. The result
is that same charging current I flows through each string element. Finally, there
will be equal potential distribution across the elements.
Tower
Cross arm
Shunt
capacitor
Line
Figure 12. Insulator shunt capacitance
C
C1
i1
i1’
C2
I
C
C1
i2
i2’
C3
I
C
Guard ring
Figure 13. Guard ring

Important Issues
While solving issues relating to string efficiency, the following points have to be
considered and taken into consideration:
- The maximum voltage appears across the disc closest to the conductor (phase
conductor).
- The voltage across the string is equal to phase voltage. For example, voltage
across string=Voltage between line and ground=Phase Voltage
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = √3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Example 1. In a 33 kV overhead distribution line, there are three elements in the string
of insulators. If the capacitance between each insulator pin and ground is 11% of self-
capacitance of each insulator, calculate (a) voltage distribution over 3 insulators and
(b) string efficiency.
- Solution. Figure 14 presents the equivalent circuit of string insulators. Let V1,
V2 and V3 be the voltage across top, middle and bottom unit. If C is the self-
capacitance of each element, then KC will be the shunt capacitance.
𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾 = = 0.11
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
33
Voltage across string, 𝑉𝑉 = = 19.05 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
√3
At point A
Or 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑉𝑉1 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
Or 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 0.11)
Or 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.11 𝑉𝑉1
At point B

Or 𝑉𝑉3 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 )𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
= 1.11 𝑉𝑉1 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 1.11 𝑉𝑉1 ) 0.11
Or 𝑉𝑉3 = 1.342 𝑉𝑉1
Voltage across the complete string is:
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 1.11𝑉𝑉1 + 1.342𝑉𝑉1 = 3.452 𝑉𝑉1
Or 19.05 = 3.452 𝑉𝑉1
19.05
Voltage across top element, 𝑉𝑉1 = 3.452 = 5.52 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across middle element 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.11 𝑉𝑉1 = 1.11 × 5.52 = 6.13 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across bottom element, 𝑉𝑉3 = 1.342 𝑉𝑉1 = 1.342 × 5.52 = 7.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 19.05

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100 = × 100 = 85.8%
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 × 𝑉𝑉3 3 × 7.4
I1
C
V1
KC
i1
A
I2
V
C V2
KC
i2
B
I3
V3
C
KC
i3
C
Figure 14. Equivalent circuit for three string insulators

Example 2. A 3-phase transmission overhead line is supported by three disc
insulators. The potentials across top element (close to the tower) and middle unit are
8 kV and 11 kV respectively. Find (a) the ratio of capacitance between pin and ground
to the self-capacitance of each element (b) The line voltage and (c) string efficiency.
- Solution. The equivalent circuit of string insulators is presented in Figure 14. It

is given that V1=8 kV and V2=11 kV.
(i) Let K be the ratio of capacitance between pin and ground to self-capacitance. If C
is the self-capacitance of each element, then capacitance between pin and ground=
KC. Using Kirchoff’s current law to point A,
At point A:
Or 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)

𝑉𝑉2 −𝑉𝑉1 11−8
Or 𝐾𝐾 = = = 0.375
𝑉𝑉1 8
At point B:
Or 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉2 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 )𝐾𝐾 = 11 + (8 + 11) × 0.375 = 18.12 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage between line and ground = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 8 + 11 + 18.12 = 37.12 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Line voltage = √3 × 37.12 = 64.28 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 × 𝑉𝑉3 3 × 18.12
Example 3. Each line of a 3-phase system is supported by a string of 3 similar

insulators. If the voltage across the line unit is 17.5 kV, find the line to neutral voltage.
Assume that the shunt capacitance between each insulator and ground is 1/8th of the
capacitance of the insulator itself. Also calculate the string efficiency.
- Solution. Figure 15 presents the equivalent circuit of string insulators. If C is the

self-capacitance of each element, then KC will be the shunt capacitance where
K=1/8=0.125. Voltage across line element, V3=17.5 kV
I1
C
V1
KC
i1
A
I2
V
C V2
KC
i2
B
I3
V3
C
KC
i3
C
Figure 15. Equivalent circuit of string insulators
At point A:
Or 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 0.125)
Or 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.125 𝑉𝑉1
At point B:

= 1.125 𝑉𝑉1 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 1.125 𝑉𝑉1 ) × 0.125
Or 𝑉𝑉3 = 1.39 𝑉𝑉1
3 𝑉𝑉 17.5
Voltage across top element, 𝑉𝑉1 = 1.39 = 1.39 = 12.59 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across middle element 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.125 𝑉𝑉1 = 1.125 × 12.59 = 14.16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage between line and ground (i.e., line to neutral)
𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 12.59 + 14.16 + 17.5 = 44.25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 × 𝑉𝑉3 3 × 7.4
44.25
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100 = 84 ∙ 28%
3 × 17.5
Example 4. The three bus-bar conductors in an outdoor substation are supported by

elements of post type insulators. Each element consists of a stack of 3 pin type
insulators linked one on the top of the other. The voltage across the lowest insulator
is 13.1 kV and that across the next element is 11 kV. Find the bus-bar voltage of the
station.
- Solution. The equivalent circuit of insulators is the presented in Figure 15. It is

shown that V3=13.1kV and V2=11 kV. Let K be the ratio of shunt capacitance to
self-capacitance of each element.
Using Kirchhoff’s current law to points A and B, we can derive the following formulas:
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)
Or
2 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉1 = 1+𝐾𝐾 (1)
and
𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉2 + (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 )𝐾𝐾 (2)
Replacing the value of 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 /(1 + 𝐾𝐾) in formula (2), we get,
𝑉𝑉2
𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉2 + � + 𝑉𝑉2 � 𝐾𝐾
1 + 𝐾𝐾
Or
𝑉𝑉3 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) = 𝑉𝑉2 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) + [𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉2 (1 + 𝐾𝐾)]𝐾𝐾
= 𝑉𝑉2 [(1 + 𝐾𝐾) + 𝐾𝐾 + (𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 )]
= 𝑉𝑉2 (1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 )
13.1(1 + 𝐾𝐾) = 11[1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 ]
Or
11𝐾𝐾 2 + 19.9𝐾𝐾 − 2.1 = 0
Solving this formula, we get, K=0.1
𝑉𝑉2 11
𝑉𝑉1 = = = 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1 + 𝐾𝐾 1 + 0.1
Voltage between line and ground = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 10 + 11 + 13.1 = 34.1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage between bus-bars (i.e., line voltage)
= 34.1 × √3 = 59 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Example 5. An insulator string has three elements, each having a safe working voltage
of 15 kV. The ratio of self-capacitance to shunt capacitance of each element is 8:1.
Calculate the string’s maximum safe working voltage. Also calculate the string
efficiency.
- Solution. The equivalent circuit of string insulators is presented in Figure 15.

The maximum voltage appears across the lowest unit in the string.
V3=15 kV; K=1/8=0.125
Using Kirchhoff’s current law at point A, we get,
V2=V1(1+K)
or V1=V2/(1+K)=V2/(1+0.125)=0.89V2 ...(1)
Using Kirchhoff’s current law at point B, we get,
V3=V2+(V1+V2)K=V2+(0.89V2+V2)×0.125
𝑉𝑉3 = 1.236 𝑉𝑉2
3𝑉𝑉 15
Voltage across middle element, 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.236 = 1.236 = 12.13 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across top element, 𝑉𝑉1 = 0.89𝑉𝑉2 = 0.89 × 12.13 = 10.79 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across the string, = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 10.79 + 12.13 + 15 = 37.92 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
37.92
String efficiency, = 3×15 × 100 = 84.26%
Example 6. A string of 4 insulators has a self-capacitance equal to 10 times the pin to

ground capacitance. Calculate (a) the voltage distribution across different elements
expressed as a percentage of overall voltage across the string and (b) string efficiency.
- Solution. When the number of insulators in a string surpasses 3, the nodal

equation method becomes tedious. In those cases, there is a simple way to
solve the problem. In this method, shunt capacitance (C1) and self-capacitance
(C) of each insulator are modelled by their equivalent reactances. As it is only
the ratio of capacitances which defines the voltage distribution, the problem can
be simplified by assigning unity value to XC for example, assuming XC=1Ω.
If ratio of C/C1=10, then we have XC=1Ω and XC1=10Ω.
(a) Assume XC=1Ω. As the ratio of self-capacitance to shunt capacitance (for example,
C/C1) is 10, hence, XC1=10Ω as presented in Figure 16 (a). Assume that potential V
across the string is such that 1A current goes in the top insulator. Now the potential
across each insulator can be calculated. Therefore:
Voltage across top element, V1=1Ω × 1 A = 1 volt
Voltage across second element, V2=1Ω × 1.1 A = 1.1 volts

Voltage across third element, V3=1Ω × 1.31 A = 1.31 volts
Voltage across fourth element, V4=1Ω × 1.65 A = 1.65 volts
Voltage obtained across the string, V = 1 + 1.1 + 1.31 + 1.65 = 5.06 volts
1A 1A
1Ω
C V1 1V
10Ω
0.1A
1
1.1A
C1
1Ω C V2 1.1 V
10Ω
2 0.21 A
C1
1.31A
1Ω C
V3 1.31 V
10Ω
0.34 A
C1 1.65A
V4 1.65 V
1Ω C
(i) (ii)
The voltage across each element expressed as a percentage of V (for example 5.06
volts) becomes:
1
Top element = �5.06� × 100 = 19.76%
1.1
Second from top = �5.06� × 100 = 21.74%
1.31
Third from top = �5.06� × 100 = 25.9%
1.65
Fourth from top = �5.06� × 100 = 32.6%
𝑉𝑉 5.06
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑦𝑦 = × 100 = × 100 = 76.6%
4 × 𝑉𝑉4 4 × 1.65
Example 7. A string of 5 insulators is connected across a 100 kV line. If the

capacitance of each disc to ground is 0.1 of the insulator capacitance, find (a) the
voltage distribution on the insulator discs and (b) the string efficiency.
- Solution. Suppose XC=1Ω. As the ratio of self-capacitance to shunt capacitance

is 10, XC1=10Ω as presented in Figure 17(a). Assume that potential V across
the string is such that 1A current runs in the top insulator. Then potential across
each insulator will be as presented in Figure 17(b).
1A 1A
Xc=1Ω
V1 1V
XC1=10Ω
0.1A
1.1A
1Ω V2 1.1 V
10Ω
0.21 A
1.31A
1Ω V3 1.31 V
10Ω 0.34 A
1.65A
1Ω V4 1.65 V
10Ω 0.51 A
2.16A
2.16 V
1Ω V5
(a) (b)
The value obtained for V=1+1.1+1.31+1.65 + 2.16=7.22 volts and starting from top,
the percentage of V (for example, 7.22 volts) across different elements are:
- 13.8 %, 15.2 %, 18.2 %, 22.8 % and 30%
100
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = 57.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
√3
Voltage across top insulator, 𝑉𝑉1 = 0.138 × 57.7 = 7.96 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across 2nd from top, 𝑉𝑉2 = 0.152 × 57.7 = 8.77 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across 3rd from top, 𝑉𝑉3 = 0.182 × 57.7 = 10.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across 4th from top, 𝑉𝑉4 = 0.228 × 57.7 = 13.16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage across 5th from top, 𝑉𝑉5 = 0.3 × 57.7 = 17.3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
57.7
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100 = 66.7%
5 × 17.3
Example 8. Each conductor of a 3-phase high-voltage transmission line is supported

by a string of 4 suspension type disc insulators. If the potential difference across the
second element from top is 13.2 kV and across the third from top is 18 kV, find the
voltage between conductors.
- Solution. Assume XC=1Ω. If K is the ratio of shunt-capacitance to self-

capacitance, then XC1=1/K Ω as presented in Figure 18 (a). Assume voltage
across string is such that current in top insulator disc is 1 A. Then voltage across
each insulator can be found as seen in Figure 18(b).
Therefore, the voltage across first shunt capacitance from top is 1V and its reactance
is 1/K Ω. Hence, current through it is K ampere. Therefore, current through second
insulator from top is (1+K) A and voltage across it is (1+K)×1=(1+K) V.
With reference to Figure 18 (b), it can be concluded that:
𝑉𝑉2 1 + 𝑘𝑘
=
𝑉𝑉1 1
Or
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾) (1)
Also
𝑉𝑉3 (1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 )
=
𝑉𝑉1 1
𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2 ) (2)
Dividing (2) by (1) it can be concluded:
𝑉𝑉3 1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2
=
𝑉𝑉2 1 + 𝐾𝐾
It is given that 𝑉𝑉3 = 18 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and 𝑉𝑉2 = 13.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
18 1 + 3𝐾𝐾 + 𝐾𝐾 2
=
13.2 1 + 𝐾𝐾
Or 13.2𝐾𝐾 2 + 21.6𝐾𝐾 − 4.8 = 0
Solving this formula, we get, K=0.2.
1A 1A
1Ω
V1 1 Volts
1/K Ω
K
1+K
1Ω V2 1+K Volts
1/K Ω
2K+K2
1+3K+K2
1Ω V3 1+3K+K2 Volts
1/K Ω
K3+4K2+3K
K3+5K2+6K+1
V4 K3+5K2+6K+1 Volts
1Ω
(a) (b)
𝑉𝑉2 13.2
𝑉𝑉1 = = = 11 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
(1 + 𝐾𝐾) 1.2
𝑉𝑉4 = 𝑉𝑉1 (1 + 𝐾𝐾 3 + 5𝐾𝐾 2 + 6𝐾𝐾) = 11(1 + 0.008 + 0.2 + 1.2) = 26.49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage between line and ground (for example, line voltage)
= 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 + 𝑉𝑉4
= 11 + 13.2 + 18 + 26.49 = 68.69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Voltage between conductors (for example, line voltage)
68.69 × √3 = 119 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Example 9. A string of four insulators has a self-capacitance equal to 5 times pin to

ground capacitance. Calculate (a) the voltage distribution across different elements as
a percentage of overall voltage across the string and (b) string efficiency.
- Solution. The ratio of self-capacitance (C) to pin-ground capacitance (C1) is

C/C1=5. Assume XC=1Ω. Then XC1=5Ω. Assume the voltage V across string is
such that current in the top insulator is 1A as presented in Figure 19 (a). The
potential across different insulators will be as presented in Figure 19 (b).
1A 1A
1Ω
V1 1V
5Ω
0.2A
1.2A
1Ω V2 1.2 V
5Ω
0.44 A
1.64A
1Ω V3 1.64 V
5Ω
0.768 A
2.408 A
V4 2.408 V
1Ω
(a) (b)

The voltage found across the string is expressed as:
𝑉𝑉 = 1 + 1.2 + 1.64 + 2.408 = 6.248 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
The voltage across each element expressed as a percentage of V (for example, 6.248
V) is expressed by:
1
Top element = 6.248 × 100 = 16%
1.2
Second from top, = 6.248 × 100 = 19.2%
1.64
Third from top, = 6.248 × 100 = 26.3%
2.408
Fourth from top, = 6.248 × 100 = 38.5%
6.248
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100 = 64.86%
4 × 2.408
Example 10. The self-capacitance of each element in a string of three suspension

insulators is C. The shunting capacitance of the connecting metal work of each
insulator to ground is 0.15 C while for line it is 0.1 C. Find (a) the voltage across each
insulator as a percentage of the line voltage to ground and (b) string efficiency.
- Solution. In an actual string of insulators, three capacitances exist, self-

capacitance of each insulator, shunt capacitance and capacitance of each
element to line as presented in Figure 20 (a). Nevertheless, capacitance of
each element to line is very small and is typically neglected. Figure 20 (b)
presents the equivalent circuit of string insulators.
- At point A:
- 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑖𝑖1′ = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑖𝑖1

-
- Or 𝑉𝑉2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + (𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 )0.1𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 0.15𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶1𝜔𝜔
-
- Or 0.1𝑉𝑉3 = 1.15𝑉𝑉1 − 1.1𝑉𝑉2
-
- Or 𝑉𝑉3 = 11.5 𝑉𝑉1 − 11𝑉𝑉2 (1)
14
CHAPTER 3
TRANSMISSION LINE TOWER -DESIGN CONCEPTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of a transmission line tower is to

support conductors carrying electrical power and one or two
ground wires at suitable distances above the ground level
and from each other. The transmission line towers cost
about 35 to 45 per cent of the total cost of the
transmission line. A transmission tower is a space truss
and is an indeterminate structure.
This chapter covers certain basic principles and

stipulations to be followed in the analysis and design of
transmission line towers, incorporating Indian electricity
rules (1956), Manual on transmission line towers (1977),
IS:802 (1977) and draft revision of IS:802 (1989).
3.2 TOWER CONFIGURATION
Depending upon the requirements of the transmission

system, various line configurations have to be considered
ranging from single circuit horizontal to double circuit
vertical structures and with single or V strings in all
phases, as well as any combination of these.
The configuration of a transmission line tower depends on

the following factors:
1. The length of the insulator assembly.

15
2. The minimum clearances to be maintained between

conductors, and between conductor and tower.
3. The location of ground wire or wires with respect
to the outermost conductor.
4. The mid-span clearance required from
consideration of the dynamic behaviour of
conductors and lightning protection of the line.
5. The minimum clearance of the lowest conductor
above ground level.
The tower configuration is determined essentially

by three factors:
(a) Tower height.

(b) Base-width.
(c) Top hamper-width.
3.3 DETERMINATION OF TOWER HEIGHT
The factors governing height of a tower are :
1. Minimum permissible ground clearance (hi).

2. Maximum sag (h2)•
3. Vertical spacing between conductors (h3).
4. Vertical clearance between ground wire and top
conductor (h4).
Thus the total height of tower is given by :
H= h1+h2+h3+h4
Figure 3.1 shows the parameters h3, h2, h3 and h4

in a transmission line tower.
16
Figure 3.1 - Determination of tower height

[Source: Reference(37)J
17
3.4 CLEARANCES
3.4.1 General Remarks
Power conductors along the entire route of the

transmission line should maintain requisite clearance to
ground over open country, national highways, important
roads, electrified and unelectrified tracks, navigable and
non-navigable rivers, telecommunication and power lines
etc. as laid down in the various national standards issued
by the respective authorities.
3.4.2 Ground Clearance
Indian electricity rules (1956), under Clause 77

(incorporating amendments), stipulates clearance above the
ground of the lowest point of the conductor. For Extra
High Voltage (EHV) lines, this clause stipulates that the
clearance above the ground shall not be less than 5.1 m
plus 0.3 m for every 33,000 volts or part thereof by which
the voltage of the line exceeds 33,000 volts. The
permissible minimum ground clearance for different voltages
adopted in India are furnished in Table 3.1, and these are
applicable for transmission lines running in the open
country.
3.4.3 Horizontal Clearance
Clause 80(2) of Indian electricity rules (1956)

stipulates that the horizontal clearance between the
nearest conductor and any part of the structure shall be
based on maximum deflection due to wind pressure. It
should not be less than the values shown in Table 3.2,
corresponding to the voltage.
18
TABLE 3.1 MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE
Permissible minimum ground

Voltage of the line
Clearance
(Kv)
(mm)
66 5490
132 6100
1 220
7016
| 400
8840
19
TABLLE 3.2 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE
..........
a. For high voltage lines upto and
including 11,000 volts 1.219 m
b. For high voltage above 11,000 volts
and upto and including 33,000 volts
1.829 m
c. For Extra High Voltage Lines (EHV)
(plus 0.305 m for every additional
33,000 volts or part thereof)
1.829 m
20
3.5 CRITICAL PARAMETERS OF TOWER
The following aspects are considered essential for

fixing the tower outline:
a. Maximum sag of lower conductor.

b. Height and location of ground wire.
c. Length of cross arm and conductor spacing.
d. Minimum mid-span clearance.
e. Tower width at base and at top hamper.
3.5.1 Maximum Sag of Lower Conductor
The size and type of conductor, wind, climatic

conditions of the region and span determines the conductor
sag and tension. Span length is fixed from economic
consideration. The maximum sag for conductor span occurs
at the maximum temperature and still wind conditions. The
maximum value of sag is taken into consideration in fixing
the overall height of the steel tower structure. In
regions prone to snowfall, the maximum sag may occur at 0°,
with the conductor loaded with ice, in still wind
condition. While working out tension for arriving at the
maximum sag, the following stipulations laid down in Indian
electricity rules (1956) are to be satisfied.
a. The minimum factor of safety shall be two based on

their ultimate tensile strength.
b. Conductor tension at 32° Centigrade (90°F) without
external load shall not exceed the following
percentage of the ultimate tensile strength of the
conductor.
i) Initial unloaded tension : 35 percent
ii) Final unloaded tension : 25 percent
21
In accordance with this stipulation, the maximum

working tension under stringent loading condition shall not
exceed 50% of the ultimate tensile strength of the
conductor. Sag tension computation made for final
stringing of the conductor therefore must ensure that
factor of safety of 2 and 4 is obtainable under respective
loading condition.
3.5.2 Height and Location of Ground Wire
Ground wire provides protection against direct

stroke of lightening. It intercepts the direct lightning
strokes and conducts the charge to the nearest ground
connections. The height and location of overhead ground
wires shall be such that the line joining the ground wire
to the outer most conductor shall make angles of
approximately 20 to 30 degrees with the vertical. The angle
is called shield angle. The practice is to specify 30° for
66 kV and 110 kV, 25 to 30 degrees for 220 kV. A lower
angle of 20° is suggested for 400 kV. The protective value
against direct strokes to the phase conductors approaches
100 percent, if the shield angle is less than 20°, but it
is not advisable to keep smaller angles from economic
considerations. On extra high voltage lines having wide
conductor spacing, the use of two earth wires provide
better protection.
3.5.3 Minimum Mid-Span Clearance
In case of direct lightning stroke on the mid-span

of over head ground wires, the critical condition occurs at
the mid-span during the propagation of surge current and
mid span 'flash over' may occur from ground wire to
conductor, before the current is discharged through the
22
tower. The mid-span clearance between the earth wires and

conductor is therefore, kept more than the clearance at the
tower. The usual practice in this regard is to maintain
the sag of ground wire at least 10 % less than that of the
conductor, under all temperature conditions in still wind
at the normal spans, so as to give a mid span separation
greater than that at the supports. However, it is ensured
that under the minimum temperature and maximum wind
conditions, the sag of the ground wire does not exceed the
sag of the power conductor.
In the case of stroke to mid-span, on one of the

ground wires, when two ground wires are used, it is
preferable, if the striken ground wire flashes over to the
second ground wire instead of to the conductor. Therefore
it is necessary that the spacing between the two ground
wire is less than the mid-span clearance between ground
wire and conductor. Mid-span clearance vary with the span
length. Increased spans, increases the mid span clearance.
The design span normally adopted are 250 m for 66 kV, 305
to 335 m for 110 kV, 350 m for 220 kV, 350 to 400 m for 400
kV lines. The vertical clearance generally adopted at the
middle of the span between the ground wires and conductors
are given in Table 3.3.
3.5.4 Spacing of Conductors
Considerable differences are found in the conductor

spacings adopted in different countries and on different
transmission line systems in the same country. The spacing
of conductors is determined by considerations, which are
partly electrical and partly mechanical. The material and
diameter of the conductors should also be considered, when
deciding the spacing, because a smaller conductor,
23
TABLE 3.3 MID-SPAN CLEARANCE
Span Vertical Clearance permissible at the 1

(m) middle of the span (mm) |
4000 I
299
300 5500
400 7000
600 8500
especially made of aluminium, having a small weight in
relation to the area presented to a cross-wind, will swing
out of vertical plane farther than a conductor of larger
cross-section. Usually, conductors will swing synchronously
(in phase) with the wind, but with long spans and small
wires, there is always a possibility of the conductor
swinging non-synchronously, and the conductor and the
maximum sag at the centre of the span are factors, which
are taken into account in determining the distance apart,
at which they are strung.
There are a number of empirical formulae in use,

deduced from spacings, which have been successfully
operated in practice, while research continues on minimum
spacings, which could be employed. The spacings, both
horizontal and vertical, between conductors commonly
adopted on typical transmission lines in India are given in
Table 3.4.
3.5.5 Tower Width at the Base
Spacing between the tower footings, i.e., the base

width at the concrete level (or at the foot of the bottom
panel) is the distance from the centre of gravity of one
corner leg to the centre of gravity of the adjacent corner
leg. This width depends upon the height, magnitude of the
physical loads imposed upon the tower calculated from the
size, type of conductors and wind loads and also upon the
height of application of external loads from ground level.
Towers with larger base result in low footing costs and
lighter main leg member at the expense of longer bracing
members. There is a particular base width, which gives the
best compromise for the total cost of the tower to be
minimum. Through experience expanded over a number of
TABLE 3.4 SPACING OF CONDUCTORS
Vertical spacing Horizontal

between spacing between
Type of tower conductors conductors
(mm) (mm)
1. 66 kV single circuit
A(0-2°) 1030 4040
B(2-30°) 1030 4270
C(30-60°) 1220 4880
2. 66 kV Double Circuit
A(0-2°) 2170 4270
B(2-30°) 2060 4880
C(30-60°) 2440 6000
3. 132 kV Single Circuit
A(0-2°) 4200 7140
B(2-15°) 4200 6290
C( 15-30°) 4200 7150
D(30-60°) 4200 8820
4. 132 kV Double circuit
A(0-2°) 3965 7020
B(2-15°) 3965 7320
C( 15-30°) 3965 7320
D(30-60°) 4270 8540
5. 220 kV Single circuit
A(0-2°) 5200 8500
B(2-15°) 5250 10500
C( 15-30°) 6700 12600
D(30-60°) 7800 14000
6. 220 kV Double
Circuit
A(0-2°) 5200 9900
B(2-15°) 5200 10100
C( 15-30°) 5200 10500
D(30-60°) 6750 12600
7. 400 kV Single Circuit
horizontal
configuration 7800 12760
A(0-2°) 7800 12640
B(2-15°) 7800 14000
C( 15-30°) 8100 16200
I D(30-60°)
2b
years, certain empirical relations have also been developed

■for base widths. The ratio between total height of the
tower uptc the lower cross arm and base width is generally
between 2.8 and 4.4.
3.5.6 Width at the Top Hamper
Top hamper-width is the width of the tower at the

level of the lower cross arm in the case of barrel type of
towers (In double circuit towers it may be at middle cross
arm level) and waist line in case of towers with horizontal
configuration of conductors. The width of the top hamper is
mainly decided based on resistance required for torsional
loading. The torsional stresses are evenly distributed on
the four faces of a square tower.
The top hamper width is generally found to be about

one-third to one-half of the base width for tangent and
light angle towers and about 1/3.5 of the base width for
medium and large angle towers.
3.6 TYPES OF TOWER

3.6.1 Classification according to Number of Circuits
The majority of high voltage double circuit

transmission lines employ a vertical configuration of
conductor and single circuit transmission lines, a
triangular arrangement of conductors. Single circuit lines,
particularly 400 kV and above, generally employ a
horizontal arrangement of conductors. The number of ground
wires used on the line depends on the iso-ceraunic level of
the area, importance of the line and the angle of coverage
desired.
27
3.6.2 Classification according to use
Towers are classified according to their use,

independent of the number of conductors they support. A
tower has to withstand the loadings ranging from straight-
runs to varying angles. To simplify the design and ensure
an overall economy in cost and maintenance, tower designs
are generally confined to a few standard types as follows :
(1) Tangent (suspension) towers
Suspension towers are used primarily on tangents, but

often are designed to withstand angles in the line
upto 2 ° in addition to the wind, ice, and broken
conductor loads. If the transmission line traverses
relatively flat, featureless terrain, ninety percent
of the line may be composed of this type of tower.
Thus, the design of tangent tower provides the
greatest opportunity for the structural engineer to
minimize the total weight of steel required.
(2) Angle towers
Angle towers, sometimes called semi-anchor towers, are

used where the line makes a horizontal angle greater
than 2° (Figure 3.2). As they must resist a
transverse load from the components of the line
tension induced by this angle, in addition to the
usual wind, ice and broken conductor loads, they are
necessarily heavier than suspension towers. Unless
restricted by site conditions, or influenced by
conductor tensions, angle should be located in such a
manner that the axis of the cross-arms bisects the
angle formed by the conductors.
28
9 m Angle of deflection of line

T » Tension in conductor
P, a Transverse load due to component of
conductor tension = T sin &2
P2 » Longitudinal load due to component of lire
tension
= T cos 02
Figure 3.2 - Orientation of tower in an angle
lSource: Reference(37)]
29
Theoretically, different line angles require

different towers, but for economy there is a limiting
number of different types of towers used. This number is a
function of all the factors, which make up the total
erected cost of a tower line. However,experience has
shownthat the following angle towers are generally
suitable for most of the lines:
1. Light angle - 2 to 15 degrees line deviation.

2. Medium angle - 15 to 30 degrees line deviation.
3. Heavy angle - 30 to 60 degrees line deviation
and dead ends.
While the angles of line deviation are for the

normal span, the span may be increased upto an optimum
limit by reducing the angle of line deviation and vice
versa. IS: 802 (Part I)-1977 recommends the above
classification.
It would be uneconomical to use 30° angle towers in

locations where angles higher than 2“ and smaller than 30°
are encountered. There are limitations to the use of 2°
angle towers at higher angles with reduced spans and the

use of 30“angle towers with smaller angles and increased
spans. The introduction of a 15° tower would effect
sizable economy.
3.7 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

3.7.1 General Remarks
Transmission line tower consists of linear

structural members rigidly connected to one another by
welding or bolting. For the purposes of analysis, it is
idealized as a space truss. A space truss is a 3-D
Repair and
4
Maintenance of Power
Distribution Lines
INTRODUCTION
Repair and maintenance of lines is very important for
uninterrupted supply of electricity. Maintenance is
done primarily twice a year, once before monsoon and
the next is done after monsoon to see if any breakdown
has occurred in the line. Line patrolling, maintaining
ground clearance, replacement of insulators, restringing
of lines, replacement of burnt jumpers, replacement of
damaged conductor, replacement of damaged pole, etc.
are some of the cheeks performed during maintenance.
Proper maintenance of line improves its life drastically.
SESSION 1: PREPARATION FOR REPAIR AND

MAINTENANCE OF POWER DISTRIBUTION LINES
Materials and Accessories used in Power
Distribution
In this section, we will discuss some materials and
accessories used in power distribution.
Poles (Supports)
The poles or supports are classified according to the
material used for it:
y Steel
y Cement
y Wood
Unit-4 .indd 63 11-06-2019 16:20:54

Steel poles are further classified as follows
Rail Poles: These can be of L shape, rail type
and tubular shape. They are better than R.C.C.
poles, light in weight and cheaper in cost. The
poles are affected by atmospheric moisture,
rains, etc. Hence they are always painted or
coated with chemicals to avoid rusting. These
are normally used for 33kV lines.
Tubular Poles: Tubular poles are either of
swaged section (built up sections) or stripped
single unit type (jointless one casting). The
Fig. 4.1 Tubular Poles
action of wind pressure is very low because
of their circular section as compared to plain
section R.C.C. poles and can be erected easily
by digging pits of diameter or section slightly
greater than the pole’s diameter. These are
normally used in hilly areas (Fig. 4.1).
Cement poles are further classified as
follows
R.C.C. poles: These poles are made by
reinforcing (i.e. embedding) steel rods into
concrete slabs of pole shaped cylinders. These
poles are of permanent nature, have a long
life, remain unaffected by rain, sunlight, etc.
Fig. 4.2 RCC Poles
and are heavy in weight due to the presence of
concrete and steel (Fig. 4.2).
P.S.C. poles: Pre-stressed cement concrete
poles are essentially made of concrete. A
frame of high tensile steel wire is inserted
into a mould and stretched to a certain level.
Galvanised wire is used as earth wire inside
the mould. A right proportion of concrete mix
is poured in the mould and a vibrator is used
to compress the concrete to produce high
strength PSC poles (Fig. 4.3).
Wooden poles
Wooden poles are light in weight and cheap in
comparison to all other types of poles, made
up of wooden beams. These are easily affected
Fig. 4.3 PSC Poles
and spoiled by atmosphere, rain water, white
DISTRIBUTION LINEMAN — CLASS XI

64
Unit-4 .indd 64 11-06-2019 16:21:01

ants, soil moisture, etc. Therefore, they are used for NOTES
temporary work and are coated with special chemical
for permanent installations. The common impregnating
material (coating) used is Creosote. These poles are
normally used in hilly areas.
As per the CEA (Central Electricity Authority)
Regulations 2010, Relating to Safety and Electric Supply,
Clause 57(2), the supports should have the following
minimum factor of safety as given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
S. Types of Supports Factor of

No. Safety
1 Metal Supports 1.5
2 Mechanically processed concrete supports 2.0
3. Hand moulded concrete supports 2.5
4. Wooden supports 3.0
An Earthing arrangement is provided with a projected

length of 50 mm at both ends of the pole, using 8 S.W.G
G.I. wire embedded in concrete. In actual practice, it
is convenient to use 8m poles for all purposes (instead
of having different sizes) with minor adjustments in
spans, if required. This avoids future replacement
costs, omission or errors by workmen in transportation
and selecting different poles for different locations. The
selection of poles for erection of lines depends on a
number of factors such as:
y Pole strength
y Type and size of conductor
y Maximum wind pressure
y Maximum line tension
y Snowfall
y Presence of fruit farms
y Guarding
y Different crossings like river, road, railway,
telephone lines, etc.
The erection of power distribution lines involves only
erection of different types of poles, such as steel, PSC,
wooden poles, etc.
REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF POWER DISTRIBUTION LINES

65
Unit-4 .indd 65 11-06-2019 16:21:01

Conductors
Aluminium conductors of different types and sizes are
used for drawing overhead lines, whether they are LT or
HT lines. These include:
AAC – All Aluminium Conductors: This type of
conductor is made up of one or more strands of hard
drawn 1350 aluminium alloy. The AAC conductors are
Fig. 4.4 All Aluminium
Conductors used in low and high voltage overhead lines. AAC is used
extensively in urban areas where spans are usually
short but high conductivity is required (Fig. 4.4).
ACSR – Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced:
It is a type of high-capacity, high-strength stranded
conductor typically used in overhead power lines. The
outer strands are high-purity aluminium, chosen for
its excellent conductivity, low weight and low cost. The
centre strand is of steel for additional strength to help
support the weight of the conductor (Fig. 4.5).
Fig. 4.5 Aluminium Conductor
Steel Reinforced
Reinforced Conductors
AAAC – All Aluminium Alloy Conductors: These
conductors are made out of high strength Aluminium-
Magnesium-Silicon Alloy. These conductors are
designed to get better strength to weight ratio and offer
improved electrical properties, excellent sag-tension
characteristics and superior corrosion resistance when
compared with ACSR (Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.6 All Aluminium Alloy Table 4.2 lists various specifications of different
Conductors types of conductors used:
Table 4.2 Specifications of Different Types of Conductors

Stranding & wire
Stranding & wire
Current carrying
capacity at 40°C
Aluminium Area
sistance at 20°C
diameter in mm
diameter in mm
Weight of Cond.
nominal copper
ambient temp.
Calculated Re-
Breaking load
of Aluminium
of steel (mm)
in ohms/ km
Code Name
above 30°C
Equivalent
area (mm2)
Nominal
kg./km
S. No.
(mm2)
(mm)
kg.
1. Gnat 25 16 7/2.21 485 73 1.071 85

2. Ant 50 30 7/3.10 852 144 0.544 135
3. Squirrel 20 13 6/2.211 1/2.11 771 85 1.394 75

66
Unit-4 .indd 66 11-06-2019 16:21:08

4. Weasel 30 20 6/2.59 1/2.59 1136 128 0.9289 102
5. Rabbit 50 30 6/3.35 1/3.35 1850 214 0.5524 150
6. Racoon 80 48 6/4.09 1/4.09 2746 318 0.3712 202
7. Dog 100 65 6/4.72 1/4.72 3299 394 0.2792 250
The Gnat and Ant conductors (mentioned in S. No. 1

and 2) are generally used for LT Lines. The other types
of conductors (mentioned from S. No. 3 to 7 are all
ACSR Conductors and are commonly used on 11kv
lines, except Dog conductors. As per CEA Regulations
2010 relating to Safety and Electric Supply, Clause 7,
the minimum factor of safety for conductors have to be
based on their ultimate tensile strength.
Insulators
Pin Type Insulators: These are commonly used on
11 kV Lines. The pins for pin insulators shall have a
stalk length of 135 mm, shank-length of 125 mm and
minimum failing load of 2kN. They should be forged.
The pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on
the distribution pole. There is a groove on the upper end
of the insulator for resting the conductor. The conductor
passes through this groove and is bound by the annealed
wire made of the same material as the conductor. Pin Fig. 4.7 Pin Type Insulators
type insulators can be of one part, two parts or three
parts type, depending upon the application voltage. For
example, in 11kV system, one part type insulators are
used where the whole pin insulator is one single piece of
properly shaped porcelain or glass (Fig. 4.7).
Shackle Type Insulators: The shackle insulators are
used in low voltage distribution lines (LT lines). They
are also called spool insulators. These insulators are
used to isolate the live conductor from pole and are
mounted in every pole of electrical line. These insulators
can be mounted either in vertical or horizontal
positions (Fig. 4.8).
There are two types of shackle insulator fittings — Fig. 4.8 Shackle Type
Insulator
strap type and u-clamp type fittings. Strap type
fittings are for dead-end locations. On the other hand,
u-clamp type fittings are for tangent locations or for
service lines where the load is small. All fittings are to
be galvanised.

67
Unit-4 .indd 67 11-06-2019 16:21:09

Disc Type Insulators: In higher voltage, such as beyond
33kV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator
as the size and weight of the insulator becomes more.
Handling and replacing bigger sized single unit insulator
is a difficult task. Suspension insulator was developed
to overcome these difficulties. In suspension insulator,
the number of insulators are connected in a series to
Fig. 4.9 Disc Type Insulators
form a string and the line conductor is carried by the
bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension
string is called disc insulator because of its disc-like
shape. Disc insulators are normally used in 11kV lines
for dead-end locations (Fig. 4.9).
Guy Strain Insulators: These are only used for
guy/stay wires. These are designed to work in mechanical
tension or strain, as they are capable to withstand the
pull of a suspended electrical wire or cable. The guy
strain insulators are used in overhead electrical line. The
strain insulator is inserted between stay wire to isolate
the lower portion from electricity. It may also be used
where a wire attaches to a pole or tower, to transmit
Fig. 4.10 Guy Strain Insulator the pull of the wire to the support while insulating it
electrically (Fig. 4.10).
Pins for Insulators

Pins for pin insulators have to be of single-piece forged.
All ferrous parts should be galvanized (Fig. 4.11).
Helically formed pin insulator ties used for holding the
conductor on the pin insulator have been standardised
and should conform to the requirements of IS: 12048-
1987. Types and dimensions of pins are as follows:
Table 4.3 Types and Dimensions of Pins
Voltage Type Stalk Shank Failing load

(kV) Length Length (mm) minimum kN
33 Large Steel Head 300 150 10

type L 300 N
11 Small Steel Head 165 150 5
type S 165P
Fig. 4.11 11 kV GI Forged Pins
for Pin Insulators
Guy Assembly
Guy assembly is needed for dead-end and angular
locations to counter balance the load on the supports

68
Unit-4 .indd 68 11-06-2019 16:21:11

due to pulling of the conductors, so that supports remain
straight in vertical position without bending in any
direction. They are also provided at mid-span support
as a protection against the wind load (Fig. 4.12).
G.I. Wire
G.I. wires are used for protective guarding at the crossing Fig. 4.12 Guy Assembly
of lines with roads, railway tracks, telecommunication
lines, etc. These have to be of 3.15, 4 and 5 mm sizes.
The wires shall be galvanised with “heavy coating”. G.I.
wires are used in reinforcement of aluminium conductors
in distribution and transmission of electricity. ACSR
wire is used for power fencing as this material is most
suitable for electric conduction (Fig. 4.13).
GO Switches
Gang operated switches or GO switches, as they Fig. 4.13 G.I. Wires
are commonly called, are switching devices used in
overhead power lines. They are called Gang Operated
as they are operated in a Gang, all three switches
together, using a single mechanism. The gang operated
switches are also called Air Break Switches because air
is used as the breaking medium. These are normally
installed at the pole mounted distribution substation to
isolate the transformer from HT line, so that the HT fuse
replacement could be carried out for the restoration of
supply. The GO switches are used in electrical lines
with voltage of 5 kV. They can be mounted vertically or
horizontally, and can be motorised and operated from a
remote location.
11kV Cross-arms
The following types of cross-arms are used for 11kV
Lines:
y V cross-arms for tangent locations with clamps
are widely used in many electrical transmission
lines, for effective and efficient distribution of
power. They have the capacity to bear heavy
electrical fluctuations and voltages (Fig. 4.14).
y Double-channel cross-arm for tension or cut point Fig. 4.14 V Type
Cross-arms
locations where D.Ps. are used. The conductors

69
Unit-4 .indd 69 11-06-2019 16:21:15

for the double cross-arm configurations are
suspended from an adjustable tie plate which
connects the two timber cross-arm members
together. The cross-arm can be used to support
up to three conductors, one mounted at the centre
and one mounted one foot from either end of the
cross-arm (Fig. 4.15).
Fig. 4.15 Double-channel Cross-arms Fig. 4.16 L.T. Cross-arms
y L.T. cross-arms have been standardised for

horizontal as well as vertical formation of
10
conductor. They have a strong structure and
90 65 65
high sensitivity (Fig. 4.16).
L.T. Line Spacers

Clashing of L.T. conductors in the mid-span very
13 300
often takes place due to sag, wind and longer spans
(Fig. 4.17). This results in faults and interruptions.
In order to overcome this problem spacers are
250 provided. As per REC Construction Standards two
types of spacers are generally used:
y Spiral - made from high quality PVC. They
should be circular with 13 mm diameter.
y Composite - made
from poly-propylene
in a single mould
(except the clamping
pieces). They should
be rectangular strips
of 25 mm × 12 mm
dimensions. Fig. 4.18 Vertical Line Spacers
Fig. 4.17 Line Spacers

70
Unit-4 .indd 70 11-06-2019 16:21:17

Tools to be used for distribution line NOTES
maintenance
Name Function Image
Screwdriver Used to turn, tighten
or remove screws
Screwdriver
Wrenches Used to allow

rotary motion in
only one direction
and preventing the
motion in opposite
direction,
Used to tighten nuts

of various sizes
Spanner Used to provide grip
to apply torque for
turning objects such
as nut or a bolt.
A spanner with
variable diameter
to tighten nuts and
bolt of various sizes
Spanner (Top) and
wrench (Bottom)
Survey and Right of Way (ROW)

Survey of the Proposed Route of Line
Initial survey should be carried out for construction of
new lines. During line survey various type of crossings
i.e. highway crossing, railway, river, telephone lines,
E.H.V. lines etc. are to be taken into account. It should
be seen that telephone line should not be parallel to
power line for excessive length. The induction effect
on telephone line will cause disturbance to telephone

71
Unit-4 .indd 71 11-06-2019 16:21:19

NOTES communication and even damage equipment. It is
necessary to obtain the approval of P and T Department
(B.S.N.L.) for route of lines with voltages of 33 KV
and above.
Any crossing should be at right angle i.e. 90 degrees,
which enables to keep a short span and safe clearance.
If possible, highway and railway crossings should be
avoided. Railway authority gives permission for overhead
crossing only for E.H.V. Lines. Low and medium voltage
lines are to be crossed with underground cables.
Before finalising the route, the following parameters
should be kept in mind
1. The shortest route possible.
2. As close as possible to the road for easy
maintenance and approach during the
construction.
3. Route should be in the direction of possible
future load.
4. Angle points should be less.
The areas to be avoided as far as possible are
(a) Rough and difficult country side
(b) Urban development area
(c) Restricted access for transport vehicles
(d) Abrupt changes in line routes
(e) Difficult crossing — river, railway lines
(f) Proximity to aerodromes
(g) Natural hazards like steep valleys, hills, lakes,
gardens, forests, playgrounds, etc.
The route selected for a distribution line shall be
such that it will give the lowest cost considered over
a period of years, consistent with accessibility for easy
maintenance, etc. This includes many considerations
such as original cost, tree trimming and compensation,
freedom from vehicular damages, future development
and availability for services. Transportation contributes
to a major portion of construction cost. Hence while
finalising the route alignment, it should be ensured that
transportation cost should be as low as possible.
Transport of RCC/PSC poles pose greater problems
as they are generally heavier than other types of

72
Unit-4 .indd 72 11-06-2019 16:21:19

supports for the same purpose. The RCC/ PSC poles NOTES
are generally stronger on the longer axis than on the
shorter axis. Care should be taken on this aspect while
handling, to prevent excessive stressing of the pole at
the time of transporting. The unloading of poles from
truck or trailer should also be done carefully. Suitable
skid boards must be used and on no account, the
poles should be dropped. Several utilities have special
trucks made with side loading arrangements for pole
transportation or trailers should be used. It is preferable
to provide a chain pulley block with a beam arrangement
in the middle of the truck body to facilitate unloading/
loading of poles. The poles should not be dragged on a
rough surface, but transported in small hand-cart.
Detailed Survey
The survey of the overhead lines can be broadly divided
into two heads:
(a) Preliminary ‘Walk Over’ survey
(b) Detailed survey
Having provisionally fixed the route, on the survey
map, a preliminary ‘Walk Over’ survey is carried out,
before conducting the survey with ranging rods. As far
as possible, the line route is taken through areas with
minimum tree growth. If there are alternative routes, all
such routes are investigated for final evaluation of the
most economic route.
Detailed survey can be carried out by the theodolite
and angle points can be fixed and marked with survey
stones. A route map to a scale of 1cm=0.5km can be
prepared showing the various angles, approach roads,
near the line, routes detail of railways, communication
lines, EHT line crossing, river crossing, etc. But this is
not necessary in case of small lines as the local staff
usually is conversant with the topography and therefore
marking of locations aligning the line with ranging rods
is found to be satisfactory.
Right of Way
(a) Once the route of the line is fixed approval has to
be obtained,
(i) from the railway authorities for railway
crossings,

73
Unit-4 .indd 73 11-06-2019 16:21:20

NOTES (ii) from the competent forest authorities for
routing of the line in forest areas, and
(iii) from the state level Power Tele-communication
Coordination Committee (PTCC).
(b) In addition if urban development, airport
and similar other areas fall in the route of the
line, permission has to be obtained from those
departments.
(c) Sometimes private gardens/orchards may fall on
the route and require tree cutting. The details of
trees are to be marked. Compensation is fixed by
revenue authorities and paid to the owner.
Pole Locations
While locating poles on lines, the following general
principles are to be kept in mind:
1. Keep spans uniform in length as far as possible.
2. Locate to have horizontal grade.
3. By locating the poles on high places short poles
can be used and will maintain proper ground
clearance at the middle of the span. In extremely
hilly or mountainous areas, poles are located
on ridges thereby increasing the spans without
greatly increasing the pull on the conductor. This
is possible because the sag can be made very large
by maintaining the required ground clearance.
4. Poles should not be placed along the edges of cuts
or embankment or along the banks of creeks or
streams.
5. Cut-point for a section could be at a length of 1.6
km (except in special cases), where double-pole
structures should be provided to take tension
of the conductors. It may have been already
estimated that 10 supports (locations) are mostly
required for one km length of H.T. line and 15
supports for L.T. line.
Work permit
Rules regarding work permit and important notices/
information:

74
Unit-4 .indd 74 11-06-2019 16:21:20

y Unless line-clear permit is issued by an authorised NOTES
person, the worker should not climb on pole or
apparatus. No one should go in the vicinity of
bare conductor and work.
y Only shift engineer or operation in-charge is
authorised to issue permit.
y The line-clear permit should only be issued to a
person duly authorised for said work.
y The only competent authority to authorise a
worker is the executive engineer of that division
or superintending engineer. They should issue
authorisation order in writing.
y The permit can only be issued or obtained by those
authorised persons for the work and jurisdiction
as prescribed in the written authorisation order
by the competent authority.
y The written order by the competent authority
should invariably be displayed on the notice
board at the concerned sub-station, power house
and distribution centres in a specific format.
y The consolidated authorisation should be kept at
the office of the concerned superintending engineer.
y The superintending engineer (SE) or chief engineer
(CE) of Circle/Zone can authorise persons other
than stated above such as E.E. (Testing) or testing
staff (or any other person who is competent to
work in the views of concerned SE/CE).
y The area authority should include the names of
such authorised persons in their list. The area
officer should obtain the list of authorised persons
of bulk consumers and area in the vicinity and
also handover his list to them.
y Generally, the line inspector or persons of
equivalent post are authorised for working on H.T.
line/installations. However, division engineer
may authorise the person/persons of lower rank,
if he is confident about his skills.
Methods for issuing or obtaining and returning the permit:
y For obtaining line-clear permit, only an
authorised person should apply. He should apply
for line clear permit to the authorised person

75
Unit-4 .indd 75 11-06-2019 16:21:20

NOTES only and such authority will issue the permit
accordingly.
y Where it is not possible to obtain permit in writing
then permit can be obtained on telephone. In such
a case, the permit obtaining authority should
confirm by repeating the matter with permit
issuing authority over phone. The same should be
noted in the permit book by both the persons. The
duplicate copy of line clear permit after cancellation
shall be sent to each other by post or in person as
early as possible for record. This register should
be inspected by area or divisional Officer from time
to time.
y The permit book is an important record and should
be preserved properly. The pages of permit book
should be numbered serially. Pages from this
book should not be taken out or torn or used for
any other work. In case any page is torn or taken
out by some person due to any reason, then the
concerned person should sign on the same and
make dated entry in the logbook of sub-station/
power house with signature.
y The person, who has taken the permit, should
return it. In case where the permit issuing and
obtaining authority is same, the self-permit
should be taken in his name and cancelled after
completion of work. This procedure should be
followed strictly.
y In case the permit is taken in person, same can
be returned on phone.
y While issuing or returning permit on phone, the
code words should be used.
Precautions to be taken while issuing permit:
It is the duty of the shift engineer or person issuing
the line clear permit to ensure that the sub-station/
feeder/equipment for which the permit is being issued,
should be made dead, i.e., equipment/ feeder should
be discharged and properly earthed. First, he should
switch off the equipment/feeder as per the instructions
laid down. Thereafter, he should adhere to the following
instructions regarding grounding and locking of
equipment:

76
Unit-4 .indd 76 11-06-2019 16:21:20

y Power T/F should be opened (off position) and NOTES
locked, at S/stn, respectively.
y Warning boards with following instructions should
be tagged on handles of isolators/breakers:
– Do not charge. Workers are working.
– The line/equipment under permit - Don’t charge.
– Attention - work in progress - Do not charge
the line/equipment.
y The same type of warning boards should be tagged
on handles of control switchgear. The control
circuit fuse of control panel should also be taken
out and kept in the custody of the permit issuing
authority.
Duties and Responsibilities of a Distribution

Lineman
When the lineman is entrusted with the responsibility of
construction (erection of lines, distribution substation,
UG/AB cables):
y He shall be responsible for surveying HT lines and
LT lines and report to his superiors any variation
from the original estimates.
y He shall be responsible for executing the
distribution lines and erecting transformers,
underground and AB cables as per technical
standards.
y He shall be responsible for all T and P issued for
execution of work.
y He shall maintain the time rolls and mark the
attendance regularly.
y He shall maintain a register showing the
allocation of work every day and also write in the
same register the progress of work against the
allocation.
y He shall prepare pole schedules, after completing
the work and handover the same to his superiors.
In case he is put in charge of contract work, he shall be
responsible for proper supervision of work and see that
the work is executed as per standards. Materials issued
to the contractor shall properly be accounted:
y He shall maintain a dairy showing the day to day
work done in detail and take the signatures of his
next superiors once in a fortnight.
77
Unit-4 .indd 77 11-06-2019 16:21:20

NOTES y He shall be responsible to ensure that the code
of safety rules is followed by him and the staff
working under him. A copy of the said code is
already supplied to him. Any instances where the
staff fails to use safety appliances as per the code
shall be brought to the notice of his superiors
immediately for taking disciplinary action.
y He shall be responsible for upkeep of T and P and
safety appliances supplied to him and keep them
in working order.
The lineman is entrusted with O and M (operation and
maintenance) activities (lines, distribution substation
and UG/AB cables):
y To restore power supply in an area as quickly
as possible or make arrangements for alternate
power supply till power is restored.
y To maintain LT, HT (Low tension, High tension)
lines and equipment under his charge as per the
schedule fixed up, as well as continuity of supply.
y To report any interruption beyond one hour on LT
lines and restoring supply.
y To rectify HT and LT lines by following instructions
from superiors for such rectification.
y To maintain distribution transformers/substations
in his area of jurisdiction covering oil testing,
checking of condition of breather, GO Switch
operation, HT Fuses and LT side protection, earthing
of transformer body, neutral, etc.
y To attend breakdown of HT and LT Lines in a time
bound manner as per performance standards set
by the State Electricity Regulatory Commission.
y To replace damaged transformers in a time bound
manner as per performance standards set by the
State Electricity Regulatory Commission.
y To make proper gradation of fuse in services and
all other places where fuses are used.
y To maintain a register showing the allocation of
work every day and also record the progress of
work against the allocation.
y To supervise work under contract and see that
all maintenance work is carried out as per
maintenance schedule and as per standards.
y To follow the code of safety rules and encourage
the staff working under him to do the same.
y To ensure security of T and P and safety appliances
supplied to him and keep them in working order.
78
Unit-4 .indd 78 11-06-2019 16:21:20

Check Your Progress NOTES
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Rail poles are ______________ than RCC pole.
2. RCC poles are made by ______________ steel rods into
concrete slabs of pole-shaped cylinders.
3. Pin-type insulation are commonly used on ______________
lines.
4. LT cross arms have been standardised for horizontal as
well as ______________ formation of conductors.
B. Multiple choice questions
1. Identify which is not a cement pole:
(a) RCC pole
(b) PSC pole
(c) Wooden pole
(d) Rail pole
2. Pin-type insulators are commonly used on:
(a) 11 KV line
(b) 33 KV line
(c) 15 KV line
(d) None of these
3. GO switches are used as:
(a) Switching devices
(b) Cutout devices
(c) Controlling switches
(d) None of these
4. LT line spacers are provided:
(a) To keep distance between wires
(b) For holding wires
(c) For tying of wires
(d) None of these
C. Match the columns
Group A Group B
1. Distribution Lineman (a) recruitment of various roles
2. Electricity Act 2003 (b) concerned with grievances
3. DISCOM (c) construct LT, HT lines
4. Escalation Matrix (d) allows multiple licensing in
distribution
D. Short answer questions

1. Why RCC poles are more preferred in erction of lines?
2. List the factors responsible for selection of poles.
3. Discuss the role of conductors and their types.
4. What is the role of Guy strain insulators?

79
Unit-4 .indd 79 11-06-2019 16:21:20

SESSION 2: SPECIFIC TERMINOLOGY IN
DISTRIBUTION LINE
Low Tension (LT) Line and High Tension
(HT) Line
A low-tension line is a low voltage line and a high-
tension line is a high voltage line. In India LT
supply is of 400 Volts for three-phase connection
and of 230 Volts for single-phase connection. High
tension or HT supply is applicable for bulk power
purchasers who need 11 kilo-Volts or above.
Overhead Line
Overhead line means any electric supply line
which is placed above ground and in the
open air.
Fig. 4.19 Pole
HT and LT lines upto 33 kV are erected on
poles (Fig. 4.19). Extra High Volt i.e., EHV lines
of 66,132, 220 and 440 kV are erected on towers
(Fig. 4.20).
Peak Demand
It is the maximum load/demand which is
recorded during the peak hours representing
the simultaneous maximum demand of all the
consumers at a particular point. It can be annual
Fig. 4.20 Tower
peak load, monthly peak load, weekly peak load
and daily peak load etc. Peak load for a state is recorded
by state load dispatch centre. For different categories of
consumer peak/maximum demand will be recorded by
the consumer energy installed at their premises.
Load Shedding
Load shedding is normally carried out when the power
demand is more than the power availability at a given
point of time to shed excess load on the generating
stations. Load shedding is carried out on priority basis.
Emergency services such as hospitals, fire services,
important government office etc. are left out and load
shedding is carried out phase by phase. Thus the
switching ‘OFF’ of particular feeder (circuit breaker) to
avoid total breakdown due to overload is called shedding.
80
Unit-4 .indd 80 11-06-2019 16:21:22

Power system NOTES
The production of electricity and transmission and
distribution in our houses, factory or piece of work
involves a long process, which consists of operation of
power machines and system network. The whole process
is referred as the ‘Power System” (Fig. 4.21).
Power system can be divided into three broad
sections: generations, transmission and distribution
and utilisation.
Power generation
Generation of power is done through various sources
like thermal, hydro, non conventional as well as nuclear
power station.
In thermal power station use of coal, gas and diesel
is made for generation of power.
Similarly through hydro power station use of water
as well as tidal energy is used for generation of power.
Non conventional energy uses solar, wind, bio fuel as
well as agricultural waste.
Nuclear power station uses nuclear energy to
generate power.
Transmission
Transmission system is used for transmitting the power
for long distances and it consists of transmission lines
and substation at extra high voltage and high voltage.
In transmission system, two substations are connected
at the same voltage.
In transmission, substation consists of transformers,
bus bars, circuit breakers, isolators, protection and
communication equipments and a control room.
Power Distribution System

Power distribution involves distribution of power received
at HV substations to consumers through distribution
system which operates at voltages at 33 KV and below.
A distribution system consists of electrical sub stations,
distribution transformers and distribution lines.
A distribution substation is located near or inside
city/town/village/industrial area. It receives power
81
Unit-4 .indd 81 11-06-2019 16:21:22

Fig. 4.21 Power distribution System
from a transmission network. The high voltage from the

transmission line is then stepped down by a step-down
transformer to the primary distribution level voltage.
y Primary distribution system: It connects the
transmission system with secondary distribution
network, at 33 kV or 11 kV voltage levels and form
the backbone of the distribution system.
y Secondary distribution system: Supplies power to
consumers at voltages of 415 volts and/ or 240
volts and constitutes the first contact of utility
authorities with the consumers.
y Distribution lines: These include overhead lines
and/or cables. The lines in rural areas are mostly
radial in nature. The lines in city areas are mostly
mesh-like networks often called 'ring mains',
which are used to increase the reliability of supply
Fig. 4.22 HT Line and to meet the high density of loads (Fig. 4.22).
Utilisation refers to the process through which the
electricity is put to different uses such as:
y Power for industrial units
y Power for different kinds of household appliances
and gadgets
y Power for communication and electrical traction
y Use in medical equipment, electrolysis, etc.
We can say that the voltage of a local transmission
line is 13,800 volts. This voltage is then lowered even

82
Unit-4 .indd 82 11-06-2019 16:21:27

further between 220 and 440 volts for industrial NOTES
use and from 120 to 240 volts for commercial and
residential customers.
Difference between Transmission and

Distribution Line
Transmission line helps in the movement of electricity
from a power plant or power station to the various
substations whereas the distribution line carries
electricity from the substation to the consumer's end.
In electric power distribution, a service drop is
an overhead electrical line running from a utility
pole, to a customer's building or other premises. It
is the point where electric utilities provide power to
their customers.
Common safety warnings

Power lines are not insulated and one should always
avoid contact with them. It is quite possible for people
to get electrocuted if you touch power lines.
The strongest magnetic fields are usually emitted
from high voltage transmission lines — the power lines
on the big, tall metal towers. To be sure that you are
reducing the exposure levels to 0.5 milli gauss (mG) or
less, a safety distance of 700 feet may be needed. It
could be much less, but sometimes more.
Power lines produce low-to mid-frequency magnetic
fields (EMFs). These types of EMFs are in the non-
ionizing radiation part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
and are not known to damage DNA or cells directly,
according to the National Cancer Institute.
Is there a safe living distance from power lines?
Hundreds of studies worldwide have shown that living
next to high voltage power lines and other parts of the
power transmission network increases your risk of
cancer and other health problems. The closer you are
the more you are bombarded with dangerous EMFs.

83
Unit-4 .indd 83 11-06-2019 16:21:27

NOTES Check your progress

1. ____________means any electric supply line which is
placed above ground line and in the open air.
2. HT and LT lines upto __________33 kV are erected on
poles.
3. The voltage of a local transmission line is ___________
volts.
4. Transmission system is used for ____________the power
for long distances.
B. Multiple Choice Question

1. Generation of power is done through various sources
(a) Thermal,
(b) Hydro,
(c) Non conventional as well as nuclear power station
(d) All the above
2. Extra High Volt i.e., EHV lines of ____________ kV are
erected on towers.
(a) 66
(b) 32,
(c) 220 and 440
(d) All the above
3. The strongest magnetic fields are usually emitted from
high voltage transmission lines are __________milli
gauss
(a) 02
(b) 03
(c) 04
(d) 05
4. It is the ____________ load/demand which is recorded
during the peak hours
(a) Minimum
(b) Maximum
(c) Average
(d) None of these
C. Short Answer questions

1. Differentiate between high and low tension line.
2. Define peak demand.
3. Discuss the importance of power distribution system.
4. Why house should not be made near high transmission
line.
5. Differentiate between transmission and distribution
line.

84
Unit-4 .indd 84 11-06-2019 16:21:27

SESSION 3: CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES NOTES
Construction
The construction activity of H.T. lines is divided into
the following:
1. Pit marking, pit digging
2. Erection of supports and concreting
3. Providing of guys to supports
4. Mounting cross-arms, pin and insulators, and
pin binding
5. Paying and stringing of the conductor
6. Jointing of conductors
7. Sagging and tensioning of conductors
8. Crossings
9. Guarding
10. Earthings
11. Testing and commissioning
Pit Marking and Digging Procedure
After surveying, the pole location should be marked
with the peg. The pits should not be too large than
necessary, as otherwise, after erection of the pole and
filing there remains a possibility of tilting of the pole.
For marking the pits, the dimensions of the pit and
the distance from centre of the pits are required. Pits
having a dimension of about 1.2m x 0.6m should be
excavated with its longer axis in the direction of the
line. The planting depth should be about 1/6 length of
the support (1500 mm). Excavation is generally done by
using pickaxe crow bars and shovel. Very hard or rocky
soil may require blasting of rock by small charges of
gun powder, etc.
Erection of Poles and Concreting
After excavation of pits is completed, the
supports/poles to be erected are brought to the pit
location by manual labour or by cart. Then the pole
is erected inside the pit. Erection of poles can be done
by using bipod/wooden horse made of 15 cm G.I. pipe
and 6m long. The distance between the legs should be

85
Unit-4 .indd 85 11-06-2019 16:21:27

10 m. The tie wire for attachment of bipod to
the pole is about 6 m long and is made of 7/10
SWG (3.15mm) stay wire and this wire should
be attached to the pole at 8m. The pole is slid
along the line route. The pole is tied with three
ropes. The rope at the bottom prevents the
pole from dragging in the direction of the pull.
To prevent the support from the moving side
from rising, two guy ropes are fixed on both
sides and attached to a temporary anchor. For
Fig. 4.23 Erection of pole
smooth sliding and prefect placement of pole in
the pit, an inclined trench having 15.2 cm (6 in) width
and 10.2 cm (4 in) length may be dug adjacent to the pit
as shown in fig 4.23. A piece of M.S. channel is placed
in an inclined position at the opposite end of the pit for
enabling the pole to slip smoothly inside it. The trench
would facilitate the pole to skid smoothly into the pit
with jerks. The bipod is placed in position and attached
to the pole by means of tie wire. The rope pulley is used
to pull for lifting the poles. When the pole has reached at
an angle of (35° to 40°) the derrick and bottom holding
rope is slowly released. When the pole assumes the
vertical position, the holding ropes should be tightened.
It should be ensured that during the time of erection,
the two men shifting the bipod while raising the pole
when it is free at a 40 degree angle, will also join the
other two men who are holding the rope. The supervisor
should be at a distance, guiding correct position so that
in the event of breaking of rope, if the pole falls, it will
not cause an accident.
Before the pole is put into RCC, padding or
alternatively suitable base plate may be given below the
pole to increase the surface contact between the pole
and the soil. The padding will distribute the density of
the pressure due to weight of the pole on the soil. After
lifting the pole it should be kept in a vertical position
with the help of manila rope of 20/25 diameter, using
the rope as a temporary anchor. The alignment of the
poles should be checked and set right by visual check.
The verticality of the poles are to be checked with a
spirit level. After the pole erection has been completed,

86
Unit-4 .indd 86 11-06-2019 16:21:27

and confirming that the verticality and alignments are NOTES
all right, earth filling and ramming should be done
(Fig.4.23).
In swamp and special locations, before earth filling,
the poles are to be concreted up to the ground level of
the pit. After poles have been set, the temporary anchors
should be removed.
Erection of Double pole (DP) Structure for Angle
Locations
Double pole structures are required in all the angle
locations as well as in the tangent locations. DP is
erected at a distance of every one kilometre as line DP.
For angles of deviations more than 10°, DP structure
should be erected. The pit digging should be done along
the bisection of angle of deviation.
After the poles are erected, the horizontal/cross
bracing should be fitted and the supports should be
held in a vertical position with the help of temporary
guys of Manila rope 20/25 mm diameter. Ensuring that
the poles are held in vertical position (by spirit level) the
concreting of poles with 1:3:6 ratio may be done from
bottom of the pole to the ground level. Before lifting the
pole in the pit, concrete padding of not less than 75
mm thickness may be put up for the distribution of the
loads of the support on the soil or anchor plate should
be used.
Concreting
The concreting mixture 1:3:6 ratios would mean 13 bags
of cement 100 cft of stone and 50 cft of sand. It may be
noted that while preparing the concrete mixture large
quantities of water should not be used as this would
wash away cement and sand.
Table 4.4 General proportions of Concrete Mixer
Material Proportion Proportion Proportion

1:3:6 1:2:4 1:4:8
1. 1×1/4 Stone Metal 100 cft 100 cft 100 cft
2. Sand 50 cft 50 cft 50 cft
3. Cement 13 bags 20 bags 10 bags
4. Water 484 ltr 484 ltr 484 ltr

87
Unit-4 .indd 87 11-06-2019 16:21:28

NOTES 11 kV Line
Normally 10 poles are erected within 1 km distance
(average span length 100-105m).
Stays
After the pole erection is over, guying or putting stays
is carried out. The following are different types of stays
used in distribution lines (Fig.4.24).
1. Ordinary Stay
2. ‘A’ Type
3. Self Stay (“B” type)
4. ‘Y’ stay
5. Flying stay
6. Strut
7. Storm guys
Ordinary Stay: This type of stay is generally used. The
size of stay rod, turn buckle and stay wires are to be
used as per the line tension. Generally, for H.T. lines of
19 mm (3/4”) diameter stay rod, 20 mm (5/6”) size eye
bolt, and 7/8 size stay wire are used and for L.T. lines of
15 mm (5/6”) stay rod, 12.5 mm (½”) eyebolt and 7/10
size stay wire are used. Stay insulator shall be used at
a vertical height of 3 meter (10”) from the ground.
‘A’ Type Stay: When the line tension is less and there is
no sufficient space for stay, this type of stay is used. In
cities, many times, there is no sufficient space for stay.
At such places, the stay pit is dug at a short distance
from the pole and hence cannot take adequate tension.
A support angle is fixed to the pole. Arrangement is
available to affix the stay wire to the angle. This is
called “Stay out trigger”. This type of stay looks like
English ‘A’.
Self Stay or ‘B’ Type Stay: When there is no space for
stay, the lower portion of the stay wire is clamped by
stay clamp to the lower portion of the pole. Such type of
stay is called Self stay or ‘B’ type stay.
‘Y’ Type Stay: It is used for supporting guarding cross
arm. It is also used for side brackets.
Flying Stay: When the line is on the roadside and there
is no space for stay, pole piece of sufficient height is
erected at the other side of the road and a stay wire is

88
Unit-4 .indd 88 11-06-2019 16:21:28

tied up between pole and pole piece. For giving tension NOTES
to the pole piece, stay wire and stay rod are used.
Strut (Stud): When the pole is on the roadside and there
is no space for stay, one pole is used as a support to the
line pole from opposite side of the stay. The support
pole is called “strut”. Strut is fixed to line pole by a
suitable clamp.
Storm Guys: When the line is straight and the distance
from one cut-point to another is more, this type of stay
is used. At mid-pole of the line, two stays at an angle of
600 on both sides are tied up. Such type of stay is called
“Storm Guys”. For angle location, stays are to be given
in such a way that tilting of the pole due to conductor
tension is avoided. Stay insulators are used to obstruct
the leakage current.
Stay Binding: The stay should be linked with pole
earthing and/or neutral wire using G.I. so that leakage
current will pass through earthing or neutral to the
ground. Such binding is called “Stay Binding”.
Remember
1. if stay insulator is not provided, 8 S.W.G. G.I. wire
shall be used near the stay clamp and link it to
neutral conductor. The length of G.I. wire should
be sufficient to join the stay wire to neutral of L.T.
line or in case of H.T. line, to the H.T. earthing.
This G.I. wire should be well bound to the earthing
or neutral.
2. stay insulator should not be less than 10 ft from
the ground.
Normal Stay Self Stay A Type Strut Type

Fig. 4.24 Types of stay

89
Unit-4 .indd 89 11-06-2019 16:21:28

3. While binding the stay, pole should not be tilted.
4. Thimble is necessary for stay binding. If the
thimble is not available, the portion on stay wire
on eye bolt should be binded properly.
REC construction G4 gives the details of various guys.
The figure 4.25 gives the detail of stay set arrangement
for 11kV/LT Line.
eye point
ture beckle
stay insulator
base pate E
Fig. 4.25 Erection of stay

16.0 6.0 +1.5
65 max
65 Fifteen locations are there within 1 km.
Provision for 9 guy-sets is made with 7/3.15
stay-wire (5.5kg). The turn-buckle M.S. rod of
16 mm diameter concrete quantity at the rate
45 + 3
90 45 +1.5
of 0.2 cm per stay-set should be provided.
creepage
distance
Either base pad should be used or additional
25 + 1.5 105 max provision for base pad-concreting should be
85
made (Figs. 4.26 and 4.27).
11 kV and LT Stay erection
Guy Strain Insulators

80 + 6
60.0 + 1.5
140
Fig. 4.26 Dimensions of stay Guy strain insulators are placed to prevent
the lower part of the guy from becoming electrically
energised by a contact of the upper part of the guy when
the conductor snaps and falls on them or due to leakage.
No guy insulator shall be located less than 3.50 meter
(vertical distance) from the ground.

90
Unit-4 .indd 90 11-06-2019 16:21:30

Clam
Clam
Stay set Arrangement Anchor Rod & Plate
Fig. 4.27 Construction of various components of stay
Fixing of Cross-Arms and Top-brackets

After the erection of supports and providing guys, the
cross-arms and top-brackets are to be mounted on the
support with necessary clamps, bolts and nuts. The
practice of fixing the cross-arms a bracket before the
pole erection is also there. In case, these cross-arms
are to be mounted after the pole is erected, the lineman
should climb the pole with necessary tools. The cross-
arm is then tied to a hand line and pulled up by the
ground man through a pulley, till the cross-arm reaches
the lineman. The ground man should station himself on
one side, so that if any material drops from the top of
the pole, it does not strike him. All the materials should
be lifted or lowered through the hand line, and should
not be dropped.
40 22 0 hole
11 kV ‘V’ cross arm fixing 1070
50*50*6 plate
Insulators and Bindings to be welded
180 80
22 0 hole holes
Line conductors are electrically insulated 310
c75*40*5.7 kg/m
from each other as well as from the pole

or tower by non-conductors, which we call 310 370 310
‘insulators’. Elevation
There are 3 types of porcelain insulators 29
1. Pin type 1070

Plan
2. Strain type
Fig. 4.28 11 kV ‘V’ cross arm specification
3. Shackle type
91
Unit-4 .indd 91 11-06-2019 16:21:32

The pin type insulators are generally used for straight
stretch of line. The insulator and its pin should be
mechanically strong enough to withstand the resultant
force due to combined effect of wind pressure and weight
of the conductor in the span. The strain insulators are
used at terminal locations or dead-end locations and
at places where the angle of deviation of line is more
than 10°. The shackle type of insulators are used for L.T
Lines (Figs. 4.28 and 4.29).
The pins for insulators are fixed in the holes
provided in the cross-arms and the pole top brackets.
The insulators are mounted in their places over the pins
and tightened. In case of strain or angle supports, where
strain fittings are provided for this purpose, one strap
of the strain fitting is placed over the cross-arm before
placing the bolt in the hole of cross-arms. The nut of the
straps is so tightened that the strap can move freely in
horizontal direction (Fig. 4.30).
For wood
cross-arm
instead
of spring Fig. 4.29 Binding of pin insulator
washers use
two square
washers
Tying of Conductor on Pin Insulators
50*50*5 Mm. Conductors should occupy such a position on the
One on top
and the other insulator so as to produce minimum strain on the
at bottom
tie wire. The function of the wire is only to hold the
Insulator Pin conductor in place on the insulator, leaving the insulator
(Types 65P)
As Per: 2486 Pt.ii and pin to take the strain of the conductor.
In straight line, the best practice is to use a top
Fig. 4.30 Specification of GI pin
groove insulator. These insulators will carry grooves on

92
Unit-4 .indd 92 11-06-2019 16:21:33

NOTES
145
35
100
140
2
4
17.5 Ø hole for

5 16 Ø cotton pin
elevation end view
Fig. 4.31 Fixing of Disc Insulator
the side as well. When the conductor is placed on the

top groove, the tie wire serves only to keep the conductor
from slipping out (Fig. 4.31).
On corners and angles (below 5 deviations) the
conductor should be placed on the outer side of the
insulators. On the far side of the pole, this pulls the
conductor against the insulator instead of away from
the insulator.
Kind and Size of Tie Wire to be used
In general the tie wire should be the same kind of wire
as the line wire i.e. aluminium tie wire should be used
with aluminium line conductor. The tie should always
be made of soft annealed wire so that it may not be
brittle and injure the line conductor. A tie wire should
never be used for second time. Good practice is to use
number ‘6’ tie wires for line conductor. The length of the

93
Unit-4 .indd 93 11-06-2019 16:21:34

NOTES wire varies from 1m for simple tie of small insulators (LT
pin insulators) to 3 m (33 KV pin insulators).
Rule of Good Tying Practice
1. Use only fully annealed tie wire.
(i) Use that size of tie wire which can be readily
handled, yet one which will provide adequate
strength.
(ii) Use length of tie wire sufficient for making the
complete tie, including an end allowance for
gripping with the hands. The extra length should
be cut from the end if the tie is completed.
(iii) A good tie should:
y Provide a secure binding between line wire
insulators and tie wire.
y Have positive contacts between the line wire
and the tie wire so as to avoid shifting contacts.
y Reinforce line wire in the vicinity of insulator.
(iv) Avoid use of pliers.
(v) Do not use the wire which has been previously
used.
(vi) Do not use hard drawn wires for tying.
2. Good helical accessories are available and can be used.
Conductor Sagging and Erection Stringing

Conductor erection is the most important phase in
construction. The main operations are:
y Transportation of conductor to work site
y Paying and stringing of conductor
y Joining of conductor
y Tensioning and sagging of conductor
The conductor drums are transported to the location.
While transporting, precautions are to be taken so
that the conductor does not get damaged/ injured.
The drum could be mounted on cable drum support,
which generally is made from crow-bar and wooden
slippers for small size conductor drums. The direction
of rotation of the drum has to be according to the
mark in the drum so that the conductor could be
drawn. While drawing the conductor, it should not rub
causing damage. The conductor could be passed over

94
Unit-4 .indd 94 11-06-2019 16:21:34

poles on wooden or aluminum snatch block mounted NOTES
on the poles for this purpose.
The mid-span jointing is done through compression
crimping or if helical fittings are used the jointing
could be done manually. After completing the jointing,
tensioning operation can be started. The conductor
is pulled through come-along clamps to string the
conductor between the tension locations. Sagging of
conductor has to be in accordance to the Sag Tension
chart. In order to achieve it, it is preferred to pull the
conductor to a tension a little above the theoretical value
so that while transferring it from the snatch blocks to the
pit insulators and to take care of temperature variation
proper sag could be achieved. Sagging for 33/11 kV line
is mostly done by ‘sighting’. A horizontal strip of wood
is fixed below the cross-arm on the pole at the required
sag. The lineman sees from other end and the sag is
adjusted by increasing or decreasing the tension. The
tension clamps could then be finally fixed and conductor
be fixed on pin-insulators. All fittings, accessories
like guys, cross-arms, etc., could be checked as they
crimping sleeve
crimping tool
die
center stop
conductor
start crimp
first crimp
second crimp
to crimp
move handles in the direction
a typical complete joint
Fig. 4.32 Crimping of ACSR and AAC conductor

95
Unit-4 .indd 95 11-06-2019 16:21:35

NOTES should not have deformities. Along the overhead line
where the conductor is to be strung, four number of
wheel consisting of wooden circular base provided with
vertical steel rod is placed, which is loaded with the
conductor drums (as required). These conductors, say
three in number are dragged using the ‘come along’ tool
by either labourers, tractor or pulling machine along
the line supports (Fig. 4.32).
This bunch of conductors is lifted up to the cross-arms
by a man on the pole-top using a pulley and rope. And a
handful of other labourers pull the other end of the rope.
Thus, the conductor reaches the cross-arm. A similar
procedure is followed for all the poles before sagging.
Ground Clearance
y Specified clearances are to be maintained at the
lowest point of the span with maximum sag as
per CEA Gazette Notification 2010
y Maximum sag is related to the temperature
y Tension of conductors is to be limited so that
F.O.S. is 2
Keeping all these parameters in view, sag-tension
charts are to be drawn for each conductor size, so that,
while constructing the lines, these charts are referred
for keeping proper sag and tension at the atmospheric
temperature at that time. This will help in maintaining
required clearance.
Maximum Clearance between Supports
The supports are designed to withstand certain working
load. This governs the distance (span) between two
supports. The load on the supports depends upon wind
pressure on conductors, surface area of the support,
fittings etc. The greater the wind pressure zone area
the lesser the span. REC has issued Construction
Standards for span for 11kV and LT Lines for various
wind pressure zones i.e.50 kg/m, 75 kg/m and 100
kg/m. The span for 11kV for 50 kg/m is 107meters and
it gets reduced at higher wind pressure.

96
Unit-4 .indd 96 11-06-2019 16:21:35

Table 4.5 11 kV Line—Triangular Configuration (Rec NOTES
Construction Standards)
Conductor size Working Maximum permissible span in

(Normal AI area) load of meters in a wind pressure zone
supports of
50 kg/m 75 kg/m 100 kg/m
Rabbit ACSR 140 kg 107 67.5 NR
(equivalent AAAC (107) (72)
7/3.15) 200 kg NR 104 73.5
(107) (78.0)
Weasel ACSR 140 kg 107 87.5 NR
(equivalent AAAC (107) (90)
7/2.5)
200 kg NR 107 95
(107) (98)
Squirrel 140 kg 107 107 NR
ACSR(equivalent 200 kg NR 107 107
AAAC 7/2)
LT lines (3 phase 4 wire) 8 m supports (3 phase – 4

wire) line vertical formation
(i) Above spans will suit for single phase lines also.
(ii) 3 phase-5 wire lines are required to provide street
lighting in the inhabited areas where spans have
to be limited to get normal intensity of light hence
the details are not given.
Table 4.6 Maximum permissible spans with ACSR,

AAAC and AAC Conductor
Conductor Size Working Maximum permissible span

(Normal AI area) load of in meters in a wind pressure
Supports zone of
50kg/m 75kg/m 100kg/m
99 62.5 NR
ACSR Rabbit 140 kg (103) (63) (NR)
(equivalent AAAC 200 kg NR 93.5 66.5
7/3.15) (NR) (98) (69)
99.5 77.5 NR
ACSR Weasel 140 kg (107) (77) (NR)
(equivalent AAAC 200 kg NR 99.5 82.5
7/2.5) (NR) (107) (83)

97
Unit-4 .indd 97 11-06-2019 16:21:35

ACSR Squirrel 140 kg 100.5 91 NR
(equivalent AAAC 200 kg (107) (91) (NR)
7/2) NR 100.5 97
(NR) (107.0) (99)
AAC (Ant) 140 kg 71.5 66.5 NR
200 kg NR 67.5 63
AAC (Gnat) 140 kg 73 66 NR
200 kg NR 66 59.3
Overhead Conductor Stringing

Along the overhead line where the conductor is to be
strung, four wheels consisting of wooden circular
base provided with vertical steel rod are placed, which
are loaded with the conductor drums (as required).
These conductors, say, three in number are dragged
using the ‘come along’ tool by either labourers, tractor
or pulling machine along the line supports.
This bunch of conductors is lifted up to the cross-
arms by a man on the pole-top using a pulley and rope.
A handful of other labourers pull the other end of the
rope. Thus, the conductor reaches the cross-arm. The
details are shown in figure 4.33. A similar procedure is
followed for all the poles before sagging.
Derrick
Rope
Derrick
Trifor
OR Rully
Bipod
Channel piece
RCC padding base
Fig. 4.33 Derrick Method

98
Unit-4 .indd 98 11-06-2019 16:21:35

Sagging and Tensioning NOTES
The variation in the atmospheric temperature results in
the increase or decrease of the length of the conductor
of a section. In summer, when temperature is high,
the length increases due to expansion and in winter,
when the temperature is low the length decreases due
to contraction. With increase in length, the conductor
becomes loose, sag increases and tension reduces, while
in winter the sag decreases, tension increases.
11 kV Fixing and binding of strain Insulator
Fig. 4.34 Strain Insulator Assembly with Helically Formed Fittings
There are two important factors which affect the sag

and tension:
y Elasticity of the conductor and
y Temperature
Sag is directly proportional to wind pressure load (W)
and inversely proportional to temperature (T). If the
length of the conductor increases due to temperature
increase then sag will increase. This may be the case in
summer, while it may be reverse in winter. The tension
will accordingly decrease or increase.
In order to keep the sag and tension values under
varied working conditions according to the regulations,
Sag-Tension charts are prepared for different spans and
temperatures for ACSR, AAAC and AAC conductor.

99
Unit-4 .indd 99 11-06-2019 16:21:36

NOTES
160+0.5
50
90
42
packing piece
18
32
12 12
52 62
15
5 10
14
suitable for conductor

up to 11mm diameter
46
packing piece
m-12 u-bolt
Fig. 4.35 11kV Strain Clamp for Ball and Socket type insulator

100
Unit-4 .indd 100 11-06-2019 16:21:38

160+0.5
17.5+0.8
90
35
packing piece
18
32
12
8.5 min
62
16.5
8.5 min
160+0.5
15
3
5 10
14
suitable for conductor

up to 11mm diameter
46
packing piece
m-12 u-bolt
Fig. 4.36 Fixing of Disc insulator

101
Unit-4 .indd 101 11-06-2019 16:21:40

Conductor Jointing
The length of distribution lines are in kilometers and one
coil of conductor is not able to solve the length problem.
Hence jointing the conductor is necessary.
Another necessity of jointing the conductor is
breaking of the conductor for some reason.
Types of Joints
(1) Britannia, (2) Telephone, (3) Meried Joint, (4) ‘T”
joint, (5) Sleeve joints, (6) Compression joint.
Britannia Joint: This type of joint
is made only on solid conductors
and cannot be made on stranded
conductor. Two conductors of
length 6 inches (150 mm) are
brought in front of each other to
be joined . Then both conductors
should be cleaned to make sure
that they are rust free. If the
conductor is of copper; it should
Fig. 4.37 Britannia Joint make good electrical connection.
Then ends of both the conductors are bent through half
centimetre and placed on each other. The length of the
contact portion should be minimum 100 mm. This joint
should be bound by 14 mm copper wire as shown in the
figure (Fig. 4.37).
Telephone Joint (Western Union): This joint is used
only for solid conductors. It is used for conductors of
size 8 SWG or higher size. First, they are bent at 100 to
125 mm from the edges and are placed over each other.
Then each one is twisted with another conductor.
Married Joints: This joint is made between copper
conductors having central strand of G.I. wire. This
joint should not be made between Al conductors.
Approximately 175 to 200 mm of conductor strands are
unwound. The G.I. strand of both conductors should
be broken up to a length of 175 mm. Both conductors
should be brought in front of each other and their
strands should be woven with each other. The strand
of one conductor is twisted on another conductor, and
the strand of the other conductor is twisted on the first.

102
Unit-4 .indd 102 11-06-2019 16:21:41

Likewise all the strands are twisted and then soldered.
This is used only for small span length (Fig. 4.38).
‘T’ Joint: This joint is made with stranded conductor.
This joint cannot take tension. It is used for jumper or
tapping in sub-station. The conductor strands to be
separated up to 100 mm. Then middle steel strands are
cut. Then it shall be placed to horizontal conductor with
three strands each on either side and shall be twisted
over the horizontal conductor (Fig. 4.39).
Before Jointing
Preparation of ‘T’ Joint
After Jointing ‘T’ Joint After

Completion
Fig. 4.38 Married Joint Fig. 4.39 ‘T’ Joint
Sleeve Joint: It can be made with any type of aluminium

conductor. Graphite grease is applied over the conductor
and as shown in figure 4.40 two Al sleeves should be
taken. These sleeves should be placed on the conductor
as shown. Sleeves should be twisted by twisting wrench.
This joint is made for L.T., H.T., ACSR, AAC conductor
up to 0.06 cm2 (Fig. 4.40).
Fig. 4.40 Sleeve Joint
Compression Joint: This joint is used for conductors

of more than 0.06 cm2 sizes. For preparing these joints,
two different sleeves are used. There are two holes in
Al sleeve. Rebating is done through these holes. Slide
aluminium sleeves are slid over one conductor. It is slid
until only the working length protrudes. The next step
will be cutting of the aluminium strands for installation
of the steel sleeve. It is measured back from each end
of the conductor and then a distance equal to half the
length of the aluminium sleeve is marked. The cut

103
Unit-4 .indd 103 11-06-2019 16:21:42

NOTES line is then marked. The marked location for cutting
should be taped. The outer strands are cut with a
rotating tool until the layer becomes loose. To prevent
nicking, the core inner layer should not be cut. The wire
in the inner layer is removed by hand. It is extremely
important to note that a small cut on the core should
not be disturbed while cutting the aluminium strands.
If this happens, the ultimate strength of the joint will
be reduced. Repeat the above process with another
conductor. Insert the conductor’s core into the steel
sleeve, making sure that the ends butt solidly against
the center stop. Also, ensure the distance from the end
of the barrel to the aluminium strand. Lubricate the
sleeves with solid lubricating wax. Remove the tape from
the ends of the aluminium strands. Set the steel sleeve
into the compressing tool. Choose a proper size of the
die for steel sleeve. Make initial die compression at the
centre of the steel sleeve. Make compression on both
sides of the centre compression. Overlap successive
compressions by approximately 0.5 inches. Choose
one side and compress it to the end. Repeat the same
process to the other side also. The aluminium sleeve
extrudes beyond the steel sleeve. Remove and clean the
steel sleeve. Now change the die in compressing tool for
the aluminium joint compression. Slide the aluminium
sleeve over the steel sleeve until the end of the barrel
aligns with the marks placed on the conductor. Inject
the filler compound through holes. This filler compound
protects the steel barrel from corrosion, cleans the
strands by removing oxides while compressing. Now
make the initial compression on either side of the
splice beginning at the start mark. Continue making
compressions on one side to the end. Complete the
compression on the other side also. The centre portion
of the splice is not compressed.
Jumpering
Connecting two conductors or wires is called Jumpering.
1. Jumper should not be connected to main
conductor. The jumper should always be
connected by P.G. clamps as shown in Fig 4.41.

104
Unit-4 .indd 104 11-06-2019 16:21:42

2. When the jumpers are near metallic portion, all NOTES
such jumpers are covered with alkathene pipe.
Fig. 4.41 Jumpering
3. Conductor joints are marked on A.C.S.R.

conductor when dispatched. Mid span joint
should be made before stringing because the
steel strand is not kept continuous. Hence it is
necessary to replace the company joint.
4. Care should be taken that mid span joint will not
be less than 40 feet from pole.
5. Every joint should be done carefully.
6. Where conductor strands are cut, repair sleeve is
used.
7. Conductor joint strength should be 95% that of
conductor, and resistance should be that of main
conductor.
Guarding
Guarding is an arrangement provided for the lines, by
which a live conductor, when accidentally broken, is
prevented to come in contact with other electric lines,
telephone or telegraph lines, railway lines, roads, and
persons or animals and carriages moving along the
railway line or road, by providing a sort of cradle below
the main electric line. Immediately after a live conductor
breaks, it first touches this cradle guard of G.I. wires
before going down further. This, in turn, trips the circuit
breakers or H.T./L.T. fuses provided for the H.T./LT.
lines, and the electric power in the conductor or the line
is cut off, and danger to any living object is averted.
Guarding is not required for crossings of 66 kV
and higher voltage lines where the transmission line is
protected by fast acting relay operated circuit breaker
of modern design with a tripping time of even less than
the order of 0.25 seconds from occurrence of fault
to its clearance. For all other crossings, like railway
tele-communication lines and major road crossing
guarding is essential.

105
Unit-4 .indd 105 11-06-2019 16:21:42

NOTES The minimum height between any guard wire and
live crossing conductor shall not be less than 1.5 m in
case of a railway crossing (Fig. 4.41).
Types of Guarding
(i) P.V.C. Guarding
(ii) Levice Guarding
P.V.C. Guarding
This is mainly used for L.T. Lines passing through
agriculture field. This is used where formation of line is
vertical. The upper end is tied in shackle bolt and lower
end is tied to the neutral. A G.I. wire frame is prepared
so that there will be horizontal G.I. wire piece at equal
distance below every conductor. The vertical wires of
the frame are insulated with P.V.C. pipe. Even during
conductor swings, it will not be earthed due to P.V.C.
pipe. In case of snapping of conductor, it will make
contact with the G.I. wire and get earthed, resulting
blowing of the fuse (Fig. 4.42).
430 mm 450 mm
m
m m
50 m
50 7.5 mm thinck
120
50 conductor wooden
G.I. wire 260 batten
6 S.W.G. 0
21
260
woldage 20*20
light 150
phase
210
neutral
Fig. 4.42 Vertical Type Guarding
There are two types of guarding according to the

formation. A). To use in case of ‘D’ clamps. (B) Direct
shackle type.
Levice Guarding
This is of the following types:
(i) Carpet guarding
(ii) Cradle guarding
(iii) Box type guarding
There are two, three or four guard wire for levice guarding.
These are bound with cross arm. The horizontal laces at

106
Unit-4 .indd 106 11-06-2019 16:21:43

a specific distance are tied up to the above wires. This
guarding is used up to 33 KV lines.
(i) Carpet Guarding: The specific length cross arms are
fixed on the poles. Four G.I. wires are used for guard
wire. Lacings are tied up at specific distance. This type
is used for power line crossing or power and telephone
line crossing (Fig. 4.44).
(ii) Cradle Guarding: It consists of 6 guard wire. Four
are on lower side and two on the upper side. Cross lacing
is done from three sides. It is also called Tray guarding.
Even though the conductor while snapping jumps up
drastically, it will not go out of the cradle guarding.
This is used for railway or L.T. to 33 KV guarding
in residential area, for road crossing or along the
road lines (Fig. 4.43).
P
S
P
610 1830 8 or 7/14 S.W.G.

G.I. wire G.I. wire
cross lacing cross lacing
8.10 or 12 S.W.g. GI wire
for 11/22/11 kV lines for 11/22/11 kV lines
line road P S note

crossing 750 mm 3 mtr line road P S note
along road 750 mm 6 mtr crossing 750 mm 3 mtr
along road 750 mm 6 mtr
Fig. 4.43 Cradle Type Guarding Fig. 4.44 Carpet Guarding
(iii) Box Type Guarding: This is used for composite

lines. By fixing cross arms to the lower line, carpet
guarding is done and also for the upper line, the upper
guard wire is fixed to the lower by vertical lacing.
Road crossing and guarding
(a) As far as possible road crossing should be at right
angle, but not less than an angle of 60 degrees.
(b) Cradle guarding is used for road crossing of power
line or along the line.
(c) G.I. wire of 10 W.S.G. for L.T. line and 8 W.S.G for
11 KV to 33 KV lines is used for guarding.

107
Unit-4 .indd 107 11-06-2019 16:21:44

NOTES (d) The first lacing should be at a distance of 750 mm
from the pole. Other lacing is tied at a distance of
3 meter from each other.
(e) The vertical distance between conductor and
guarding in mid span should be minimum 610
mm for L.T. and 1220 mm for H.T line.
(f) The vertical distance between L.T. line guarding
cross arm and neutral should be 610 mm (2 ft.)
and the length of cross arms should be 750 mm
(2½’)
(g) The clearance between line and guarding cross
arm for 11 KV, 22 KV and 33 KV line should be
650 mm (2 ¼’), 750 mm (2 ½’) and 840 mm (2 ¾’)
respectively.
(h) There is no need of guarding for lines above 66
KV, as their circuit breakers are sensitive. The
breaker trips when conductor snaps thereby
isolating the line.
Presently, due to electrification of railway-tracks,
11kV and L.T. crossings have to be done through
underground cables.
Special Instructions
(a) Power lines should always be guarded as above.
(b) The distance between guard-wire and telephone
line should be minimum 920 mm.
(c) The telephone crossings for 66 KV and above are
done by Telephone Department. The clearance
between the power line and telephone line shall
be as below :
66 KV and 132 KV - - 2750 mm (9’)
220 KV and 400 KV -- 4575 mm (15’)
Fitting Accessories on H.T./L.T. line

It is essential to fix accessories after pole erection. Line
accessories are of two types.
(a) Conductor accessories
(b) Pole accessories
a. Conductor Accessories
1. Binding Tape: Binding tape is used for binding pin
insulator, shackle or Line insulator to the conductor.
The tape is wound on the conductor. The metal of
binding tape should be same as that of conductor. The

108
Unit-4 .indd 108 11-06-2019 16:21:44

first layer is wound along the wire in direction of twist NOTES
of wire and second layer is in opposite the twist. The
portion on which the binding wire is to be wound should
be taped 25mm more from either side. This tape is used
for avoiding conductor snapping due to friction.
2. Binding Wire: It is used for binding insulator to the
conductor.
3. P.G. Clamp: It means parallel groove clamp. This
is used for joining jump wire. Line tension cannot be
given on P.G Clamps. Bi-metallic P.G. clamp is made
out of two different metals and the conductor of the
same metal is used in the same type of metal groove of
P.G. Clamp
4. T Clamp: T clamps are used in substation to connect
the jumps and cannot sustain tension.
b. Pole accessories
The main pole accessories are cross arms, clamps,
insulators, aluminum bobbins, nuts and bolts, stay
clamp, etc.
Earthing
Earthing shall generally be carried out in accordance
with the requirements of CEA regulations for measures
relating to safety and electricity supply, dated
20th September 2010 and the relevant regulations
of the Electricity Supply Authority concerned and as
the following:
1. All metal supports, fittings etc. shall be permanently
and efficiently earthed. Either a continuous wire
may be run with earthing arrangements at 4
points in 1.609 km or each independent structure
should be efficiently earthed.
2. Similarly at consumer’s premises a suitable
earthing point would be provided. Consumer has
to make arrangement for independent earthing.
3. Sub-stations structures etc. should be provided
with two independent earthing points. This
should be interconnected or matting in the sub-
station area could be laid-down for connecting to
the earth points.

109
Unit-4 .indd 109 11-06-2019 16:21:44

NOTES 4. For RCC/PCC poles the metal cross-arms and
insulator pins shall be bonded and earthed at
every pole for HT lines and at every 5th pole for
LT lines.
5. All special structures on which switches,
transformers, fuses, etc., are mounted should be
earthed.
6. The supports on either side of the road, railway or
river crossing should be earthed.
7. All supports (metal, RCC/PCC) of both HT and
LT lines passing through inhabited areas, road
crossings and along such other places, where
earthing of all poles is considered desirable from
safety considerations should be earthed.
In special locations, railway and telegraph line
crossings, special structures, etc., pipe/rod earthing
should be done. At other locations the coil earthing may
be adopted. The coil earthing consist of 10m length of
8 SWG G.I. wire compressed into a coil 450 mm length
and 50 mm diameter and buried 1500 mm deep.
Earthing and its types

It is very important to earth the line and electrical
equipment. It will be electrically unsafe without earthing.
The pole/ body of equipment connected solidly to earth
are called earthing.
1. For Electrical supports and equipment
In case of short circuit or leakage, current will pass with
minimum resistance to earth so that maximum current
will flow through effected circuit so that fuse will blow
or circuit breaker to trip. This will isolate the faulty line
or equipment from live circuit.
2. Transformer neutral earthing
(a) The leakage or unbalanced current will have path
with minimum resistance.
(b) Sensitive protecting equipment works properly.
(Earth Fault Relay)
(c) It prevents the lines being charged to excessive
high voltage due to lightening or switching surges.

110
Unit-4 .indd 110 11-06-2019 16:21:44

(d) By connecting resistance in the neutral earthing, NOTES
fault current is controlled.
(e) It helps for keeping neutral voltage always zero.
3. For Lightening Arrestor
The lightening arrestor or earthing, discharges the
lightening charge with very low resistance, which
prevents possible damages to the infrastructure. For
this, very low earth resistance is necessary. This quality
can be achieved by piercing the earth electrode deep in
the ground till the wet soil.
Earth tester measures earth’s resistance and its unit
is ohm.
It is very important to earth the line and electrical
equipment. It will be electrically unsafe without earthing.
The pole/body of the equipment connected solidly to
earth is called earthing.
Methods of Earthing
As per REC Construction Standards there are two types
of earthing:
1. REC Construction Standard J-1 Coil Earthing
(Fig. 4.45)
2. REC Construction standard J-2 Pipe Earthing or
Spike Earthing (Fig. 4.46)
GL GL
200
500
300
K W 001 W
2500 welding
Fig. 4.46 Pipe Earthing
Notes:
1. All dimensions are in mm
2. Earth terminal should be made of G.I
3. Manufacturing tolerance
4. Clamp is to be welded to spike
5. The whole assembly is to be hot dip galvanised
(BIS: 2629 and 4759)

111
Unit-4 .indd 111 11-06-2019 16:21:45

From support 1200 2.5m
APP
600
G L
300
NQ 8.5 W.O 0.1

wire closely wound
115 turns
Refilled Earth
Charcoal or coke
and salt layers of
300 in alternate
1500 50
Earthing Spiral
spiral earth wire

8 S.W.G G.I
450
350
Fig. 4.45 Coil Earthing
6. All ms (mild steel) parts should be as per BIS:

2062
7. Weight mentioned is for packing and forwarding
purpose only
Earth Resistance
(a) Earth resistance is depended on following factors:
(i) Type of soil
(ii) Temperature of earth
(iii) Humidity in earth
(iv) Minerals in earth
(v) Length of electrode in the earth
(vi) Electrode shape and size
(vii) Distance between two electrodes
(viii) Number of electrodes
112
Unit-4 .indd 112 11-06-2019 16:21:45

(b) Maximum earth resistance allowed is as below: NOTES
(i) Major power station 0.5 ohms
(ii) Major sub-stations 1.0 ohms
(iii) Minor sub-station 2 ohms
(iv) Neutral bushing 0.2 ohms
(v) Service connection 4 ohms
(vi) L.T lightening arrestor 4 ohms
(vii) L.T. pole 5 ohms
(vii) H.T. pole 10 ohms
(viii) Tower 20-30 ohms
If earth’s resistance is more than the above values,
the following treatments can be made for minimising
resistance.
(i) Oxidation on joints should be removed and joints
should be tightened.
(ii) Sufficient water should be poured in earth
electrode.
(iii) Earth electrode of the biggest value should be
used.
(iv) Electrodes should be connected in parallel.
(v) Earth pit of more depth and width-breadth should
be made.
Anti-climbing Devices
In order to prevent unauthorised persons from climbing
any of the supports of HT and LT lines without the aid
of a ladder or special appliances, certain anti-climbing
devices are provided to the supports. Two methods
generally adopted are:
(i) barbed wire binding, for a distance of 30 cm to 40
cm at a height of 3.5 m to 4 m from ground level,
(ii) clamps with protruding spikes at a height of 3 m
to 4 m.
Testing and Commissioning

When the line is ready to energise, it should be thoroughly
inspected in respect of the following.
1. Poles — proper alignment, concerting and muffing.
2. Cross-arms — proper alignment.

113
Unit-4 .indd 113 11-06-2019 16:21:45

NOTES 3. Binding, clamps and jumpers — To check whether
these are in reach.
4. Conductor and ground wire — Proper sag and to
check whether there are any cuts, etc.
5. Guy — To check whether the Guy wire is tight
and whether the Guy insulators are intact.
Earthing System: In order to check whether the
earthing connections support and the fittings are
intact the following steps should be taken. Measure
earth’s resistance with a earth tester. After the visual
inspection is over and satisfied, the conductor is tested
for continuity/ground, by means of a Megohmmeter
or megger. At the time of testing through the megger,
a person should not climb on the pole or touch the
guarding, conductor, guy wire etc.
1. Before charging any new line, it should be ensured
that the required inspection fee for the new line
is paid to the electrical inspector and approval
obtained from him for charging the line.
2. The line should be energised before the
authorised officer.
3. Before energising any new line, the officer-in-
charge of the line shall notify to the workmen
that the line is being energised and that it will no
longer be safe to work on line. Acknowledgement
of all the workmen in writing should be taken in
token of having intimated them.
4. Wide publicity should be made in all the localities
through which the line is to be energised will be
passing. It s necessary to Intimate the time and
date of energising and warning the public against
the risk in meddling with the line.
5. The Officer-in-Charge of the line shall personally
satisfy himself that the same is in a fit state
to be energised.
Principle of Operation of Fuse

Heating effect of electric current is used in the operation
of the fuse (Fig. 4.47). Any increase in an electric current
in the circuit results in the increase in the rate of heat
generation which will increase the temperature of the

114
Unit-4 .indd 114 11-06-2019 16:21:45

fuse wire. If this temperature happens to be above the
melting point of the material of fuse wire, fuse must
have operated.
Regulators used in distribution system are voltage
regulators which are used to adjust voltage at Fig. 4.47 Fuse
distribution end. The step type voltage regulator takes
an incoming voltage that will vary with load conditions
and maintains a constant output voltage. As the loading
increases along the distribution feeder, the voltage will
drop. This reduction in voltage reduces the amount of
power used by the lighting portion of the load. There
are two types of regulators: single phase regulator and
three phase regulator (Fig. 4.48).
Auto Re-closer
(a) A Re-closer is a protection device (Fig. 4.49):
– For overhead power lines
Fig. 4.48 Voltage Regulator
– It is a circuit breaker designed to handle fault
currents
– Designed to Re-close on to a fault
Sectionaliser
(a) A Sectionaliser is a load break switch:
– It is used in conjunction with a “re-closer”
or “circuit breaker”.
– It counts the interruption created by a re-closer
during a fault sequence.
Fig. 4.49 Auto Re-closer
Check Your Progress
1. Double poll (DP) strutures are required in all the
angle___________
2. In 11 KV lines _____________ poles are erected within
1 km distance.
3. Guy strain insulators are placed to ____________ the
lower part of the guy.
4. Connecting to conductors or wires is called ____________.
5. Cross arms and _____________ are mounted on the
support with ncessary clamps, bolts and nuts.

1. Which type of joint is made with Aluminium conductors?
(a) Compression (b) Meried
(c) Sleeve (d) Britannia

115
Unit-4 .indd 115 11-06-2019 16:21:47

NOTES 2. Which of these is not a type of porcelain insulator?
(a) Pin type (b) Strain type
(c) Britannia (d) Shackle type
3. While binding the stay, pole should not be tilted.
(a) False
(b) True
4. The diamond guarding is used for
(a) LT Line (b) HT Line
(c) Both HT and LT (d) None of the above
5. Average span of 11 KV line is
(a) 50 meter (b) 2. 60 meter
(c) 3. 75 meter (d) 4. 100 meter
B. Short answer questions
1. Discuss the importance of guarding. Explain the types

of guarding.
2. List the factors on which earth's resistance is dependant
3. How do lightening arrestors help in earthing?
4. Explain the types of joints used in conductor jointing.
SESSION 4: DISTRIBUTION LINE MAINTENANCE

The lines and equipment should be inspected by the
competent authority. Following points need to be taken
care of during inspection:
1. For existing substation, the work should be done
as per the layout approval.
2. Statutory clearances have to be ensured, while
inspecting the following crossings:
(a) Railway crossings
(b) P and T crossings
(c) Junctions
(d) Road Crossings
3. Make sure that proper clearance is obtained for
the lines with different voltages operating on the
same support.
4. DPs and cut points should be inspected based on
need and approvals.
5. Adequate safety and clearances should be ensured
while running the lines at domestic colonies.

116
Unit-4 .indd 116 11-06-2019 16:21:47

6. There should be appropriate earthing.
7. Any crossing should be at right angles, to
the extent possible.
8. Proper cross arms, extension cross arms
should be ensured as per the requirement.
Maintenance
When an overhead line trips on a sustained fault,
it should be inspected to find out the nature of Fig. 4.50 Power Distribution Lines
fault such as loose sag, snapping of conductor,

tree branches touching the lines, conductor falling on
cross arms (Fig. 4.50). An improvement with a view to
avoid re-occurrence of such faults in future should be
arranged and carried out soon (Fig. 4.51). Complaints
regarding no current/failure of power supply, voltage
fluctuation, and load shedding and scheduled outages
shall be addressed by the senior
lineman as per the provisions of
the regulations. Problems related to
current such as no current or failure
of power supply in premises could
occur due to various reasons such as:
y Fuse blown out/tripping of
MCB
y Burnt meter
y Broken service line Fig. 4.51 Mitigating Bird Hazards to Overhead Lines
y Service line snapped from pole

y Fault in distribution mains
y Distribution transformer failure
y Fault in HT system
y Problem in grid (33 kV or 66 kV) substation
y Planned/scheduled/emergency maintenance work
y Load shedding
y Street light complaint
Pre-monsoon Inspection
The inspection carried out with the overhead lines
without supply is called pre-monsoon inspection. It
should be planned in advance with proper tools and
equipment (Figs. 4.52 and 4.53).

117
Unit-4 .indd 117 11-06-2019 16:21:48

Pre-monsoon inspection involves the following
1. Tree cutting should be properly executed.
2. Sagging of lines should be minimised.
3. Leaned poles should be rectified.
4. Lines should be properly aligned by tightening
with proper bolts and nuts.
5. Earthing should be checked.
6. Torn insulators/flash over insulators should
be replaced.
7. Jumpers at cut points should be checked up.
8. Stay wires should be properly aligned.
Fig. 4.52 Sag in Overhead Fig. 4.53 Inspection of Power

Distribution Lines Distribution Lines
11 kV Lines Maintenance
11 kV Lines maintenance is required to minimise
interruptions and improve the efficiency of power supply.
The overhead lines should be inspected periodically
to detect any fault which may lead to break down of
electric supply. When an overhead line trips, it should
be inspected to find out the nature of fault.
Low Tension (LT) Line Maintenance

LT Line (Fig. 4.54) maintenance includes:
1. Alignment of poles
2. Replacement of damaged service wire
3. Removal of bird nests
Fig. 4.54 Low Tension 4. Tree clearance
Distribution Lines (LT) 5. Checking of pole fittings and street light brackets
6. Careful examination of damages to L T conductor
such as black spots on conductor

118
Unit-4 .indd 118 11-06-2019 16:21:50

Ground Patrol
The periodic patrolling (not exceeding a month) of
overhead lines at ground level, while, the line is live,
is called ground patrol (pole to pole inspection) poles
maintenance. The following should be checked:
y Leaning of pole (Fig. 4.55)
y Sinking of earth around the pole
y Corrosion of metal at ground level (RSJ Poles)
y Cracks in Pre stressed Cement Concrete Poles
(PSCC).
Cross Arms
The following should be checked while maintaining
cross arms: Fig. 4.55 Leaning of Pole due
to loose foundation.
y Tilting of cross arms
y Rusting of cross arms
y Bird nest or creeper on cross arm (Fig. 4.56)
Bindings
The looseness and cutting of bindings should be carefully
observed while patrolling.
Broken Conductor
Fig. 4.56 Bird's Nest on Cross Arm Fig. 4.57 Conductors Distribution System
Conductors
The following should be checked while
maintaining conductors (Fig. 4.57):
y Cut strands, burnt marks and corrosion
y Breakage/Looseness of conductors
y Spotting kites, green creepers on the
conductors Fig. 4.58 Stay Wire

119
Unit-4 .indd 119 11-06-2019 16:21:53

Stay Wire
The following should be checked while maintaining
stay wire (Fig. 4.58):
y Corrosion of guy rod and stay wire
y Guy wire tightness
y Creeper on the stay wire
Fig. 4.59 Aeolian Vibration
Causes of Conductor Damage

Aeolian vibration: It is one of the most
important problems in power transmission
lines because it represents the major cause
of fatigue, failure of conductor strands or
of items associated with the support, use
and protection of the conductor during high
wind pressures (Fig. 4.59).
Fig. 4.60 Power Line Galloping
Fig. 4.61 Voltage Balance Fig. 4.62 Voltage Imbalance
Galloping: The high-amplitude, low-frequency

oscillation of overhead power lines is due to wind.
Sway oscillation and gallop tend to short circuit
between lines thus damage is caused due to
arcing. PG clamp maintains equal distance across
the lines by maintaining the sag to protect from
Fig. 4.63 Air Break Switches sway oscillation (Fig. 4.60).

120
Unit-4 .indd 120 11-06-2019 16:21:54

Unbalance loading: Major line failures are due to
unbalance load when one phase conductor gets
overheated and snapped (melted down) due to excessive
current (Figs. 4.61, 4.62 and 4.63).
Overloading: When a line is loaded beyond the
maximum current carrying capacity the conductor gets
overheated and snapped.
Air Break (AB) switches need maintainance to check:
y Defect in closing of the AB switch
y Missing of the lock
y Damage of earth wire
y Dust accumulation on the insulators
y Blades/contact burnings
11 kV Cable and Cable Boxes

y Proper supporting of cable and cable boxes
y Damage to insulator and compound
leakage from the box
y Intactness of terminal connections with
overhead lines and earthing
Insulator Discs
Due to moisture and dust particles on the surface
Fig. 4.64 Disc Insulators used in
of insulator the resistance is reduced. This leads
Power Lines
to flash over marks in case of lightning (Fig. 4.64).
Causes of Insulator Damage
1. Due to difference in temperatures and
hot and cold season, there is extra stress
on both conductor and insulators of
entire overhead network (Fig. 4.65).
2. During rainy season dust over the
insulator becomes conductive and forms
fine hair crack which further develops to
fretting due to load and lightening.
3. Excessive tightening of PG clamps
causes extra strain to disc insulator, pin
Fig. 4.65 Wire Insulation Damage
insulator and conductor through-out
up to end points and causes tensile
breaks of conductor and abrasion, fatigue on
pin insulators.

121
Unit-4 .indd 121 11-06-2019 16:21:56

4. Though lightning arresters (LA) are the most
effective means of protecting electrical lines
against lightning and switching, failure of LA
directly impacts the insulators damage due to
spark.
Line conductors are electrically insulated from each
other as well as from the pole ‘insulators’. The insulator
and its binding should be mechanically strong enough
Fig. 4.66 Megger to withstand the resultant force due to combined
effect of wind pressure and weight of the conductor in
the span.
Material Testing Equipment

Line conductors are electrically insulated from each
other as well as from the pole ‘insulators’. The insulator
and its binding should be mechanically strong enough to
withstand the resultant force due to combined effect of
wind pressure and weight of the conductor in the span.
Proper calibration and working of equipment should
be double checked before using them for testing and
Fig. 4.67 Earth
repair activity (Figs. 4.66, 4.67 and 4.68). In case
tools used in testing are not properly working
and calibrated, then it will not lead to proper
adjustment of equipment which in turn would
result in malfunction of the total connected
system. All the equipment which are meant
for testing and repair activities should be kept
separately from other equipment, and should
be tested for their accuracy and workability
Fig. 4.68 Equipment Calibration according to defined standards.
Table 4.7: Line Patrol Log Sheet
Item Points to be checked during Location Action Inspection

No. inspection and defects noticed Nos. taken for Officer’s
Rectification Remarks
General
1. Adequate clearance to conductors Yes No
and poles are available from trees,
shrubs, bushes etc.
2. Vertical and horizontal clearance Yes No
from the neighbouring structures
under construction etc., are adequate

122
Unit-4 .indd 122 11-06-2019 16:21:59

3. Any new road, channels, earth Yes No
embankment are constructed near or
below the lines reducing clearance
Poles
4. The pole is leaning and if so Yes No
whether stay is required to make it
plumb
5. Earth around the pole has sunk or Yes No
eroded
6. The metal is corroded at ground level Yes No
7. Any cracks have been developed in Yes No

PCC/RCC poles
8. The pole is intact and free from Yes No
mechanical injury due to vehicles
dashing against them
Cross Arms
9. Any bird nest, or creeper observed on Yes No
cross arms
10. The cross arm is tilted Yes No
11. The cross arm is rusted Yes No
Binding/Clamps/Jumpers
12. The bindings/jumpers are cut, Yes No
Loose, Charred or Burnt Yes No

13. Visible indications for heating of the Yes No
PG clamps are observed
14. Visible dangers like cut strands, and Yes No
burn marks, corrosion etc. observed
15. The conductors are loose, increasing Yes No
the sag
16. Kites or green creepers are observed Yes No
on the conductors
17. The conductor/ground wire has Yes No
sufficient clearance over roads,
rivers, channels, railways and
telecommunication circuits,
haystacks etc.
18. The guarding and earth, provided for Yes No
conductors are intact
Guys
19. Corrosion of guy rod and stay wire is Yes No
observed
20. The guy wire is tight Yes No

123
Unit-4 .indd 123 11-06-2019 16:21:59

21. The guy insulators provided are Yes No
intact
22. Any green creepers on the stay wire Yes No
23. Guy pits have been washed away/ Yes No

sunk
24. The sleeve concreting is in order Yes No
AB Switches and Fuse
25. There is any visual indication for the Yes No

defective closing of the switch
26. The lock is missing Yes No
27. The earth wire is cut or damaged Yes No
28. There is too much of dust Yes No

accumulated on the insulators
29. The blades/contacts/arcing horns Yes No
are burnt out or charred
Lightning Arresters
30. The porcelain is damaged Yes No
31. The line and earth connections are Yes No
intact
32. There is any external indication to Yes No
show the lightning arresters have
been punctured
33. The cable and cable boxes are Yes No
properly supported
34. The insulators are damaged and Yes No
compound leaking from the box
35. The terminal connection with the Yes No
overhead line is intact
36. The earthing lead from the cable box Yes No
is intact
Earthing System
37. The earthing connections of Yes No
the metal supports and fittings
are intact
Schedule of Periodical Routine
Inspection of Lines Lightning
Arresters
38. The porcelain is damaged Yes No

124
Unit-4 .indd 124 11-06-2019 16:21:59

39. The line and earth connections are Yes No
intact
40. There is any external indication to Yes No
show the lightning arresters have
been punctured
41. The cable and cable boxes are Yes No

properly supported
42. The insulators are damaged and Yes No
compound leaking from the box
43. The terminal connection with the Yes No
overhead line is intact
44. The earthing lead from the cable box Yes No
is intact
Schedule of Periodical Routine Inspection of

Lines
The lineman should adhere to the time limits as per the
performance standard prescribed by the State Electricity
Regulatory Commission.
The following table indicates the time standards
as prescribed by the Delhi Electricity Regulatory
Commission (DERC):
Table 4.8 Schedule for Inspection of Lines
Nature of Cause of Power Maximum Time Limit for Power Restoration

Supply Failure
Fuse blown out or MCB • Within three hours for urban areas.
tripped • Within eight hours for rural areas
Service line broken, • Within six hours for urban areas.
snapped from the pole • Within 12 hours for rural areas.
Fault in distribution mains • Temporary supply to be restored within four hours from
alternate source, wherever feasible.
• Rectification of fault and thereafter restoration of normal
power supply within 12 hours.
Distribution transformer • Temporary restoration of supply through mobile transformer or
failed/burnt another backup source within eight hours, wherever feasible.
• Replacement of failed transformer within 48 hours.
HT mains failed • Temporary restoration of power supply within four hours
wherever feasible
• Rectification of fault within 12 hours.

125
Unit-4 .indd 125 11-06-2019 16:21:59

Problem in grid 33 kV • Restoration of supply from alternate source, wherever feasible
substation within six hours.
• Roster load shedding may be carried out to avoid overloading
of alternate source.
• Repair and restoration of supply within 48 hours.
Failure of power • Restoration of supply from alternate source, wherever feasible
transformer within six hours.
• Roster load shedding may be carried out to avoid overloading
of alternate source.
• Replacement action to be intimated to the Commission
within 72 hours and replacement of power transformer within
20 days.
Burnt meter • Restoration of supply by bypassing the burnt meter within six
hours.
• Replacement of burnt meter within three days
Street light complaint • Restoration within 72 hours.
Check Your Progress

1. Resistance opposes ___________ flow and inductance
opposes ___________ flow.
2. Load shedding is normally carried out when the power
___________ is more than the power ___________ at a
given point of time to shed excess load on the generating
station.
3. ___________ is used for cutting, removing insulation,
jointing and twisting the electric wires and cables even
on live line.
4. Bench vice is use to ___________ the object.
5. The flow of current towards an undesired path or
abnormal stoppage of current is termed as a ___________.

1. The selection of poles for erection of lines depends on a
number of factors such as:
(a) Distribution of power
(b) Pole strength
(c) Type and size of conductor
(d) wind pressure
(e) All of above
(f) Only (a) and (c)

126
Unit-4 .indd 126 11-06-2019 16:21:59

2. What are the causes of insulator damage?
NOTES
(a) Due to difference in temperatures
(b) Improper calibration
(c) Broken service line
(d) None of the above
3. Current transformers are:
(a) Small transformer
(b) Supply low values of current
(c) Used where the current or voltage is too high
(d) (a) and (c)
(e) (a) and (b)
(f) (a), (b) and (c)
C. Match the columns
Group A Group B
1. AAC (a) high-capacity, high-strength stranded
conductor
2. ACSR (b) made out of high strength Aluminum-
Magnesium-Silicon Alloy
3. AAAC (c) made up of one or more strands of hard
drawn 1350 aluminum alloy
4. Shackle (d) mounted axially
Insulator
D. Short answer questions

1. Why maintenance is important?
2. What maintenance should be done during pre monsoon
inspections?
3. What are the causes of insulation damage?
4. Why material testing equipment is required? Explain
with reasons.

127
Unit-4 .indd 127 11-06-2019 16:21:59

356 Electrical Power Systems
14
CORONA
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of high voltage is extremely important in order to meet the rapidly increasing power
demand. The corona characteristic of transmission lines having voltage level 220 KV or above
assumed great importance. Investigations on the basis of series of experiments reveal that it is
possible to predict corona performance of transmission line under various operating conditions.
Corona has associated power loss, radio and TV interference and audible noise. Corona influences
the line losses and the design of overhead transmission line conductors, assessories, hardware
and insulators etc.
14.2 THE PHENOMENON OF CORONA

Air is not a perfect insulator and even under normal condition, the air contains a number of free
electrons and ions. Consider two large parallel conducting planes. When an electric gradient is
set up between them, the electrons and ions acquire motion by this electric field and they
maintain a very small current between the conducting planes. This current is negligible, when
the electric field intensity is less than 30 KV/cm.
But when the electric field intensity or potential gradient reaches the critical value of about
30 KV/cm, the air in the immediate vicinity of conductors no more remains a dielectric and at
this intensity, the ions attain high velocity and on striking another neutral molecule dislodge
one or more electrons from the neutral molecule. This produces a new electron and a positive
ion which in turn are accelerated and collide with other air molecules to ionize them further.
Thus the number of charged particles goes on increasing rapidly. If a uniform field intensity is
assumed between the electrodes such conditions are produced everywhere in the gap. As a
result of this, the saturation is reached.Therefore, the air becomes conducting, hence a complete
electric breakdown occurs and arc is established between the two electrodes.
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is
large in comparison with the diameter, then the air surrounding the conductor is subjected to
electro-static stresses. This stress or intensity is maximum at the surface of the conductor and
then decreases in inverse proportion to the distance from the centre of the conductor. If this
potential difference is gradually increased, a point will be reached when a faint luminous glow
of violet colour will make its appearance, and at the same time a hissing noise will be heard.
This phenomenon is called corona and is accompanied by the formation of ozone, as is indicated
by the characteristic odour of this gas. This luminous glow is due to the fact that the atmospheric
Corona 357
air around the conductor becomes conducting due to electrostatic stress. If the potential difference
is raised still further, the glow and the noise will increase in intensity until eventually a spark-
over will take place. If the conductors are perfectly uniform and smooth, the glow will be
uniform along their length, otherwise the rough points of the conductor will appear brighter.
With conductors only a short distance apart in comparison with their diameter, the spark-over
may take place before there is any luminous glow is observed.
If the applied potential difference is D.C. instead of A.C., the positive conductor having a
uniform glow while the negative conductor has a more patchy glow and often it is accompanied
by streamers if there are any rough places. An important point in connection with corona is that
it is accompanied by loss of power, which is dissipated in the form of heat, light, sound and
chemical action. In case of A.C. system, current flow due to corona is non-sinusoidal and in
practice this non-sinusoidal current and non-sinusoidal voltage drop by corona may be more
important than the power loss.
The effects of corona can be summarized as follows:
(i) It is accompanied by power loss
(ii) A luminous violet glow is observed around the conductor
(iii) This glow is much brighter over rough and dirty surfaces of the conductor
(iv) It produces a hissing noise
(v) It produces ozone gas which can be readily detected by its characteristic odour
14.3 POTENTIAL GRADIENT FOR SINGLE-PHASE LINE

Figure 14.1 shows a single phase line. Radius of each conductor is r.
Fig.14.1: Single phase transmission line.
The voltage gradient at a point P from conductor 1 is given by

G = G1 G2 ...(14.1)
Where G1 = Voltage gradient at point P due to a charge + q on conductor 1.
G2 = Voltage gradient at point P due to a charge q on conductor 2.
q
We Know, G1 = volt/m ... (14.2)
2 p Î0 x
-q
G2 = volt/m ...(14.3)
2 p Î0 ( D - x )
\ Therefore,
q q
G= +
2 p Î0 x 2 p Î0 ( D - x )
q LM 1 + 1 OP volt/m
\ G=
2 p Î0 Nx D - xQ ... (14.4)
The voltage gradient is a maximum at the surface of the conductor, where x = r. Substituting
x = r in eqn. (14.4), we get
q LM1 + 1 OP volt/m
Gmax =
2 p Î0 Nr D - r Q ... (14.5)
Since D is large compared with r, we can write D r » D. Therefore,

q
Gmax = volt/m ...(14.6)
2 p Î0 r
The R.M.S. value of voltage gradient is given by
Gmax
Grms = ...(14.7)
2
Potential difference V12 between the conductors of a single phase line (chapter-3) is written
as:
q FG IJ
H K
D
V12 = ln volt ...(14.8)
p Î0 r
Voltage from conductor to neutral is given as:
FG IJ volt
H K
V12 q D
Vn = = ln ... (14.9)
2 2 p Î0 r
Eqn. (14.9) can be written as:
Vn q FG IJ
H K
D
= ln
r 2pÎ0 r r
q Vn
\ =
FG D IJ
HrK
2pÎ0 r
r ln
Vn
\ Gmax =
FG IJ volt/m ... (14.10)
H K
D
r ln
r
Corona 359
14.4 POTENTIAL GRADIENT FOR THREE-PHASE LINE

Figure 14.2 shows the unsymmetrical three phase transmission line.
Fig. 14.2: Unsymmetrical three phase transmission line.
Let Ga, Gb and Gc denote the voltage gradients at the surface of the conductors in phases a,b
and c respectively. Therefore we can write,
qa
= r. Ga ...(14.11)
2 p Î0
qb
= r. Gb ...(14.12)
2 p Î0
qc
= r. Gc ...(14.13)
2 p Î0
The voltage Vab (see chapter-3) is given by
FG q - q IJ ln FG D IJ + q ln FG D IJ
H 2p Î 2p Î K H r K 2p Î H D K
a b ab c bc
Vab =
0 0 0 ca
L F D IJ + G lnFG D IJ OP volt
= r MbG - G g ln G
\ Vab
MN a
H r K H D K PQ
b
ab
c
bc
ca
... (14.14)
Similarly,
LMb g FGH Dr IJK + G lnFGH DD IJ OP volt

MN K PQ
ca bc
Vac = r Ga - Gc ln b ... (14.15)
ab
Figure 14.3 Shows phasor diagram for balanced three phase system
Fig. 14.3: Phasor diagram for balanced three phase system.
From Fig. 14.3, we can write

Van = Van 0º ...(14.11)
Vab = 3 Van 30º ...(14.12)
Vac = 3 Van -30º ...(14.13)

Also, for a balanced three phase system
qa + qb + qc = 0
\ 2p Î0 rGa + 2 p Î0 rGb + 2p Î0 rGc = 0

\ Ga + Gb + Gc = 0 ...(14.14)
For equilateral spacing, Dab = Dbc = Dca = D (say).
Therefore eqn. (14.14) can be written as:
LMb g FGH Dr IJK OPQ

N
Vab = r Ga - Gb ln ...(14.15)
From eqns. (14.12) and (14.15), we get
LMb g FGH D IJK OPQ

N
3 Van 30º = r Ga - Gb ln r ...(14.16)
Similarly,
LMb g FGH D IJK OPQ

N
3 Van -30º = r Ga - Gc ln r ... (14.17)
Adding eqns. (14.16) and (14.17), we get
FG D IJ
3Van = 3Gar ln
HrK
Van
\ Ga =
FG IJ ...(14.18)
H K
D
r ln
r
Corona 361
Similarly,
V bn
Gb =
FG IJ ...(14.19)
H K
D
r ln
r
V cn
Gc =
FG IJ ...(14.20)
H K
D
r ln
r
14.5 DISRUPTIVE CRITICAL VOLTAGE FOR A SINGLE PHASE

TRANSMISSION LINE
The minimum voltage at which complete disruption of air occurs and corona starts is called the
disruptive critical voltage. The potential gradient corresponding to this value of the voltage is
called disruptive critical voltage gradient.
From eqn. (14.8)
q FG D IJ volt
V12 =
p Î0
ln
HrK ...(14.21)
The voltage gradient at the conductor surface is given by eqn(14.10) as:

q
Gr = Gmax = ... (14.22)
2 p Î0 r
q
\ = 2rGr ...(14.23)
p Î0
FG D JI
V12 = 2rGr ln
HrK ...(14.24)
The break down strength of air at 760 mm pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 KV/cm
(maximum).
Let Vmax = maximum value of disruptive critical voltage
º
Gmax = maximum value of disruptive critical voltage gradient.
Now eqn. (14.24) can be written as:
FG D IJ
Vmax = 2r Gmax
º ln
HrK ...(14.25)
But
º
Gmax = 3 ´ 106 V/m
Therefore,
FG D JI
Vmax = 2r ´ 3 ´ 106 ln
HrK ...(14.26)
R.M.S. Value of the disruptive critical voltage for single phase line is given by
Vmax 1 FG D JI
V0 =
2
=
2
´ 6 ´ 106 ´ r ln
HrK ...(14.27)
14.6 DISRUPTIVE CRITICAL VOLTAGE FOR A THREE PHASE

TRANSMISSION LINE
Let us define,
Vn = |Van| = |Vbn| = |Vcn| ...(14.28)
Now we know,
q FG IJ
D eq
Vn =
2 p Î0
ln
r H K ...(14.29)
Where Deq = (DabDbcDca)1/3

FG D IJ
HrK
eq
Vn = r Grln ...(14.30)
If Gr = Gmax, then V = V , Therefore, eqn. (14.30) becomes

F D IJ
n max
= r G ln G
HrK
eq
V max max ...(14.31)(a)
R.M.S. Value of the disruptive critical voltage for a three phase line is given by
3 ´ 106 FG D IJ Volt/phase
HrK
eq
V0 = rln ...(14.31)(b)
2
14.7 FORMULA FOR DISRUPTIVE CRITICAL VOLTAGE SUGGESTED

BY F.W. PEEK
Based on experimental data, Peek suggested that the disruptive critical voltage is directly
proportional to the air density factor d over a considerable range. Therefore, a correction factor
should be introduced for calculation of disruptive critical voltage at conditions other than
standard ones.
For single phase line, the formula for disruptive critical voltage takes the form,
6 ´ 10 6 FG D IJ
V0 =
2 HrK
r d ln ...(14.32)
For three phase line, disruptive critical voltage is
3 ´ 10 6 F D IJ Volt/phase
r d ln G
HrK
eq
V =0 ...(14.33)
2
Corona 363
In the above expressions for disruptive critical voltage, it is assumed that conductors are
smooth and clean. However, when the conductor surface is rough and dirty, disruptive critical
voltage is somewhat less. To consider this effect, eqn. (14.32) and eqn.(14.33) must be multiplied
by a factor m0 known as the irregularity factor or surface factor or roughness factor.
Therefore, the mathematical expression for disruptive critical voltage can be given as:
6 ´ 106 FG D IJ (Single phase line)

V0 =
2
rdm0ln
HrK ...(14.34)
and for three phase line,
3 ´ 106
rdm ln G
F D IJ
HrK
eq
V0 = 0 ...(14.35)
2
The approximate value of m0 given by F.W. Peek are as follows:
m0 = 1.0 for smooth, polished conductors
m0 = 0.93 to 0.98 for rough and weathered conductors
m0 = 0.80 to 0.87 for stranded conductors
14.8 VISUAL CRITICAL VOLTAGE

Visual luminous glow of corona generally occurs at a voltage higher than the disruptive critical
voltage. Actual visual corona does not start at the disruptive critical voltage. For starting of
corona, maximum value of voltage gradient is 30KV/cm. But this value of the voltage gradient
at the surface of the conductor will not ionize the air. Voltage gradient 30KV/cm will cause
ionization when this value is reached at a distance of (r + 0.0301 r ) from the conductor axis,
where r is in meters and reason is that some energy is required by the charged ions to start
corona. If the maximum voltage gradient at the surface of the conductor is 30KV/cm, the value
of the maximum voltage gradient at any other point away from the centre would be less than
this and thus there will be corona discharge at that point.
The expressions of the visual critical voltages for single phase and three phase lines can be
given as when the effects of irregularity of the surface of the conductor and air density factor
are considered,
For a single phase line
6 ´ 106 FG IJ ln FG D IJ
0.0301
rd K H r K
H
Vv = mvrd 1 + ...(14.36)
2
For a three phase line
3 ´ 10 6 F 0.0301IJ ln FG D IJ
m rd G 1 +
H rd K H r K
eq
Vv = v ...(14.37)
2
Where mv is roughness or irregularity factor.
mv = 1.0 for smooth conductor
mv = 0.70 to 0.75 for local corona when the effect is first visible at
some places along the line
mv = 0.80 to 0.85 for general corona along the whole length of the
conductor
The value of voltage gradient, Gmax at which complete disruption of air occurs is called
disruptive strength of air. The break down strength of air at 760 mm pressure and temperature
of 25ºC,
3 ´ 106
º
Gmax = 3 ´ 106 V/m (maximum) or V/m (rms).
2
The value of Gmax º depends upon the density of air. The dielectric strength of air is
proportional to its density over a wide a range, and thus directly proportional to the barometric
pressure and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus the air density factor at
a barometric pressure of p mm of mercury and temperature of tºC can be given as:
0.392 p
d=
b
273 + t g ...(14.38)
14.9 CORONA POWER LOSS

The power dissipated in the transmission line due to corona discharges is called corona loss.
Estimation of accurate corona loss is very difficult because of its extremely variable nature. It
has been found that corona loss under fair weather conditions is very small as compared to the
losses found under foul weather conditions. According to F.W. Peek, the corona loss under
fairweather conditions is given by the formula,
244 r
Pc = (f + 25)(Vn V0)2 ´ 105 KW/km/phase ...(14.39)
d D
Where
Pc = corona power loss
f = supply frequency (Hz)
d = air density factor
Vn = rms phase-voltage (line-to-neutral voltage) in KV
V0 = rms value of disruptive critical voltage per phase in KV.
r = radius of the conductor (meters)
D = Spacing (or equivalent spacing) between conductors (meters)
It is also to be noted that for a single phase line
1
Vn = ´ line voltage
2
and for a three phase line
1
Vn = ´ line voltage
3
Peek's formula for corona loss is valid when corona losses are predominant and the ratio Vn/
Vn
V0 is greater than 1.8 when <1.8, the following formula known as Peterson's formula, gives
V0
better results:
Corona 365
FG IJ 2
P = 2.1f G
GGH log FGH Dr IJK JJJK
V n
c ´ 105 ´ F KW/phase/Km ...(14.40)
10
Where
Pc = corona loss
f = supply frequency
Vn = rms phase voltage (line-to-neutral) in KV.
r = radius of conductor (meters)
D = Spacing (or equivalent spacing) between conductors (meters)
Vn
The factor F is called the corona loss function. It varies with the ratio and is given below
V0
in tabular form:
Table: 14.1
Vn
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
V0
. 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.30 1.0 3.5 6.0 8.0
14.10 FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA LOSS

(a) Effect of System Voltage
Electric field intensity in the space around the conductors depends on the potential
difference between the conductors. If potential difference is high, electric field intensity
is also very high and hence corona loss is also high. As seen from eqns. (14.38) and
(14.39), When Vn is large as compared to disruptive critical voltage V0, corona loss
increases at a very fast rate with increase in voltage.
(b) Effect of Frequency
As seen from eqns. (14.38) and (14.39), corona loss is directly proportional to system
frequency.
(c) Effect of Density of Air
From eqn. (14.38), it is evident that corona loss is inversely proportional to air density
factor, i.e., corona loss increases with decrease in density of air. The corona loss of a high
voltage transmission line passing through a hilly area may be higher than that of similar
transmission line in plains due to the lower value of d at high altitudes.
(d) Effect of Conductor Radius
If conductor radius is high, surface field intensity is less and hence corona loss is less. For
the same current carrying capacity, an ACSR conductor has larger radius than single
copper conductor. Therefore, transmission lines of ACSR conductor have lower corona
loss than copper conductor lines. For bundled conductor lines, effective radius is high and
hence corona loss is less.
(e) Effect of Temperature Rise of Conductor by Load Current

Conductor current raises the conductor temperature and hence leading to an indirect
reduction in corona loss. Corona loss is larger if the conductor temperature is low and
this is due to the fact that at low temperature, dew drops collect on the conductor surface
during fog and humid weather. High conductor current prevents such condensation and
reduces corona loss.
(f) Effect of Snow or Frost Layer
Snow or frost layer on transmission line conductor causes very high corona losses and
radio interference. This layer is found if temperature is 0ºC and remain for longer
duration if temperatures are lower.
Corona discharges with conductor surface covered with snow and electric field intensity
not exceeding 30 KV/cm conssists mainly of pulses in negative half-cycles and pulseless
steady corona at positive half-cycles. Corona discharges themselves affect the form of
snow layers and often blow off the snow in the neighbouring region of corona.
(g) Corona Loss of New and Old Conductors
On new conductors, corona loss is more due to scratches, burrs etc. As the line ages,
corona loss decreases. The old conductor is called weathered conductor.
(h) Effect of Supply Voltage
If the supply voltage is high, corona loss will be high. In low-voltage transmission lines,
corona is negligible due to insufficient electric field to maintain self-sustained ionization.
(i) Effect of Dust and Dirt
In the presence of dust and dirt, required voltage gradient is less for maintaining
sustained discharge. Disruptive critical voltage is reduced due to dust and dirt and hence
corona loss is more.
(j) Effect of Conductor Configurations
Conductors of three phase overhead transmission lines can be placed in either horizontal
or vertical configuration. The electric field intensity at the surface of middle conductor is
higher than the outer conductors. Therefore, the disruptive critical voltage for middle
conductor will be less than the two other outer conductors and hence there will be more
corona loss in middle conductor. If conductors are placed equilaterally, the average
electric field intensity at each conductor will be same. Since the ground is an equipotential
surface, the electric field distribution is affected by the presence of earth. Corona loss will
be less, if conductors are placed at more height.
14.11 EFFECT OF CORONA ON LINE DESIGN

Transmission lines are designed in such a fashion that the corona loss is small enough in fair
weather condition because corona loss reduces the efficiency of the lines. If disruptive critical
voltage of about 10% more than the operating voltage, then it is acceptable even though some
corona loss will take place under foul weather condition. Generally, corona loss under foul
weather condition will be 10 times higher than the fair weather condition. An increase in Deq
and r increase the disruptive critical voltage, thus reduces the corona loss but increases the
cost.
Example 14.1: Conductors of a three phase transmission line are equilaterally spaced 6 m
apart. The radius of each conductor is 1 cm. The air temperature is 30ºC and pressure is 740 mm
of Hg. If surface factor is 0.83 and irregularity factor is 0.92, calculate the disruptive critical
voltage and visual critical voltage.
Corona 367
Solution:
From eqn. (14.38), air density factor,
0.392 p
d=
273 + t
Given p = 740 mm, t = 30ºC
0.392 ´ 740
\ d =
b 273 + 30 g
= 0.957
From eqn. (14.35), disruptive critical voltage,

3 ´ 10 6 FG D IJ volts
HrK
eq
V0 = rdm0 ln
2
Given that m0 = 0.92, d = 0.957, r = 1 cm = 0.01 mt, Deq = 6 m
3 ´ 10 6 FG IJ volts
H K
6
\ V0 = ´ 0.01 ´ 0.957 ´ 0.92 ´ ln 0.01
2
\ V0 = 119.475 KV (rms value)
From eqn. (14.37), visual critical voltage
3 ´ 10 6 FG IJ lnFG D IJ volts
0.0301
H rd K H r K
eq
Vv = mvrd 1 +
2
3 ´ 10 6 F 0.0301 IJ ´ lnFG 6 IJ volts

´ 0.83 ´ 0.01 ´ 0.957 ´ G 1 +
\ Vv =
2 H 0.01 ´ 0.957 K H 0.01K
\ Vv = 140.95 KV (rms value).
Example 14.2: A three phase 220 KV, 50 Hz, 200 Km long transmjission line consists of three
stranded aluminium conductors spaced triangularly at 4.8 m. Radius of each conductor is 1.5
cm. The air temperature is 27ºC and pressure is 740 mm of Hg. If the breakdown strength of air
is 21.1 KV (rms) per cm and the surface factor is 0.85, compute disruptive critical voltage. Also,
determine the visual critical voltages for local and general corona if the irregularity factors are
0.72 and 0.80 for visual corona (local) and visual corona (general) respectively.
Solution:
Given parameters are:
r = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, p = 740 mm, t = 27ºC
0.392 p 0.392 ´ 740

\ d= = = 0.967.
273 + t 273 + 27
Deq = 4.8 m, m0 = 0.85, G0 = 21.1 KV (rms)/cm = 2.11 ´ 106 v/m
We know, disruptive critical voltage (rms)
FG D IJ volts
HrK
eq
V0 = G0m0rd ln
FG 4.8 IJ volts
\ V0 = 2.11 × 106 × 0.85 × 0.015 × 0.967 × ln
H 0.015 K
\ V0 = 150.06 KV.
For local corona, mv = 0.72,
We know, visual critical voltage (rms)
FG 0.0301IJ ln FG D IJ
H rd K HrK
eq
Vv = G0mvrd 1 +
FG 0.0301 IJ ´ lnFG 4.8 IJ

\ V0 = 2.11 ´ 106 ´ 0.72 ´ 0.015 ´ 0.967 ´ 1 +
H 0.015 ´ 0.967 K H 0.015 K
\ Vv = 158.87 KV
For general corona, mv = 0.82

0.82
\ Vv = 158.87 ´ KV = 180.93 KV
0.72
220
Actual operating voltage to neutral = = 127 KV, which is less than Vv and there is no
3
corona.
Example 14.3: Determine the corona loss of a three phase, 220 KV, 50 Hz and 200 Km long
transmission line of three conductors each of radius 1 cm and spaced 5 m apart in an equilateral
triangle formation. The air temperature is 30ºC and the atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of Hg.
The irregularity factor is 0.85.
Solution:
From eqn. (14.39),
FG r IJ
Pc =
244
d
(f + 25) (Vn V0)2 H D K ´ 10 5
KW/Km/phase
0.392 p 0.392 ´ 760

f = 50 Hz, d =
t + 273 b g
= 273 + 30 = 0.983
r = 1 cm = 0.01 m, D = 5 m.
3 ´ 106 FG D IJ
V0 =
2
´ r ´ d ´ m0 ´ ln HrK
3 ´ 106 FG 5 IJ volts
\ V0 =
2
´ 0.01 ´ 0.983 ´ 0.85 ´ ln
H 0.01K
Corona 369
\ V0 = 110.15 KV(rms)
220
Vn = KV = 127 KV
3
244 FG 0.01IJ 1
H5K
2
\ Pc = (50 + 25) (127 110.15)2 ´ 10
5
´ 200 KW/phase
0.983
\ Pc = 472.73 KW/phase
Total corona loss = 3 ´ 472.73 KW = 1418.19 KW.
Example 14.4: Calculate the disruptive critical voltage for a three phase line with conductors
of radius 1 cm and spaced symmelrically 4m apart.
Solution:
Using eqn. (14.31(b)), disruptive critical voltage
3 ´ 10 6 FG D IJ volt/phase
HrK
eq
V0 = r ln
2
\ r = 1 cm = 0.01 m, Deq = 4 m
3 ´ 10 6 FG IJ
H K
4
\ V0 = ´ 0.01 ln 0 .0 1
2
\ V0 = 127.1 KV (line-to-neutral)
\ line-to-line disruptive critical voltage
= 3 ´ 127.1 = 220.14 KV.
Example 14.5: A 220 KV three phase transmission line with conductors radius 1.3 cm is built
so that corona takes place if the line voltage exceeds 260 KV(rms). Find the spacing between
conductors.
Solution:
260
Disruptive critical voltage Vrms = KV = 150.11 KV
3
From eqn. (14.35)
3 ´ 106 FG D IJ volts/phase
HrK
eq
V0 = rdm0 ln
2
Assuming d = 1, and m0 = 1 (smooth conductor),
r = 0.013 m, V0 = 150.11KV = 150.11 ´ 103 volts
3 ´ 106 FG D IJ
H 0.013K
eq
\ = 150.11 ´ 103 = ´ 1 ´ 1 ´ 0.013 ´ ln
2
FG D IJ = 5.44
H 0.013K
eq
\ ln
\ Deq = 0.013 e5.44 = 3 m Ans.

Example 14.6: A three phase equilateral transmission line has a total corona loss of 55 KW at
110 KV and 100 KW at 114 KV. What is the disruptive critical voltage between lines? What is the
corona loss at 120 KV.
Solution:
Power loss due to corona for three phases is given by
244 r
Pc = 3 ´ (f + 25) (Vn V0)2 ´ 105 KW/Km
d D
Taking d, f, r and D are constants.
\ Pc a (Vn V0)2
F 110 - V IJ
55 a G
2
\
H3 K 0 ...(i)
F 114 - V IJ
100 a G
2
and
H3 K 0 ...(ii)
Dividing eqn.(i) by eqn. (ii), we get
55 b
635
. - V0 g
2
100
=
b
65.8 - V0 g
2
635
. - V0
\ = 0.74
65.8 - V0
\ V0 = 57 KV.
In the 2nd case,
F 120 - V IJ
W aG
2
H3 K 0
\ W a (69.28 V0)2 ...(iii)

Dividing eqn. (iii) by eqn. (i), we get
W b
69.28 - V0 g 2
55
=
b
63.5 - V0
2
g
Corona 371
b69.28 - 57g 2
\ W = 55 ´
b635. - 57g 2 = 196.3 KW Ans.
Line-to-line disruptive critical voltage

= 3 V0 = 3 ´ 57 = 98.72 KV Ans.
Example 14.7: A 220 KV, 50 Hz, three phase transmission line consists of 1.4 cm radius
conductors spaced 3 m apart in equilateral triangle formation. If the temperature is 27°C and
atmospheric pressure 750 mm of Hg, m0 = 0.80, determine the corona loss.
Solution:
Disruptive critical voltage,
3 ´ 10 6 FG D IJ volts/phase
HrK
eq
Vrms = rdm0ln
2
r = 1.4cm = 0.014m . m0 = 0.80,
0.392 ´ 750
d= b g
273 + 27 = 0.98, Deq = 3m
3 ´ 10 6 FG 3 IJ V/ph
\ Vrms =
2
´ 0.024 ´ 0.98 ´ 0.80 ´ ln
H 0.044 K
\ Vrms = 124.97 KV/ph.
Corona loss using peek's formula
244 r
Pc= (f + 25). .(Vn Vrms)2 ´ 105 KW/Km/ph
d D
244 0.024 FG IJ FG 220 - 124.97IJ

1
2
2
\ Pc =
0.98
´ (50 + 25)
3 H K H 3 K ´ 105
\ Pc = 0.0534KW/Km/ph.
EXERCISE
14.1 Determine the disruptive critical voltage and visual critical voltage (for local and general corona)
for three phase transmission line having conductor radius 0.5 cm and spaced 3 m equilateral
arrangement. The air temperature is 26ºC and pressure 740 mm of Hg. Surface factor is 0.85 and
irregularity factor for local visual corona is 0.72 and for general visual corona is 0.82.
Ans: 55.6 KV/ph, 67.5 KV/ph, 76.9 KV/ph.
14.2 A three phase, 220 KV, 60 Hz transmission line consists of 1.5 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m
apart in equilateral triangle formation. The air temperature is 20ºC and pressure 750 mm of Hg.
Irregularity factor is 0.80. Determine the corona loss. Ans: 0.48 KW/Km.
Overhead Line Sag
While building an overhead line, it is crucial that conductors are under safe tension. If
the conductors are too stretched between supports in an attempt to save conductor
material, the stress in the conductor may reach critical value and in some cases the
conductor may break due to excessive tension. In order to secure conductor safe
tension, they are not completely stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag. The
difference in level between support points and the conductor lowest point is called sag.
Figure 23 (a) presents a conductor suspended between two equilevel supports A and
B. The conductor is not completely stretched but is allowed to have a dip. The
conductor lowest point is O and the sag is S. The following items can be noted:
A B T
B
S
O
O T0
(a (b)
Figure 23. Conductor suspension between two supports
- When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, it
forms the shape of catenary. Nevertheless, if the sag is very small in
comparison with the span, then sag-span curve is like a parabola.
- The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Therefore, tension
TO at the lowest point O acts horizontally as presented in Figure 23 (b).
- The horizontal tension component is constant throughout the wire length.
- The tension at supports is roughly equal to the horizontal tension acting at any
point on the wire. Therefore, if T is the tension at the support B, then T=TO.
Sag and tension of the conductor
This is an important point in the overhead line mechanical design. The conductor sag
needs to be maintained to a minimum in order to decrease the required conductor
material and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above earth level. It is
also preferable that conductor tension is low to avoid the conductor mechanical failure
and to allow the use of less strong supports. Nevertheless, low conductor tension and
minimum sag cannot be achieved. It is because low sag means a tight wire and high
tension, whereas a low tension means a loose wire and increased sag. Hence in
reality, a compromise in made between the two.
Sag Calculation
In an overhead line, the sag has to be adjusted so that tension in the conductors is
within safe boundaries. The tension is governed by conductor weight, wind effects, ice
loading and temperature changes. It is a common practice to maintain conductor
tension less than 50% of its ultimate tensile strength. For example, minimum safety
factor in respect of conductor tension needs to be 2. We shall now find sag and
conductor tension when (a) supports are at equal levels and (b) supports are at
different levels.
B
A l/2 l/2
S
P
X/2
y
T
O w.x
Figure 24. Conductor between two equilevel supports
- When supports are at same levels. Consider a conductor between two equilevel
supports A and B with O as the lowest point as presented in Figure 24. It can
be shown that lowest point will be at the mid-span. Consider:
l=Span length
w=Weight per conductor unit length
T=Tension in the conductor.

Consider a point P on the conductor. Considering the lowest point O as the origin, let
the co-ordinates of point P be x and y. Assuming that the curvature is so small that
curved length is equal to its horizontal projection (for example, OP=x), the two forces
acting on the portion OP of the conductor are:
(a) The conductor weight wx acting at a distance x/2 from O.
(b) The tension T acting at O.
Equating the moments of above two forces about point O, we find:
𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ×
2
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 2
𝑦𝑦 =
2𝑇𝑇
The maximum dip (sag) is expressed by the value of y at either of the supports A and
B. At support A, x=l/2 and y=S
𝑤𝑤(𝑙𝑙/2)2 𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙2
Sag, 𝑆𝑆 = =
2𝑇𝑇 8𝑇𝑇
- When supports are at different levels. In hilly locations, we typically come

across conductors suspended between supports at different levels. Figure 25
presents a conductor suspended between two supports A and B which are at
different levels. The lowest point on the conductor is O.
Suppose:
l=Span length
h=Difference in levels between two supports
x1=Distance of support at lower level (for example, A) from O
x2=Distance of support at higher level (for example, B) from O
T=Conductor tension
B
h
A
S2
S1
O
x1 x2
Figure 25. Conductor suspended between two different levels
If w is the conductor weight per unit length, then,
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥12
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆1 =
2𝑇𝑇
and
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆2 =
2𝑇𝑇
Also
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑙 (1)
Now
𝑤𝑤 2 𝑤𝑤
𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 = [𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥12 ] = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇 2
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 = 2𝑇𝑇 (𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 ) 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑙
But 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 = ℎ
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
ℎ= (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2
Or
2𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
(2)
Solving expressions (1) and (2), it can be found:
𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝑥𝑥1 = −
2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝑥𝑥2 = +
2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Having determined x1 and x2, values of S1 and S2 can be easily found.
Wind and ice loading effect
The above equations for sag are correct only in still air and at normal temperature
when the conductor is acted only by its weight only. Nevertheless, in real life a
conductor may have ice coating and simultaneously exposed to wind pressure. The
weight of ice acts vertically downwards for example, in the same direction as the
conductor weight. The force due to the wind is assumed to act horizontally for example,
at right angle to the conductor projected surface. Therefore, the complete force on the
conductor is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical forces as presented in Figure 26
(c).
Ice coating
WW
Wind θ
t d (W+ Wi) Wt
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 26. Wind effect on the conductor
Overall weight of conductor per unit length is:

𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �(𝑤𝑤 + 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 )2
Where
w - conductor weight per unit length (conductor material density x volume per unit
length)
𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 - ice weight per unit length (density of ice x volume of ice per unit length)
ww - wind force per unit length (wind pressure per unit area x projected area per unit
length)
When the conductor has wind and ice loading, the following points have to be
considered:
- The conductor sets itself in a plane at an angle to the vertical where
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
tan 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑤𝑤 + 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖
- The sag in the conductor is expressed as:
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙 2
𝑆𝑆 =
2𝑇𝑇
Therefore, S represents the slant sag in a direction making an angle to the vertical. If
no specific mention is made in the problem, then slant slag is found by using the above
equation.
- The vertical sag=Scosθ
Example 17. A 132 kV transmission line has the following parameters:
Weight of conductor=680 kg/km; Length of span=260 m
Overall strength=3100 kg; Safety factor=2
Find the height above earth at which the conductor needs to be supported. Required
earth clearance is 10 metres.
- Solution.
Weight of conductor/metre run, w = 680/1000 = 0.68 kg
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 3100

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑇𝑇 = = = 1550 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ, 𝑙𝑙 = 260 𝑚𝑚
𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 2 0.68 × 2602

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = = = 3.7 𝑚𝑚
8𝑇𝑇 8 × 1550
Conductor has to be supported at a height of 10+3.7=13.7 m
Example 18. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level supports. The
conductor has a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. The tension in the conductor is
2000 kg. If the conductor material specific gravity is 9.9 gm/cm3 and wind pressure is
1.5 kg/m length, find the sag. Calculate also the vertical sag.
- Solution.
Span length, l=150 m; Working tension, T=2000 kg
Wind force/m length of conductor, ww=1.5 kg
Weight of conductor/m length, w=Specific Gravity × Volume of 1 m conductor
= 9.9 × 2 × 100 = 1980 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1.98 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Overall weight of 1 m length of conductor is:
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2 = �1.982 + 1.52 = 2.48 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙2 2.48×1502

Sag, 𝑆𝑆 = = = 3.48 𝑚𝑚
8𝑇𝑇 8×2000
WW
θ
W Wt
Figure 27. Overall conductor weight

This is the value of slant sag in a direction making an angle with the vertical. Going
back to Figure 27, the value of θ is expressed as:
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1.5
tan 𝜃𝜃 = = = 0.76
𝑤𝑤 1.98
𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 0.76 = 37.23°
Vertical sag = 𝑆𝑆 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 3.48 × cos 37.23° = 2.77 𝑚𝑚
Example 19. A transmission line has a span of 200 metres between level supports.
The conductor has a cross-sectional area of 1.29 cm2, weighs 1170 kg/km and has a
breaking stress of 4218 kg/cm2. Find the sag for a safety factor of 5, allowing a wind
pressure of 122 kg per square metre of projected surface. Calculate the vertical sag.
- Solution.
Span length, l=200 m
Weight of conductor/m length, w=1170/1000=1.17 kg
4218×1.29
Working tension, 𝑇𝑇 = 5
= 1088 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
4×𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 4×1.29
Conductor diameter, 𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜋𝜋
=� 𝜋𝜋
= 1.28 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Wind force/m length, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚2
= 122 × (1.28 × 10−2 × 1) = 1.56 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Overall weight of conductor per metre length is
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2 = �1.172 + 1.562 = 1.95 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Total weight of conductor per metre length is
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2 = �1.172 + 1.562 = 1.95 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙2 1.95×2002

Slant sag, 𝑆𝑆 = = = 8.96 𝑚𝑚
8𝑇𝑇 8×1088
The slant sag makes an angle θ with the vertical where value of θ expressed as:
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1.56
𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 � � = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 � � = 53.13°
𝑤𝑤 1.17
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 8.96 × cos 53.13° = 5.37 𝑚𝑚
Example 20. A transmission line has a span of 275 m between level supports. The
conductor has an effective diameter of 1.96 cm and weighs 0.865 kg/m. Its overall
strength is 8060 kg. If the conductor has ice coating of radial thickness 1.27 cm and is
exposed to a wind pressure of 3.9 gm/cm2 of projected surface, compute sag for a
safety factor of 2. Weight of 1 c.c. of ice is 0.91 gm.
- Solution.
Span length, l=275 m ; Weight of conductor/m length, w=0.865 kg
Conductor diameter, d=1.96 cm; Ice coating thickness, t=1.27 cm Working tension, T
=8060/2=4030 kg Volume of ice per metre (for example, 100 cm) length of conductor
= 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑 + 𝑡𝑡) × 100𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3
= 𝜋𝜋 × 1.27 × (1.96 + 1.27) × 100 = 1288 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3
Weight of ice per metre length of conductor is:
𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 = 0.91 × 1288 = 1172 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1.172 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wind force/m length of conductor is:
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = [𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒] × [(𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑡𝑡) × 100]
= [3.9] × (1.96 + 2 × 1.27) × 100𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1755 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1.755 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Overall weight of conductor per metre length of conductor is
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �(𝑤𝑤 + 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 )2
= �(0.865 + 1.172)2 + (1.755)2 = 2.688 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙 2 2.688 × 2752

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = = = 6.3 𝑚𝑚
8𝑇𝑇 8 × 4030
Example 21. A transmission line has a span of 214 metres between level supports.
The conductors have a cross-sectional area of 3.225 cm2. Find the factor of safety
under the following circumstances:
Vertical sag=2.35 m; Wind pressure=1.5 kg/m run
Breaking stress=2540 kg/cm2; Weight of conductor=1.125 kg/m run
- Solution.
Here, l=214 m; w=1.125 kg; ww=1.5 kg
Overall weight of one metre length of conductor is
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2 = �(1.125)2 + 1.52 = 1.875 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
If f is the safety factor, then,
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠×𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2540×3.225 8191

Working tension, 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
= 𝑓𝑓
= 𝑓𝑓
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2.35×1.875

Slant Sag, 𝑆𝑆 = cos 𝜃𝜃
= 1.125
= 3.92 𝑚𝑚
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙2
Now 𝑆𝑆 = 8𝑇𝑇
Or
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙 2
𝑇𝑇 =
8𝑆𝑆
8191 1.875 × 2142

=
𝑓𝑓 8 × 3.92
8191×8×3.92
Or safety factor 𝑓𝑓 = 1.875×2142
=3
Example 22. Transmission line has a span of 150 m between level supports. The
conductor has a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. The overall strength is 5000 kg/cm2
and safety factor is 5. The material specific gravity is 8.9 gm/cc. The wind pressure is
1.5 kg/m. Find the conductor height above the earth level at which it has to be
supported if a minimum clearance of 7 m is to be left between the earth and the
conductor.
- Solution.
Span length, l=150 m; Wind force/m run, ww=1.5 kg
Weight of conductor/m run 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × 100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠. 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
= 2 × 100 × 8.9 = 1780 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1.78 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2
Working tension, 𝑇𝑇 = 5000 × 5 = 2000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Overall weight of one metre length of conductor is
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = �𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2 = �1.782 + 1.52 = 2.33 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙2 2.33×1502
Slant sag, 𝑆𝑆 = = = 3.28 𝑚𝑚
8𝑇𝑇 8×2000
𝑤𝑤 1.78
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 3.28 × = 3.28 × = 2.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 2.33
Conductor has to be supported at a height of 7+2.5=9.5 m
Example 23. The towers of height 30 m and 90 m respectively support a overhead

line conductor at water crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers is 500
m. If the tension in the conductor is 1600 kg, calculate the minimum clearance of the
conductor and water and clearance mid-way between the supports. Weight of
conductor is 1.5 kg/m. Bases of the towers can be considered to be at water level.
- Solution.
Figure 28 presents the conductor suspended between two supports A and B at

different levels with O as the lowest point on the conductor. Here, l=500 m; w=1.5 kg;
T=1600 kg. Difference in support levels, h=90−30=60 m. Let the lowest point O of the
conductor be at a distance x1 from the support at lower level (for example, support A)
and at a distance x2 from the support at higher level (for example, support B).
Apparently, x1+x2=500 m
B
l=500 m
h
A
S2
P
S1
O
x1 x2
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥12 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22
Now 𝑆𝑆1 = and 𝑆𝑆2 =
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇
ℎ = 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 = −
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇
Or
𝑤𝑤
60 = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2
60 × 2 × 1600
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = = 256 𝑚𝑚
1.5 × 500
Solving above formulas it can be found: 𝑥𝑥1 = 122 𝑚𝑚, 𝑥𝑥2 = 378 𝑚𝑚
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥12 1.5×1222
Now, 𝑆𝑆1 = = = 7 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇 2×1600
Lowest point O clearance from water level=30-7=23 m
Let the mid-point P be at a distance x from the lowest point O.
Apparently, 𝑥𝑥 = 250 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 250 − 122 = 128 𝑚𝑚

𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 2 1.5×1282
Sag at mid-point P, 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 7.68 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇 2×1600
Clearance of mid-point P from water level=23+7.68=30.68 m
Example 24. An overhead transmission line conductor with a parabolic arrangement

weighs 1.925 kg per metre of length. The area of cross-section of the conductor is 2.2
cm2 and the overall strength is 8000 kg/cm2. The supports are 600 m apart having 15
m difference of levels. Find the sag from the taller of the two supports which have to
be allowed so that the safety factor shall be 5. Consider that ice load is 1 kg per metre
run and there is no wind pressure.
- Solution. Figure 29 presents the conductor suspended between two supports

at A and B at different levels with O as the lowest point on the conductor.
Here, l=600 m; wi=1 kg; h=15m
w=1.925 kg; T=8000×2.2/5=3520 kg
Complete weight of 1 m length of conductor is:
wt=w+wi=1.925+1=2.925 kg
Let the conductor lowest point O be at a distance x1 from the support at lower level
(for example, A) and at a distance x2 from the support at higher level (for example, B).
Apparently, x1+x2=600 m (1)
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥22 𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥12

Now, ℎ = 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 = −
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇
Or
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡
15 = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2
2×15×3520
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 2.925×600
= 60 𝑚𝑚 (2)
Solving formulas (1) and (2), it can be found, x1=270 m and x2=330 m
B
S2
A
S1
O
x1 x2
600 m
Sag from the taller of the two towers is
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥22 2.925 × 3302

𝑆𝑆2 = = = 45.24 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇 2 × 3520
Example 25. An overhead line at a river crossing is supported from two towers at
heights of 40 m and 90 m above water level, the horizontal distance between the
towers being 400 m. If the maximum allowable tension is 2000 kg, calculate the
clearance between the conductor and water at a point mid-way between the towers.
Conductor weight is 1 kg/m.
- Solution. Figure 30 shows the complete configuration.

B
P S2
Smid
A
S1
O
x
X1=50m
X2=450m
Figure 30. Overhead line at a river crossing
Here, h=90−40=50 m; l=400 m
T=2000 kg; w=1 kg/m
Apparently, x1+x2=400 m (1)
Now:
ℎ = 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 = −
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇
Or
𝑤𝑤
50 = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2
50×2×2000
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 400
= 500 𝑚𝑚 (2)
Solving expressions (1) and (2), it can be found, x2=450 m and x1=−50 m
Now x2 is the distance of higher support B from the conductor lowest point O, whereas
x1 is that of lower support A. As the span is 400 m, hence, point A lies on the same
side of O as B (as presented in Figure 30). Horizontal distance of mid-point P from
lowest point O is
x=Distance of A from O+400/2=50+200=250 m

𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 2 1×2502
Sag at point P, 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = 2×2000 = 15.6 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22 1×4502
Now Sag 𝑆𝑆2 = = 2×2000 = 50.6 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇
Height of point B above mid-point P:
= 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 50.6 − 15.6 = 35 𝑚𝑚
Clearance of mid-point P above water level=90-35=55 m
Example 26. An overhead line over a hillside with the gradient of 1:20, is supported
by two 22 m high towers with a distance of 300 m between them. The lowest conductor
is fixed 2 m below the top of each tower. Calculate the clearance of the conductor from
the earth. Given that conductor weighs 1 kg/m and the allowable tension is 1500 kg.
- Solution. The conductors are supported between towers AD and BE over a

hillside having gradient of 1:20 as presented in Figure 31. The lowest point on
the conductor is O and sinθ=1/20.
Effective height of each tower (AD or BE)=22–2=20 m
Vertical distance between towers is:
1
ℎ = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 300 × = 15 𝑚𝑚
20
Horizontal distance between two towers is:
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = √𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 2 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 = √3002 − 152 ~300 𝑚𝑚 (1)
Or
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 = 300 𝑚𝑚

Now
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥12 𝑤𝑤
ℎ= − = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇 2
Or
2𝑇𝑇ℎ 2×1500×15
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑤𝑤(𝑥𝑥 = = 150 𝑚𝑚 (2)
2 +𝑥𝑥1 ) 1×300
H
B
S2
A
S1
O
x1 x2
G
θ
D F C
Figure 31. Overhead line over a hillside
Solving expression (1) and (2), it can be found x1=75 m and x2=225 m
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22 1 × 2252
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆2 = = = 16.87 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇 2 × 1500
Now 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 20 + 15 = 35 𝑚𝑚
Clearance of the lowest point O from the earth is:
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
= 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Now 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑥𝑥1 tan 𝜃𝜃 = 75 × 0.05 = 3.75 𝑚𝑚
= 35 − 16.87 − 3.75 = 14.38 𝑚𝑚
Example 27. A transmission tower on a level earth gives a minimum clearance of 8

metres for its lowest conductor with sag of 10 m for a span of 300 m. If the same tower
is to be used over a slope of 1 in 15, calculate the minimum earth clearance obtained
for the same span, same conductor and same weather conditions.
- Solution. On level earth

𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙2
Sag, 𝑆𝑆 = 8𝑇𝑇
𝑤𝑤 8𝑆𝑆 8 × 10 8
= 2 = 2
=
𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙 300 9 × 103
Height of tower=Sag+Clearance=10+8=18 m
On sloping earth. The conductors are supported between towers AD and BE over a
sloping earth having a gradient 1 in 15 as presented in Figure 32. The height of each
tower (AD or BE) is 18 m. Vertical distance between the two towers is
h=EC=DE sinθ=300×1/15=20 m
Now x1+x2=300 m (1)

Also
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥12 𝑤𝑤
ℎ= − = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇 2
2𝑇𝑇ℎ 2×9×103 ×20
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑤𝑤(𝑥𝑥 = = 150𝑚𝑚 (2)
2 +𝑥𝑥1 ) 8×300
B
S2
A
S1
O
x1 x2
E
G
θ
D F C
Figure 32. The conductors supported between towers over a sloping ground
Solving formulas (1) and (2), it can be found x1=75 m and x2=225 m
Now
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥12 8 × 752
𝑆𝑆1 = = = 2.5 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇 2 × 9 × 103
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥22 8 × 2252
𝑆𝑆2 = = = 22.5 𝑚𝑚
2𝑇𝑇 2 × 9 × 103
Point O clearance from the earth is:
OG=BC−S2−GF=38−22.5−5=10.5 m
GF=x1 tanθ=75 × 1/15 = 5m]
Since O is the origin, the equation of slope of earth is expressed as:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝐴𝐴
Here:
1
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = −10.5 𝑚𝑚
15
𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = − 10.5
15
Clearance C from the earth at any point x is:

𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑦𝑦 = � � − � − 10.5�
2𝑇𝑇 15
8𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
= 3
− � − 10.5� = − + 10.5
2 × 9 × 10 15 2250 15
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Clearance will be minimum when 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 for example,
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
� − + 10.5� = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2250 15
Or
2𝑥𝑥 1
− =0
2250 15
Or
1 2250
𝑥𝑥 = × = 75 𝑚𝑚
15 2
For example, minimum clearance will be at a point 75 m from O.
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 752 75
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = − + 10.5 = − + 10.5 = 2.5 − 5 + 10.5 = 8 𝑚𝑚
2250 15 2250 15
Certain Mechanical Principles
Mechanical safety factors to be used in overhead line design should depend to some
degree on the continuity of operation importance. In principle, the line strength needs
to be such as to provide against the worst expected weather conditions. Some
important issues in the overhead transmission lines mechanical design are:
- Tower height: It is dependent upon the span length. With long spans, relatively
few towers are needed but they have to be tall and correspondingly costly.
Typically, it is not possible to find the tower height and span length on the basis
of direct construction costs because the lightning hazards highly increase as
the height of the conductors above earth is increased. This is one reason that
horizontal spacing is preferred in spite of the wider right of way.
- Conductor clearance to earth: The conductor clearance to earth at the time of

biggest sag should not be less than some specified distance (typically between
6 and 12 m), depending on the voltage, on the nature of the country and on the
local regulations. The biggest sag may happen on the hottest day of summer
on account of the expansion of the wire or it may happen in winter owing to the
formation of a heavy coating of ice on the wires. Specific provisions must be
made for melting ice from the power lines.
- Sag and tension: When installing overhead transmission lines, it is mandatory

to allow a reasonable safety factor in respect of the tension to which the
conductor is subjected. The tension is governed by the wind effects, ice loading
and temperature changes. The relationship between tension and sag depends
on the loading conditions and temperature changes. For instance, the tension
increases when the temperature reduces and there is a corresponding sag
reduction. Icing-up of the line and wind loading will cause conductor stretching
by an amount dependent on the line tension.
In sag planning, tension and clearance to earth of a given span, a maximum stress is
chosen. It is then aimed to have this stress developed at the worst probable weather
conditions (for example, minimum expected temperature, maximum ice loading and
maximum wind). Wind loading increases the sag in the direction of resultant loading
but reduces the vertical component. Hence, in clearance calculations, the wind effect
should not be included unless horizontal clearance is important.
- Stringing charts: For use in the field work of stringing the conductors,
temperature-sag and temperature tension charts are printed for the given
conductor and loading conditions. Such curves are known as stringing charts
and are shown in Figure 33. These charts are very useful while stringing
overhead transmission lines.
- Conductor spacing: Conductor spacing has to be such to provide safety against

flash-over when the wires are swinging in the wind. The adequate spacing is a
function of span length, voltage and weather conditions. The use of horizontal
spacing removes the danger caused by unequal ice loading. Small wires or light
material wires are exposed to more swinging by the wind than heavy
conductors. Hence, light wires need to be provided bigger spacings.
- Conductor vibration: Wind exerts pressure on the exposed conductor area. If

the wind velocity is small, the conductor swinging is harmless given the
clearance is sufficiently big so that conductors do not approach within the
sparking distance of each other. A totally different vibration type, known as
dancing, is caused by the action of fairly strong wind on a wire covered with ice,
when the ice coating happens to take a form which makes a good air-foil
section. Then the complete span may sail up like a kite until it reaches the limit
of its slack, stops with a jerk and falls or sails back. The harmful impact of these
vibrations happens at the clamps or supports where the conductor suffers
fatigue and finally breaks. In order to save the conductors, dampers are used.
Sag
Tension
Temperature
Figure 33. Stringing charts

Analysis of Sag and Tension 373
15
Analysis of Sag and Tension
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Analysis of sag and tension of conductor is an important consideration in overhead transmission
as well as distribution line design. The continuity and quality of electric service depend largely
on whether the conductors have been properly installed. Thus, a design engineer must determine
in advance the amount of sag and tension to be given to the conductor at a given temperature,
maximum wind, and possible ice loading. In order to specify the tension to be used in stringing
the line conductors, the values of sag and tension in summer and winter conditions must be
known. Excessive tension may cause mechanical failure of the conductor itself because conductors
tension contributes to the mechanical load on structures at angles in the line and at dead ends.
The main factors in the design and stringing of conductors on the supports are:
1. Conductor load per unit length.
2. Conductor tension.
3. Span, that is, distance between supports.
4. Temperature.
For determining the conductor load, the factors that need to be considered are:
1. Weight of conductor itself
2. Weight of ice or snow clinging to conductor.
3. Wind blowing against conductor.
The maximum effective weight of the conductor is the vector sum of the vertical weight of
the conductor and horizontal wind pressure. It is extremely important to include the most
adverse condition. From the design point of view, it is considered that the wind is blowing at
right angles to the line and to act against the projected area of the conductor, which includes the
projected area of ice or snow that may be clinging to it.
From the practical point of view, economic design dictates the following:
1. Sag of conductor should be minimum to refrain from extra pole height.
2. Sufficient clearance above ground level.
3. To avoid providing excessive horizontal spacing between conductors to prevent them
swinging together in midspan.
Sag of the conductor decreases because its tension pulls the conductor up. But at the same
time, tension elongates the conductor from elastic stretching which tends to relieve tension and
sag increases.
The elastic property of wire is measured by its modulus of elasticity. The modulus of
elasticity is defined as the stress per unit area divided by the deformation per unit length.
Since
T
s= kg/m2 ... (15.1)
A
where
s = stress per unit area (kg/m2)
T = conductor tension (kg)
A = actual cross section of conductor (m2)
Elongation e of the conductor due to the tension is
stress
e= ... (15.2)
modulus of elasticity
Elongation is high if modulus of elasticiy is low. Thus, a small change in the length of
conductor causes large effect on sag and tension of conductor.
Sag and stresses in conductors are dependent on the following things:
1. Initial tension put on them when they are clamped in place.
2. Weight of the conductors themselves.
3. Ice or sleet chinging to them.
4. Wind pressure.
Stress depends on sag, any span can be used provided the poles or towers are high enough
and strong enough. The matter is merely one of extending the catenary in both directions. Cost
of towers sharply increases with height and loading.
15.2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE

Sag and stress vary with temperature because of the thermal expansion and contraction of the
conductor. Temperature rise of conductor increase the length of conductor, and hence sag
increases and tension decreases. A temperature fall causes opposite effect. Maximum stress
occurs at the lowest temperature, when the line has contracted and is also possibly covered with
ice and sleet.
If conductor stress is constant while the temperature changes, the change in length of the
conductor is
Dl = l0 aDt ...(15.3)
where
Dt = t1 t0, Dl = l1 l0
where
t0 = initial temperature
l0 = conductor length at initial temperature t0
l1 = conductor length at t1.
a = coefficient of linear expansion of conductor per degree centigrade.
Dt = change in temperature in degree centigrade.
Dl = change in conductor length in meter.
If the temperature is constant while the conductor stress changes (i.e., loading), the change
in length of the conductor is
DT
Dl = l0. ...(15.4)
MA
DT = T1 T0
where
T0 = initial tension of conductor (kg)
DT = change in conductor tension (kg)
M = modulus of elasticiy of conductor (kg-m)
A = actual metal cross section of conductor (m2).
15.3 CALCULATIONS OF LINE SAG AND TENSION

Figure 15.1 shows a conductor suspended freely from two supports, which are at the same lavel
and spaced L meter, takes the form of a catenary curve providing the conductor is perfectly
flexible and conductor weight is uniformly distributed along its length. When sag (d) is very
small in comparison to span L (i.e., the conductor is tightly stretched), the resultant curve can
be considered as parabola. If d < 0.06 L, the error, the error in sag computed by the parabolic
equations is less than 0.5 per cent. If 0.06 L < d < 0.1 L, the error in sag computed by the
parabolic equations is about 2 per cent.
15.3.1 Catenary Method: Supports at Same Level

Figure 15.1 shows a span of conductor with two supports at the same level and separated by a
horizontal distance L. Let O be the lowest point on the catenary curve l be the length of the
conductor between two supports. Let W is the weight of the conductor per unit length (kg/m),
T is the tension of the conductor (kg) at any point P in the direction of the curve, and H is the
tension (kg) at origin O.
Further, s be the length of the curve between points O and P, thus the weight of the portion
s is ws.
Fig. 15.1: Conductor suspended between supports at same level.
Tension T can be resolved into two components, Tx, the horizontal component and Ty, the
vertical component. Then, for equilibrium,
Tx = H ...(15.5)
Ty = ws ...(15.6)
Thus the portion OP of the conductor is in equilibrium under the
tension T at P, the weight ws acting vertically downward, and the
horiazontal tension H.
Figure 15.2 shows a triangle, where ds represents a very short
portion of the conductor, in the region of point P. When s is increased by
ds, the corresponding x and y are increased by dx and dy, respectively.
Therefore, we can write,
dy V ws
tanq = = = ...(15.7)
dx H H
From Fig. 15.2, Fig. 15.2
(ds)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2
FG ds IJ 2
FG dy IJ
H dx K
2
\ =1+
H dx K ...(15.8)
Using eqns. (15.8) and (15.7), we get
FG ds IJ = 1 + FGH ws IJK
2 2
H dx K H
ds
FG ws IJ 2
HHK
\ dx = ...(15.9)
1+
Integrating both side of eqn. (15.9),
x= z ds
FG ws IJ 2
1+
HHK
Therefore,
FG IJ
H K
ws
H
x= sinh1 H + K ... (15.10)
w
where K is constant of integration.
When x = 0 , s = 0, and hence K = 0
FG ws IJ
\ x=
H
w
sinh1 HHK
FG wx IJ
sinh H H K
H
\ s= ...(15.11)
w
L l
when x= ,s= ,
2 2
l H FG IJ
H K
wL
\ = sinh
2 w 2H
2H F wL IJ
sinh G
\ l=
w H 2H K ...(15.12)
or we can write
LM 1 wL + 1 FG wL IJ +...OP
3
MN1! 2H 3 ! H 2H K PQ
2H
l=
w
or approximately,
F w L IJ
l = L G1 +
2 2
H 24H K 2
...(15.13)
From eqns. (15.7) and (15.11), we get,

FG IJ
H K
dy ws wx
= = sinh
dx H H
FG wx IJ dx
\ dy = sinh
HHK ...(15.14)
Integrating both sides of eqn. (15.14), we get,
y= z FG wxH IJ dx
H K
sinh
cos G
F wx IJ +K
HHK
H
\ y= 1 ...(15.15)
w
-H
If the lowest point of the curve is taken as the origin, when x = 0, y = 0, then K1 = , since
w
by the series, cosh(0) = 1.
Therefore,
LM FG IJ OP
N H K Q
H cosh wx - 1
y= H ...(15.16)
w
The curve of the eqn. (15.16) is called a catenary. Eqation (15.16) can also be written as
LMR|1 + 1 F wx I +...U| - 1OP

MNS|T 2 ! GH H JK V|W PQ
2
H
y=
w
or in approximate form,
wx 2
y= ...(15.17)
2H
From Fig. 15.1,
T= H2 +V 2
FG V IJ 2
\ T = H 1+
HHK ...(15.18)
FG dy IJ 2
T = H 1+
H dx K ...(15.19)
From eqn. (15.16), we get
FG IJ
H K
dy wx
= sinh ...(15.20)
dx H
FG wx IJ
T = Hcosh HHK ...(15.21)
FG IJ
H K
L
whereas the total tension in the conductor at the support at x = 2 is
FG wL IJ
T = Hcosh H 2H K ...(15.22)
or
L 1 F wL IJ
T = H M1 + G
2
FG IJ +...OP 4
MN 2 ! H 2H K
1 wL
+
H K PQ
4 ! 2H
...(15.23)
The sag or deflection of the conductor for a span of length L between supports on the same
L
level is [at x = , y = d , from eqn. (15.16)]
2
LM FG IJ OP
N H K Q
H cosh wL - 1
d= 2H ...(15.24)
w
or
LM FG IJ FG IJ 3
FG IJ +...OP
5
MN H K H K H K PQ
L 1 . wL + 1 wL +
1 wL
d=
2 2 2H 4 ! 2H 6 ! 2H
or approximately,
wL2
d= ...(15.26)
8H
Fig. 15.3: Parameters of catenary.
The safety code gives the minimum (required) clearance height for the line above ground
and if this is added to the sag, the minimum height of the insulator support points can be found.
From Fig. 15.3, c is the ordinate of the lowest point of the curve with respect to the directrix
and y is the ordinate of the point of tangency with respect to the directrix.
From Fig. 15.3,
l
Ty = w ...(15.27)
2
l
or if s= , then
2
Ty = ws ...(15.28)
and
Tx = wc ...(15.29)
where Tx can be defined as the mass of some unknown length c of the conductor and similarly
T and Ty also can be defined. Then at equilibrium
Tx = H ...(15.30)
Ty = V ...(15.31)
where
H = horizontal tension in conductor
V = weight of conductor per meter of span times distance from point of maximum
sag to support.
Thus, from the triangle of forces (Fig. 15.1)
T= H2 +V 2 ...(15.32)
Using eqns. (15.32), (15.31), (15.30), (15.29) and (15.28) we get,
T= bwcg + bwsg
2 2
\
F
T = H c + s Kw
2 I 2
...(15.33)

H
c= ...(15.34)
w
From eqns. (15.11) and (15.34), we have
FG x IJ
s = c sinh H cK ...(15.35)
LM FG IJ OP + K
N H KQ
x
y = c cosh c 1 ...(15.36)
FG L IJ . From Fig. 15.3, when x = 0 , y = c,

where x is half of the span length H 2K
\ c = c cosh b0g + K 1
\ K1 = 0 and therefore,
LM FG IJ OP
N H KQ
x
y = c cosh c ...(15.37)
Squaring eqn. (15.35). we get.

LM FG x IJ OP
s2 = c2 sinh
N
2
H c KQ ...(15.38)
Squaring eqn. (15.37), we get,

LM FG x IJ OP
N
y2 = c2 cosh 2
H c KQ ...(15.39)
Subtracting eqn. (15.38) from eqn. (15.39),
LM FG IJ FG IJ OP
N
2 x
HK2 x
y2 s2 = c2 cosh c - sinh c H KQ
\ y2 s2 = c2
\ y= c2 + s 2 ...(15.40)
From eqns. (15.33) and (15.40),
Tmax = wy ...(15.41)
Also
Tmax = w c 2 + s 2 ...(15.42)
According to eqn. (15.41), maximum tension T occurs at the supports where the conductor
V s
is at an angle to the horizontal whose tangent is or , since V = ws and H = wc, at supports,
H c
y=c+d ...(15.43)
c+d= c2 + s2
s2 - d2
\ c= ...(15.44)
2d
From eqns. (15.41) and (15.43), we can write,
Tmax = w(c + d) ...(15.45)
Substituting eqn. (15.44) into eqn. (15.45),
w 2
Tmax = (s + d2) ...(15.46)
2d
which gives the maximum value of the conductor tension.
A line tangent to the conductor is horizontal at the point (0), where sag is maximum and has
greatest angle from the horizontal at the supports. Supports are at the same level, thus, the
weight of the conductor in one half span on each side is supported at each tower.
At the point of maximum sag (midspan), the vertical component of tension is zero. Thus,
minimum tension occurs at the point of maximum sag. The tension at this point (at y = c) acts
in a horizontal direction and is equal to the horizontal component of tension.
Therefore,
Tmin = H ...(15.47)
But H = wc,
\ Tmin = wc ... (15.48)
From eqns. (15.48) and (15.44),
FG s - d IJ
2 2
Tmin = w
H 2d K
From Fig. 15.3,
c=yd ...(15.49)
The conductor length is
l = 2s ...(15.50)
From eqns. (15.50) and (15.35),
FG IJ
HK
x
l = 2c sinh c ...(15.51)

Tmax = Tmin + wd ...(15.52)
15.3.2 Parabolic Method

In the case of short span between supports, the sag is small and the curve can be considered as
parabola. For the sake of simplicity, the following assumptions are made:
1. Throughout the span, tension is considered uniform
2. The change in conductor length due to elastic stretch or temperature expansion is equal
to the change of length of conductor equal in length to the horizontal distance between
the supports.
Let P be any point on the parabolic curve as shown in Fig. 15.4, such that are OP is equal
to x. The portion OP is in equilibrium.
Fig. 15.4: Parameters of parabola.

under the action of T, H and wx.

For equilibrium,
Tx = H and Ty = wx
Taking moments about P,
FG x IJ
H.y = wx
H2K
wx 2
\ y= ...(15.53)
2H
For short span with small sag, Tmax Tmin can be considered as small. Therefore Tmax »
Tmin = H. or T = Tmax = Tmin = H.
Therefore, eqn. (15.53) can be written as:
wx 2
y= ...(15.54)
2T
L
when x= ,y=d
2
wL2
\ d= ...(15.55)
8T
Since T = H,
Also
wL2
d= ...(15.56)
8H
F 8d IJ
l = L G1 +
2
H 3L K 2 ...(15.57)
Example 15.1: A transmission line conductor has been suspended freely from two towers and
has taken the form of a catenary that has c = 487.68 m. The span between the two towers is
152 m, and the weight of the conductor is 1160 kg/km. Calculate the following:
(a) Length of the conductor (b) Sag
(c) Maximum and minimum value of conductor tension using catenary method.
(d) Approximate value of tension by using parabolic method.
Solution:
(a) From eqn. (15.12),
2H FG IJ
H K
wL
l= sinh
w 2H
H
since c=
w
LM FG IJ OP
N H KQ
L
l = 2c sinh 2c
c = 487.68 m, L = 152 m
FG IJ
H K
152
\ l = 2 × 487.68 sinh 2 ´ 487.68
\ l = 152.576 m.
Using eqn. (15.13)
FG w L IJ
2 2
H 24H K
l = L 1+ 2
F L IJ
l = L G1 +
2
\
H 24c K 2
FG1 + b152g IJ 2
l = 152 G
\
H 24 ´ b487.68g JK m 2
\ l = 152.615 m.
(b) Using eqn. (15.24),
LM FG IJ OP
N H K Q
H cosh wL - 1
d= 2H
w
L FLI O
d = c Mcosh GH 2 c JK - 1P
\
N Q
H
since c=
w
LM FG IJ OP
N H K Q
152
\ d = 487.68 cosh 2 ´ 487.68 - 1
\ d = 5.934 m
(c) Using eqn. (15.45)
Tmax = w(c + d)
w = 1160 kg/km = 1.16 kg/m
c = 487.68 m, d = 5.934 m
\ Tmax = 1.16 × (487.68 + 5.934) kg
\ Tmax = 572.59 kg
(d) From eqn. (15.55)
wL2
d=
8T
\ T=
wL2
=
116
. ´ 152 b g 2
kg
8d 8 ´ 5.934
\ T = 564.55 kg.
15.4 UNSYMMETRICAL SPANS (SUPPORTS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS)

Figure 15.5 shows supports at different levels with a span L between two supports whose
elevations differ by a distance h.
Fig. 15.5: Supports at different levels.
Using eqn. (15.54)
wx 2
y=
2T
when y = d1, x = x1
wx12
\ d1 = ...(15.58)
2T
Similarly
wx22
d2 = ...(15.59)
2T
Therefore,
h = d2 d1 ...(15.60)
Using eqns. (15.60), (15.59) and (15.58), we get,
h=
w
2T
e
x22 - x12 j ...(15.61)
Also
L = x1 + x2 ...(15.62)
From eqn. (15.61),
2TH
x2 x1 =
b
w x1 + x2 g ...(15.63)

2TH
x2 x1 = ...(15.64)
wL
Solving eqns. (15.62) and (15.64), we get
L hT
x1 = ...(15.65)
2 wL
L hT
x2 = + ...(15.66)
2 wL
In eqn. (15.65),
L hT
if > , then x1 is positive
2 wL
L hT
if = , then x1 is zero
2 wL
L hT
if < , then x1 is negative
2 wL
If x1 is negative, the lowest point (point 0) of the imaginary curve lies outside the actual
span as shown in Fig. 15.6.
Fig. 15.6: Case of negative N1.
15.5 RULING SPAN OR EQUIVALENT SPAN (SPANS OF UNEQUAL

LENGTH)
When a transmission line consists of spans of unequal length, theoretical tension of each span
depends to its own length. In fact, this is not possible with suspension insulators since the
insulator strings would swing so as to eqnalize the tension in each span. However, it is possible
to assume a uniform tension between dead-end supports by defining ruling span or equivalent
span.
Equivalent span or ruling span is defined as:
L31 + L 32 + L 33 +...+ L3n

Le =
L1 + L2 + L3 +...+ Ln
n
å L 3i
i =1
or Le = ...(15.67)
n
å Li
i =1
where
Le = ruling span or equivalent span
Li = each individual span in line.
An approximate equivalent span or ruling span can be calculated as
2
Le = Lavg + (Lmax Lavg) ...(15.68)
3
where
Lavg = average span in line
n
1
=
n
å Li ...(15.69)
i =1
Lmax = maximum span in line

= max[L1, L2, L3, ..., Ln] ...(15.70)
The tension of line T can be calculated using this equivalent span length and expression for
sag is detined as
wLe2
d= ...(15.71)
8T
15.6 EFFECT OF ICE

The sag is determined for the span design at which the transmission line is constructed so that
accumulations of snow or ice and excessive temperature changes will not stress the conductor
beyond its elastic limit, may cause permanent stretch or fatigue failures from continued
vibrations. In mountaneons areas, the thickness of the ice formed on the conductor is very
significant. Accumulations of ice on the line conductor has the following effects on the line
design:
1. Increase the dead weight per meter of the line
2. Increase the projected surface of the line subject to wind pressure.
More likely configuration of a conductor with ice coating is shown in Fig. 15.7. However, for
the sake of simplicity, it can be assumed that ice coating is uniform over the surface of the
conductor, as shown in Fig. 15.8.
Fig. 15.7: More likely configuration of cross-sectional area of ice covered conductor.
Fig. 15.8: Assumed configuration of cross-sectional area of ice covered

conductor (uniform ice coating).
where
ti = thickness of ice (cm), uniform over the surface of conductor
dc = diameter of conductor (cm).
The cross-sectional area of the ice is
Ai =
1
4
LNMb
p dc + 2ti g
2 OQP
- dc2 cm2
\ Ai = pti(dc + ti) cm2

\ Ai = pti(dc + ti) × 104 m2 ...(15.72)
Volume of the ice per meter is
Vice = 1 × Ai m3/m
\ Vice = pti(dc + ti) × 104 m3m ...(15.72a)
Let the weight of the ice is wc(Kg/m3 ), so that the weight of ice per meter is,
wi = wcpti(dc + ti) × 104 kg/m ...(15.73)
Therefore, total vertical load on the couductor per merter length is
wT = w + wi ...(15.74)
where
wT = total vertical load on conductor per meter length.
w = weight of conductor per meter length.
wi = weight of ice per meter length.
15.7 EFFECT OF WIND

We assume that wind blows uniformly and horizontally across the projected area of the conductor
covered without ice and with ice. Fig. 15.9 shows the force of wind on conductor covered without
ice and Fig. 15.10 shows force of wind on conductor covered with ice.
Fig. 15.9: Wind force on conductor without ice.
Fig. 15.10: Wind force on conductor covered with ice.
The projected area per meter length of the conductor with no ice is
Sni = Ani.l ...(15.75)
where
Sni = projected area of conductor covered without ice in square meter per meter
length.
Ani = cross-sectional area of conductor covered without ice in square meter.
l = length of conductor (meter)
For 1-meter length of conductor with no ice
dc
Sni = ´ 1 m2/m ...(15.76)
100
with ice covered
Swi = Awil ...(15.77)
where
Swi = projected area of conductor covered with ice in square meter per meter
length.
Awi = cross-sectioral area of conductor covered with ice in square meter.
l = length of conductor (meter)
For 1-meter length of conductor,
Swi =
bd + 2t g ´ 1 m /m
c i 2
...(15.78)
100
The horizontal force exerted on the line as a result of the pressure of wind without ice (Fig.
15.9) is
F = Sni.P ...(15.79)

dc
F= . p kg/m ...(15.80)
100
where
F = horizontal force due to wind pressure exerted on line (kg/m)
p = wind pressure (Kg/m2)
with ice covered (Fig. 15.10), it is
F = Swi.p ...(15.81)
F=
bd + 2t g . p kg/m
c i
...(15.82)
100
The effective load acting on the conductor is
we = b
F 2 + w + wi g
2
...kg/m ...(15.83)
Fig. 15.11 shows the force triangle
Fig. 15.11: Force triangle.
Therefore sag can be calculated as
weL2
d= kg. ...(15.84)
8T
Example 15.2: A stress-crossing overhead transmission line has a span of 150 m over the
stream. Horizontal wind pressure is 20 kg/m2 and the thickness of ice is 1.25 cm. Diameter of
conductor is 2.80 cm and weight is 1520 kg/km, and an ultimate strength of 12900 kg. Use a
factor of safety of 2 and 912 kg/m3 for the weight of ice. Using the parabolic method, determine
the following:
(a) Weight of ice in kg per meter
(b) Total vertical load on conductor in kg/m
(c) Horizontal windforce exerted on line in kg/m
(d) Effective load acting on conductor in kg/m
(e) Sag in m
(f) Vertical sag in meter
Solution:
(a) Using eqn. (15.73)
wi = wcp ti(dc + ti) × 104 kg/m
wc = 912 kg/m3
ti = 1.25 cm, dc = 2.80 cm
\ wi = 912 × p × 1.25 (2.80 +1.25) × 104 kg/m
\ wi = 1.45 kg/m
(b) Using eqn. (15.74)
wT = w + wi
w= 1520 kg/km, wi = 1.45 kg/m
\ wT = (1.520 + 1.45) = 2.97 kg/m
(c) From eqn. (15.82)
F=
bd c + 2ti g p kg/m
100
dc = 2.80 cm, ti = 1.25 cm,
p = 20 kg/m2
\F =
b2.80 + 1.25g × 20 kg/m
100
\ F = 0.81 kg/m
(d) Using eqn.(15.83),
we = b
F 2 + w + wi g2
\we = F 2 + wT2
F = 0.81 kg/m, wT = 2.97 kg/m
\ we = b0.81g + b2.97g
2 2
=3.078 kg/m
Ultimate strength
(e) T=
Factor of safety
Ultimate strength = 12900 kg
Factor of safety = 2.0
12900 Fig. 15.12
\T= = 6450 kg
2
Using eqn. (15.84),
w e L2
d=
8T
\d=
3.078 ´ 150 b g 2
m = 1.342 m.
8 ´ 6450
(f ) Vertical sag = dcos q

2.97
cos q = (see Fig. 15.12)
3.078
2.97
\ vertical sag = 1.342 × m
3.078
= 1.295 m.
15.8 LOCATION OF LINE

The routing of a transmission or distribution lines requires thorough investigatians and for
selecting the most desirable and practical route, following points should be considered:
1. cost of construction
2. cost of easements
3. cost of clearing
4. cost of maintenance.
15.9 SAG TEMPLATE

For correct design and economy, the location of structures on the profile with a template is very
essential. Sag template is a convenient device used in the design of a transmission line to
determine the location and height of stuctures. Sag template can be relied upon to provide the
following:
1. Economic layout
2. Minimum errors in design and layout
3. Proper grading of structures
4. Prevention of excessive insulator swing
Generally two types of towers are used:
1. The standard or straight run or intermidiate tower.
2. The angle or anchor or tension tower.
The straight run towers are used for straight runs and normal conditions. The angle towers
are designed to withstand heavy loading as compared to standard towers because angle towers
are used at angles, terminals and other points where a large unbalanced pull may be thrown on
the supports.
For standard towers, for normal or average spans, the sag and the nature of the curve
(Catenary or Parabola) that the line conductor will occupy under expected loading conditions is
evaluated and plotted on template. Template will also show the required minimum ground
clearance by plotting a curve parallel to the conductor shape curve. For the standard tower and
same height, the tower footing line can also be plotted on the template. Tower footing line is
used for locating the position of towers and minimum ground clearance is maintained throughout.
Figure 15.13 shows the sag template used for locating towers. In fact there are no clear-cut
guide lines for locating the tower positions and sesveral other alternatives may be examined.
Ground clearance depends on voltage level and Table-15.1 gives the span length and ground
clearance at different voltage levels.
Fig. 15.13: Sag template for locating towers.
Table- 15.1: Span length and ground clearance
Voltage span length minimum ground

level (m) clearance (m)
0.4 KV 80 4.6
11 KV 100 4.6
33 KV 150-200 5.2
66 KV 200-300 6.3
132 KV 350-360 6.3
220 KV 360-380 7.0
400 KV 400 8.8
Example 15.3: A galvanised steel tower member has original length of 22 cm and cross
sectional area 13 cm2. With working axial tensile load of 125 KN, the change in length was 0.2
mm. Calculate
(a) Stress (b) Strain (c) Modulus of elasticity (d) Percent elongation (e) If ultimate tensile
stress is 110000 N/mm2, determine the factor of safety.
Solution:
Tensile load 125 ´ 10 3

(a) Stress = = N/m2
Area of cross section 13 ´ 10 -4
\ Stress = 9.615×104 N/m2
Change in length 0.02
(b) Strain = =
Original length 22
\ Strain = 0.000909.
Stress 9.615 ´ 10 4
(c) Modulus of elasticity = = N/m2
Strain 0.000909
= 10577.55 × 104 N/m2
Change in length
(d) Elongation = × 100%
Original length
0.02
= × 100%
22
= 0.0909%
Ultimate Stress
(e) Factor of safety =
Working Stress
110000
= = 1.14
9.615 ´ 10 4
Example 15.4: An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is supported from two towers
of heighs 40 m and 80 m above water level with a span of 250 m. Weight of the conductor is 1.16
kg/m and the working tension is 1800 kg. Determine the clearance between the conductor and
the water level midway between the towers.
Solution:
Using eqn. (15.65)
L hT
x1 =
2 wL
L = 250 m, h = (80 40) m = 40 m, T = 1800 kg
w = 1.16 kg/m
250 40 ´ 1800
\ x1 = = 123.27 m
2 116
. ´ 250
x1 is negative means, both the towers are on the same side of the point of maximum sag
cansidering parabolic configuration. Fig. 15.14 shows this condition.
Fig. 15.14
Horizontal distance of mid point, P from O (OP´)

L 250
= x1 = (123.27)
2 2
= 248.27 m
Horizontal distance of point, B from O (OB¢ )

= L x1 = 250 (123.27)
= 373.27 m
Therefore, height of mid point P above O,
FG L - x IJ 2
d1 =
w
H2 K =
1
116
. ´ 2.48.27
= 19.86 m
2T 2 ´ 1800
Similarly, height of point B abve O,
d2 =
b
w L - x1 g 2
=
116 b
. ´ 373.27
= 44.9 m
g 2
2T 2 ´ 1800
Hence mid point P is (d2 d1) = (44.9 19.86)
= 25.04 m below point B.
Height of the mid point P with respect to A
= (19.86 4.9) m = 14.96 m
Therefore, clearance between the conductor and the water level midway between the
towers will be
s = (40 + 14.96) m = 54.96 m
or
s = (80 25.04) m = 54.96 m
Example 15.5: An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is supported from two towers
at heights of 30 m and 70 m above the water level. The horizontal distance between the towers
is 250 m. If the required clearance between the conductors and the water midway between the
towers is 45 m and if both the towers are on the same side of the point of maximum sag, find the
tension in the conductor. The weight of the conductor is 0.80 kg/m.
Solution:
Fig. 15.15
Assuming parabolic configuration as shown in Fig. 15.15.

L = 250 m, w = 0.80 kg/m.
Difference in level between the two supports
h = 70 30 = 40 m.
Note that both the towers are on the same side of the point of maximum sag. Hence x1 is
negative.
Using eqn. (15.61),
h=
w
2T
e
x 22 - x 12 j
As x1 is negative, x2 = L x1
\ h= {bL - x g
w
2T
1
2
- x 12 }
\ h=
w
2T
bL - 2 x g 1 ...(i)
For points A and B, h = 40 m
\
0.8 ´ 250
2T
b g
250 - 2 x1 = 40
250 - 2 x1
\ = 0.40 ...(ii)
T
For points A and P, h = 45 30 = 15 m,
Horizontal distance between A and P
250
= = 125 m.
2
Using eqn. (i)
0.8 ´ 125
(125 2x1) = 15
2T
125 - 2 x1
\ = 0.3 ...(iii)
T
Dividing eqn. (ii) by eqn. (iii), we get
250 - 2 x1 0.4 4
125 - 2 x1 = 0.3 = 3
\ x1 = 125 m
substituting x1 = 125 in eqn. (ii), we get
b g = 0.40
250 - 2 -125
T
\ T = 1250 kg. Ans.
Example 15.6: An overhead line is supported on two towers 300 m apart having a difference in
level of 10 m. The conductor radius is 1 cm and weighs 2.3 kg/m. Determine the sag at the lower
support when the line is subjected to wind pressure of 55 kg/m2 of projected area. The maximum
tensile strength of copper is 422 × 105 kg/m2. Factor of safety is 2.3.
Solution:
Span length, L = 300 m
Weight of the conductor, w = 2.3 kg/m
Radius of conductor = 1 cm
Diameter of conductor, dc = 2 cm.
Using eqn. (15.80)
dc
F= p kg/m
100
p = 55 kg/m2
2
\ F= × 55 kg/m = 1.1 kg/m.
100
Using eqn. (15.83), In this case
we = F 2 + w2 = b11. g + b2.3g
2 2
\ we = 2.55 kg/m.
Fig. 15.16
pdc 2
Cross-sectional area of conductor Ac =
4
\ Ac =
bg
p2
2
cm2 = 3.142 cm2
4
\ Ac = 3.142 × 104 m2
\ Allowable Tension
422 ´ 10 5 ´ 3.142 ´ 10 -4
T= kg
2.3
\ T = 5764.88 kg.
Distance of lowest point of conductor, O (see Fig. 15.5) from the support at lower level A can
be obtained using (15.65),
L hT
x1 = w L
2 e
Difference in level of supports h = 10 m,
FG 300 - 10 ´ 5764.88 IJ m
\ x1 = H 2 2.55 ´ 300 K
\ x1 = 74.65 m
For unequal support, sag at lower level can be calculated
Using eqn. (15.58), i.e.
we x12
d1 =
2T
we = 2.55 kg/m, x1 = 74.65 m,
T = 5764.88 kg
\ d1 =
b g
2.55 ´ 74.65
2
m
2 ´ 5764.88
\ d1 = 1.232 m.
FG 2.3 IJ m
Vertical sag = d1 cosq = 1.232 × H 2.55 K
= 1.111 m Ans.
Example 15.7: An overhead transmission line conductor having weight 1.16 kg/m, diameter
1.7 cm and an ultimate strength 32 × 106 kg/m2. When erected between supports 300 m apart
and having 12 m difference in height, determine the sag with respect to the taller of the two
supports. Conductor was loaded due to 1 kg of ice per meter and factor of safety is 2.0
Solution:
Span length L = 300 m, w = 1.16 kg/m,
wi = 1 kg/m
wT = w + wi = 1.16 + 1 = 2.16 kg/m.
Difference in level of two supports h = 12 m.
Diameter of the conductor dc = 1.7 cm
p 2
cross section area Ac = d
4 c
p
\ Ac = (1.7)2 ×104 m2 = 2.27 × 104 m2
4
Factor of safety = 2
Allowable tension
32 ´ 10 6 ´ 2.27 ´ 10 -4
T= kg
2
\ T = 3632 kg.
Distance of the lowest point of the conductor from the taller support can be obtained using
eqn. (15.66), i.e.,
L hT
x2 = + w L
2 T
FG 300 + 12 ´ 3632 IJ = 217.26 m

\ x2 = H 2 2.16 ´ 300 K
Vertical sag can be obtained using eqn. (15.59) i.e.,
d2 =
wT x 22 2.16 ´ 217.26
=
b g 2
= 14.03 m. Ans.
2T 2 ´ 3632
Example 15.8: An overhead transmission line has a span of 300 m. Ultimate strength is
6000 Kg and factor of safety is 2.0. If the sag is 2m, determine (a) weight of the conductor
(b) length of the line.
Solution:
(a) Span length L = 300 m
Ultimate strength
Allowable tension T =
Factor of safety
6000
\ T= = 3000 kg.
2
Using eqn. (15.55), sag expression is written as:
wL 2
d=
8T
d=2m
\
b g
w ´ 300
2
=2
8 ´ 3000
\ w = 0.533 kg/m.
\ Weight of the conductor = 0.533 kg/m.
(b) Length of the line can be obtained using eqn. (15.57), i.e.,
F 8d I
FG1 + 8 ´ b2g IJ2
l = LG
H 3L JK = 300 GH 3 ´ b300g JK
2
1 + 2
2
\ l = 300.0355 m
Total weight of the conductor

= wl = 0.533 × 300.0355 kg.
= 159.918 kg.
Example 15.9: Calculate the sag and vertical sag of a transmission line having conductor is
diameter 0.93 cm. Weight of conductor is 0.6 kg/m and breaking strength 2000 kg. Assume
factor of safety 2 and span length 200 m and supports at the same level. The line is subjected to
wind pressure of 40 kg/m2 of the projected area. The radial thickness of the ice is 1.25 cm and
weight of the ice is 912 kg/m3.
Solution:
L = 200 m, w = 0.60 kg/m
Weight of the ice per meter length can be obtained using eqn. (15.73),
wi = wcp ti(dc + ti) ×104 kg/m
ti = 1.25 cm, dc = 0.93 cm, wc = 912 kg/m3
\ wi = 912 × p × 1.25 (0.93 + 1.25) ×104 kg/m
\ wi = 0.7807 kg/m.
\ wT = w + wi = 0.60 + 0.7807
\ wT = 1.3807 kg/m
Horizontal force due to wind pressure can be obtained using eqn. (15.82), i.e.,
F=
bd + 2t g p kg/m
c i
100
p = 40 kg/m2
\ F=
b0.93 + 2 ´ 1.25g × 40 kg/m
100
\ F = 1.372 kg/m
Effective load acting on the conductor can be obtained using eqn. (15.83)
we = b
F 2 + w + wi g 2
\ we = F 2 + wT2 = b1372
. g + b1.3807g
2 2
\ we = 1.946 kg/m.
Factor of safety = 2.0
2000
T= = 1000 kg.
2
\ Sag d =
w e L2
=
1946
. ´ 200 b g 2
8T 1 ´ 1000
\ d = 9.73 m
FG w IJ = 9.73 × FG 1.3807 IJ
Vertical sag = d cosq = d ×
Hw K
T
e H 1946
. K
= 6.9035 m.
15.10 AEOLIAN VIBRATION (RESONANT VIBRATION)

Overhead conductors will subject to normal swinging in wind and apart from that, may subject
to vibrations known as aeolian vibrations or resonant vibrations. Aeolian vibrations have low
amplitude (maximum 0.50 cm or so) and high frequencies (50 100 Hz). These are caused by
the vortex phenomenon in the low wind speed (10 30 km/hr).
Imperical formula of frequency f is given by
FG u IJ
f = 50
Hd K
c
...(15.85)
where
u = wind velocity (km/hr)
dc = diameter of conductor (mm)
The length of a loop (half wave length) depends on tension T and conductor weigh w and is
given by
1T
l= ...(15.86)
2f
w
If wind velocity u = 30 km/hr and conductor diameter 3 cm = 30 mm, then
FG 30 IJ = 50 Hz.
f = 50
H 30 K
Then conductor will vibrate at about 50 Hz.
Now if T = 5096.84 kg = 50 K Newton and w = 1.6 kg/m, then loop length = 1.8 m. These
vibrations are very common to all conductors and are always present. Since these vibrations are
small in magnitude, these are less harmful. The ACSR conductor has high diameter to weight
ratio and is subject to fatigue by these vibrations.
A stock bridge damper as shown in Fig. 15.17 is used to minimize these vibrations. It
comprises of two masses at the end of a short length of stranded steel cable suspended from the
conductor about midway between two points (nodes) of the vibrations. Movement of the damper
is caused by the vibration and energy is absorbed by the inter-strand friction in the steel cable.
The length of a typical damper is about 60 cm and weighs about 5 kg or more.
Fig. 15.17: Stock bridge damper.
15.11 GALLOPING OR DANCING OF CONDUCTORS

These vibrations are of low frequency (0.25 2 Hz) and high amplitude (upto 6 m) and are
generally caused by asymmetrical layer of ice formation. This vibration is self-excited type.
When the ice coated conductor is acted upon by a light drift wind particularly where the ground
slopes at right angles to the transmission line vibration is initiated because wind travels up the
slope and appears to get underneath the conductor. The stranding of conductors significantly
contributes to these vibrations. These vibrations may cause flashover between conductors. It is
difficult to prevent these vibrations but horizontal configuration of transmission line can be
used to reduce the impact of galloping or dancing of conductors.
EXERCISE
15.1 Conductor diameter of an overhead transmission line is 1.95 cm and span between towers is
244 m. If the allowable tension is 3629 kg. Find (a) sag in still air condition without ice covering
(b) vertical sag when there is an ice covering of 0.96 cm radial thickness and a horizontal wind
pressure of 38.94 kg/m2 of projected area. Weight of ice is 909.27 kg/m3 (c) The line is carried by
insulator strings 1.45 m long. What should be the height of lowest crossarm to give a minimum
ground clearance of 8 m under bad weather conditions? Weight of conductor is 0.847 kg/m.
Ans: (a) 1.74 m; (b) 3.37 m; (c) 12.82 m
15.2 An overhead transmission line is supported at a river crossing from two towers whose heights are
33.6 m and 29 m above water level. The allowable tension is 3404.69 kg and weight of conductor
is 0.849 kg/m. Determine (a) clearance between the lowest point on the conductor and water level
(b) horizontal distance of this point from the lower support. Given that span L = 336 m.
Ans: (a) 27.405 m; (b) 113.11 m
15.3 Determine the erection sag and tension of a transmission line at 65ºC in still air. The line has a
span of 300 m. ACSR conductor has the following data: Area = 240 mm2; overall diameter =
20 mm; weight = 1.0 kg/m; ultimate strength = 8000 kg; coefficient of linear expansion = 18.44 ×
105/ºC; modulus of elasticity = 9320 kg/mm2. Also assume radial thickness of ice is 1.0 cm and a
wind pressure 40 kg/m2 of projected area and a temperature of 5ºC as the worst condition.
Weight of the ice is 910 kg/m3 and factor of safety = 2.0. Ans: 20.76 m; 541.9 kg.
15.4 The weight of conductor of a overhead transmission line is 0.407 kg/m. The ultimate strength is
407.74 kg and factor of safety is 2.0. Span length is 160 m. Determine (a) sag, (b) total length of
the line between supports. Ans: (a) 6.38 m; (b) 160.73 m.
15.5 An overhead transmission line conductor weighs 0.35 kg/m. Ultimate strength is 800 kg and
factor of safety is 2.0. Span length is 160 m. One support is at a height 70 m from the ground.
Determine the minimum clearance from the ground and the lowest point of the catenary from the
supports if the second support is at a height (a) 40 m (b) 65 m from the ground.
Ans: (a) 40 m; (b) 64.14 m.
15.6 A overhead transmission line has a span of 275 m between level supports. The conductor has a
radius of 0.9765 cm and weighs 0.844 kg/m and has an ultimate breaking strength of 11925 kg.
Conductor has a radial covering of ice 0.953 cm thick and is subjected to a horizontal wind
pressure of 40 kg/m2 of the ice covered projected area. Factor of safety is 3.0. Weight of the ice is
913.5 kg/m3. Determine (a) sag and (b) vertical sag Ans: (a) 5.36 m (b) 3.9 m.
15.7 An overhead transmission line over a hill side is supported by two 30 m high towers with a
gradient 1 in 20. The horizontal distance between the towers is 300 m. Weight of the conductor
is 1.492 kg/m and ultimate breaking strength is 4400 kg. The lowest conductor is fixed 6 m below
the top of each tower and factor of safety is 2.0. Determine (a) the clearance of the lowest point of
the conductor from the ground, and (b) the minimum ground clearance.
Ans: (a) 18.3 m; (b) 16.46 m.
15.8 A transmission line on a mountain side is supported between two points separated by a horizontal
distance of 400 m and at the heights of 900 m and 1150 m above sea level, respectively. Conductor
weight is 1.492 kg/m and the ultimate breaking strength is 7870 kg. Find out the vertical
clearance between the conductor and a point on the mountain side at a height of 970 m and a
horizontal distance of 175 m from the support. Factor of safety is 2.0. Ans: 32 m.
15.9 An overhead transmission line has a span of 183 m between the supports. The conductor has 37
strands each of 0.259 cm diameter. The weight of the conductor is 0.729 kg/m and the ultimate
breaking strength is 5521 kg. Factor of safety is 2.0. Determine the sag under ice and wind
condition if the radial thickness of ice is 0.96 cm and the wind pressure is 38.93 kg/m2 of ice coated
projected area. The weight of the ice is 909.27 kg/m3. Ans: 3.2 m.
15.10 An overhead transmission line has an ultimate breaking strength of 5000 kg/cm2 and the cross
sectional area of 2.5 cm2. The horizontal distance between supports is 600 m and having 20 m
difference in level. Factor of safety is 2.0. The weight of the conductor is 2 kg/m, ice loading is
1 kg/m and wind loading is 1.5 kg/m. Compute the sag and vertical sag. Ans: 24 m; 20 m.
15.11 An overhead transmission line having a span of 325 m between the supports. Radius of the
conductor is 1.113 cm and weight is 1.097 kg/m and allowable tension 3568 kg. Radial thickness
of ice is 0.96 cm and weight of the ice is 907.23 kg/m3. Wind pressure 38.73 kg/m2 of projected area.
Determine the vertical sag. Also determine the sag under still air conditions with no ice and wind
and a allowable tension of 2039 kg. Ans: 7.29 m; 7.10 m.
15.12 An overhead transmission line has a span of 300 m. The weight of the conductor is 0.844 kg/m and
having diameter of 1.953 cm. Determine the vertical sag when a wind pressure of 75 kg/m2 of
projected area acts on conductor. The ultimate breaking strength of conductor is 11925 kg and
factor of safety is 3.0. Ans: 2.39 m.
15.13 An overhead transmission line having horizonatal span of 300 m between supports and heights
30 m and 70 m from the ground level. Allowable tension is 1720 kg and total weight of the
conductor between the supports is 218.1 kg. Find the height of the conductor from the ground
level between the supports. Ans: 45.25 m.
INSULATED CABLES
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by

underground cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as less liable
to damage through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less chance of faults, smaller
voltage drop and better general appearance. However, their major drawback is that they have
greater installation cost and introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared with the
equivalent overhead system. For this reason, underground cables are employed where it is
impracticable to use overhead lines. Such locations may be thickly populated areas where
municipal authorities prohibit overhead lines for reasons of safety, or around plants and
substations or where maintenance conditions do not permit the use of overhead construction.
The chief use of underground cables for many years has been for distribution of electric power in
congested urban areas at comparatively low or moderate voltages. However, recent
improvements in the design and manufacture have led to the development of cables suitable for
use at high voltages. This has made it possible to employ underground cables for transmission of
electric power for short or moderate distances. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the
various aspects of underground cables and their increasing use in power system.
Underground Cables:-An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors

covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. Although several types of
cables are available, the type of cable to be used will depend upon the working voltage
and service requirements. In general, a cable must fulfill the following necessary requirements:
(i) The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminum of high
conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry more current.
(ii) The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current without
overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
(iii) The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety and
reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
(iv) The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the
rough use in laying it.
(v) The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is
complete chemical and physical stability throughout.
Construction of Cables:-Figure shows the general construction of a 3-conductor cable. The
various parts are
Fig 2.9- Cable

Cores or Conductors. A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor)
depending upon the type of service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3 conductor
cable shown in Figure is used for 3-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or
aluminum and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility
to the cable.
(ii) Insulation. Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the
thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The
commonly used materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber
mineral compound.
(iii) Metallic sheath. In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging
liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or
aluminum is provided over the insulation as shown in Fig.
(iv) Bedding. Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a
fibrous material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic
sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
(v) Armouring. Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two
layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from
mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring may not be done
in the case of some cables.
(vi) Serving. In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous
material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as serving.
It may not be out of place to mention here that bedding, armouring and serving are only applied
to the cables for the protection of conductor insulation and to protect the metallic sheath
from mechanical injury.
Insulating Materials for Cables:-The satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great
extent upon the characteristics of insulation used. Therefore, the proper choice of insulating
material for cables is of considerable importance. In general, the insulating materials used in
cables should have the following properties:
(i) High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
(ii) High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
(iii) High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
(iv)Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to
decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case the insulating
material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead sheath.
(v) Non-inflammable.
(vi) Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
(vii) Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action. No one insulating material
possesses all the above mentioned properties. Therefore, the type of insulating material to be
used depends upon the purpose for which the cable is required and the quality of insulation to be
aimed at.
The principal insulating materials used in cables are rubber, vulcanized rubber, impregnated
paper and polyvinyl chloride.
1. Rubber: Rubber may be obtained from milky sap of tropical trees or it may be produced from
oil products. It has relative permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength is about 30
kV/mm and resistivity of insulation is 1017 cm. Although pure rubber has reasonably high
insulating properties, it suffers from some major drawbacks viz., readily absorbs moisture,
maximum safe temperature is low (about 38ºC), soft and liable to damage due to rough handling
and ages when exposed to light. Therefore, pure rubber cannot be used as an insulating material.
2. Vulcanised India Rubber (V.I.R.). It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter
such as zinc oxide, red lead etc., and 3 to 5% of sulphur. The compound so formed is rolled into
thin sheets and cut into strips. The rubber compound is then applied to the conductor and
is heated to a temperature of about 150ºC. The whole process is called vulcanisation and
the product obtained is known as vulcanised India rubber. Vulcanised India rubber has
greater mechanical strength, durability and wear resistant property than pure rubber. Its main
drawback is that sulphur reacts very quickly with copper and for this reason, cables using VIR
insulation have tinned copper conductor. The VIR insulation is generally used for low and
moderate voltage cables.
3. Impregnated paper. It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chippings and
impregnated with some compound such as paraffinic or naphthenic material. This type of
insulation has almost superseded the rubber insulation. It is because it has the advantages of low
cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength and high insulation resistance. The only
disadvantage is that paper is hygroscopic and even if it is impregnated with suitable
compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers the insulation resistance of the cable.
4. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This insulating material is a synthetic compound. It is obtained
from the polymerization of acetylene and is in the form of white powder. For obtaining
this material as a cable insulation, it is compounded with certain materials known as
plasticizers which are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticizer forms a gell and
renders the material plastic over the desired range of temperature. Polyvinyl chloride has
high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide
range of temperatures. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to many alkalies and acids.
Therefore, this type of insulation is preferred over VIR in extreme environmental conditions such
as in cement factory or chemical factory. As the mechanical properties (i.e., elasticity etc.) of
PVC are not so good as those of rubber, therefore, PVC insulated cables are generally used for
low and medium domestic lights and power installations.
Classification of Cables: -Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways
according to (i) the type of insulating material used in their manufacture (ii) the voltage
for which they are manufactured. However, the latter method of classification is generally
preferred, according to which cables can be divided into the following groups:
Fig 2.10- Cross section of Cables
(i) Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V

(ii) High-tension (H.T.) cables — upto 11,000 V
(iii) Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
(iv)Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
(iv) Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service for which it is
intended. It may be (i) single-core (ii) two-core (iii) three-core (iv) four-core etc. For a 3-phase
service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core cable can be used depending upon the operating
voltage and load demand. Fig. 11.2 shows the constructional details of a single-core low tension
cable. The cable has ordinary construction because the stresses developed in the cable for low
voltages (up to 6600 V) are generally small. It consists of one circular core of tinned stranded
copper (or aluminium) insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation is surrounded by
a lead sheath which prevents the entry of moisture into the inner parts. In order to protect the
lead sheath from corrosion, an overall serving of compounded fibrous material (jute etc.)
is provided. Single-core cables are not usually armoured in order to avoid excessive sheath
losses. The principal advantages of single-core cables are simple construction and availability of
larger copper section.
Cable for 3-phase
In practice, underground cables are generally required to deliver 3-phase power. For the purpose,
either three-core cable or three single core cables may be used. For voltages upto 66 kV, 3-core
cable (i.e., multi-core construction) is preferred due to economic reasons. However, for voltages
beyond 66 kV, 3-core-cables become too large and unwieldy and, therefore, single-core cables
are used. The following types of cables are generally used for 3-phase service:
1. Belted cables — upto 11 kV
2. Screened cables — from 22 kV to 66 kV
3. Pressure cables — beyond 66 kV
Dielectric Stress in Cable
Fig 2.11- Dielectric Stress in Cable
Under operating conditions, the insulation of a cable is subjected to electrostatic forces. This is
known as dielectric stress. The dielectric stress at any point in a cable is in fact the
potential gradient (or electric intensity) at that point. Consider a single core cable with core
diameter d and internal sheath diameter D. The electric intensity at a point x metres from the
centre of the cable is
Q
Ex  volts/m
2 0  r x
By definition, electric intensity is equal to potential gradient. Therefore, potential gradient g at a

point x meters from the Centre of cable is
g  Ex
E
g volts/m
2 0  r x
Potential difference V between conductor and sheath is
Q D
V  ln volts
2 0  r d
2 0  rV
Q
D
ln
d
Substituting the value of Q, we get
V
g volts/m
D
x ln
d
It is clear from the above equation that potential gradient varies inversely as the distance x.
Therefore, potential gradient will be maximum when x is minimum i.e., when x = d/2 or at the
surface of the conductor. On the other hand, potential gradient will be minimum at x = D/2 or at
sheath surface.
Maximum potential gradient is
2V
g max  volts/m
D
d ln
d
Minimum potential gradient is
2V
g min  volts/m
D
D ln
d
g max D

g min d
The variation of stress in the dielectric is shown in Fig.14. It is clear that dielectric stress is
maximum at the conductor surface and its value goes on decreasing as we move away from the
conductor. It may be noted that maximum stress is an important consideration in the design of a
cable. For instance, if a cable is to be operated at such a voltage that maximum stress is
5 kV/mm, then the insulation used must have a dielectric strength of at least 5 kV/mm, otherwise
breakdown of the cable will become inevitable.
Most Economical Size of Conductor
It has already been shown that maximum stress in a cable occurs at the surface of the conductor.
For safe working of the cable, dielectric strength of the insulation should be more than
the maximums tress. Rewriting the expression for maximum stress, we get,
2V
g max  volts/m
D
d ln
d
The values of working voltage V and internal sheath diameter D have to be kept fixed at certain
values due to design considerations. This leaves conductor diameter d to be the only variable.
For given values of V and D, the most economical conductor diameter will be one for which
gmax has a minimum value. The value of gmax will be minimum when dln D/d is
maximum i.e.
d  D
dd d ln d   0
D
 e  2.718
d
Most economical conductor diameter is
D
d
2.718
and the value of gmax under this condition is
2V
g max  volts/m
d
Grading of Cables
The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cables is known
as grading of cables. It has already been shown that electrostatic stress in a single core cable has
a maximum value (g max) at the conductor surface and goes on decreasing as we move
towards the sheath. The maximum voltage that can be safely applied to a cable depends upon
gmax i.e., electrostatic stress at the conductor surface. For safe working of a cable having
homogeneous dielectric, the strength of dielectric must be more than g max. If a dielectric of high
strength is used for a cable, it is useful only near the conductor where stress is maximum. But as
we move away from the conductor, the electrostatic stress decreases, so the dielectric will be
unnecessarily over strong. The unequal stress distribution in a cable is undesirable for two
reasons. Firstly, insulation of greater thickness is required which increases the cable size.
Secondly, it may lead to the breakdown of insulation. In order to overcome above disadvantages,
it is necessary to have a uniform stress distribution in cables. This can be achieved by
distributing the stress in such a way that its value is increased in the outer layers of dielectric.
This is known as grading of cables. The following are the two main methods of grading of
cables:
(i) Capacitance grading (ii) Intersheath grading
Capacitance Grading:
The process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric stress by using layers of different dielectrics
is known as capacitance grading.
Fig 2.12- Capacitance grading

In capacitance grading, the homogeneous dielectric is replaced by a composite dielectric.
The composite dielectric consists of various layers of different dielectrics in such a
manner that relative permittivity > r of any layer is inversely proportional to its distance
from the center. Under such conditions, the value of potential gradient any point in the
dielectric is constant and is independent of its distance from the center. In other words, the
dielectric stress in the cable is same everywhere and the grading is ideal one. However, ideal
grading requires the use of an infinite number of dielectrics which is an impossible task. In
practice, two or three dielectrics are used in the decreasing order of permittivity, the dielectric of
highest permittivity being used near the core. The capacitance grading can be explained
beautifully by referring to the above Figure. There are three dielectrics of outer diameter d1, d2
and D and of relative permittivity >1, >2 and >3 respectively. If the permittivity are such that
>1 > 2 > 3 and the three dielectrics are worked at the same maximum stress, then
 1d   2 d1   3 d 2
g max d
V1  d ln 1
2 d
g max d
V2  d 1 ln 2
2 d1
g max D
V3  d 2 ln
2 d2
Total p.d. between core and earthed sheath is
V  V1  V2  V3
g max  d1 d2 D
V d ln  d1 ln  d 2 ln 
2  d d1 d2 
Intersheath Grading: In this method of cable grading, a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it
is divided into various layers by placing metallic inters heaths between the core and lead sheath.
The inter sheaths are held at suitable potentials which are in between the core potential and earth
potential. This arrangement improves voltage distribution in the dielectric of the cable and
consequently more uniform potential gradient is obtained.
Fig 2.13- Intersheath grading
Consider a cable of core diameter d and outer lead sheath of diameter D. Suppose that two
intersheaths of diameters d 1 and d2 are inserted into the homogeneous dielectric and maintained
at some fixed potentials. Let V1, V2 and V3 respectively be the voltage between core and
intersheath 1, between inter sheath 1 and 2 and between inter sheath 2 and outer lead sheath.
As there is a definite potential difference between the inner and outer layers of each inter
sheath, therefore, each sheath can be treated like a homogeneous single core cable Maximum
stress between core and inter sheath 1 is
Since the dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress in each layer is the same i.e.,
g1 max  g 2 max  g 3 max  g max
V1 V2 V2
 
d d1 d1 d 2 d2 D
ln ln ln
2 d 2 d1 2 d
As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, therefore, all the potentials are in phase i.e.
Voltage between conductor and earthed lead sheath is
V  V1  V2  V3
Inter sheath grading has three principal disadvantages. Firstly, there are complications in fixing
the sheath potentials. Secondly, the inter sheaths are likely to be damaged during
transportation and installation which might result in local concentrations of potential
gradient. Thirdly, there are considerable losses in the inter sheaths due to charging
currents. For these reasons, inter sheath grading is rarely used.
Measurement of capacitance of 3-core cables
In three-core cables, capacitance does not have a single value, but can be lumped as shown in
below figure.
Capacitance between each core and sheath =
Capacitance between cores = C
Fig 2.14- Cable Capacitance
These can be separated from measurements as described in the following section.

(a) Strap the 3 cores together and measure the capacitance between this bundle and the sheath as
shown in figure.
Measured value = Cm1 = 3 Cs
C m1
This gives the capacitance to the sheath as Cs =
3
Fig 2.15- Capacitance Measurement
(b) Connect 2 of the cores to the sheath and measure between the remaining core and the sheath.
Measured value Cm2= 2 C + Cs
i.e. C = (C m2 – C s)/2 = (3 Cm2 – C m1)/6
Which gives the capacitance between the conductors.
Fig 2.16-Capacitance Measurement
The effective capacitance to neutral Co of any of the cores may be obtained by considering the
star equivalent. This gives
1 3 −
= +3 = 1+3
3 6
3 1
= −
2 6
Fig 2.17-Calculation of C0
In the breakdown of actual 3-core belted cables, it is generally observed that charring occurs at
those places where the stress is tangential to the layers of paper. Thus for the insulation to be
effective, the tangential stresses in paper insulation should be preferably avoided. This can
usually be accomplished only screening each core separately (or by having individual lead
sheaths for each of the cores), so that the cable in effect becomes 3 individual cables laid within
the same protective covering.
राष्ट्रीय प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान पटना National Institute of Technology Patna
Class Test - 1 (February 2021) Session: Jan-June 2021
Department: Electrical Engineering
Programme: B.Tech.(EE) Semester: 4th
Course Code: EE4602 Course: Power Transmission & Distribution
Full Marks: 10 Duration: 30 mins
[Answer all the questions.]

[Answers should be hand written. Mention Name Roll No. clearly on the top of
every page and write page No. at the bottom of the Page]
[Write precise and to the point answers.]
1. A 2 wire D.C. distributor AB, 700 m long in fed at A at 220 V and load
of (2R) A, (5R) A and (8R) A are tapped off from three intermediate
points C, D and E. These three points C, D and E are located at a
distance of (130 +R) m, (300 +2R) m, and (500-R) m respectively from
point A. The resistance of distributor per metre (for both go and
return wire) is 0.000R . Consider R = Last 2-digits of your Roll No.
(e.g. If your Roll No. is 202001 then take the value of R=01.)
(i) Calculate the voltage at point D.
(ii) Also determine the value of incoming current from A end.
(iii) Draw the corresponding distributor showing the distance
and values of load (numerical values).
CO4 (3+2+1=6)
2. What is the significance of Kelvin’s Law? Do not write the
statement of Kelvin’s Law. CO2 (2)
3. Differentiate between Feeder and Distributor. CO1 (2)
-----------X----------
Class Test - 2 (April 2021) Session: Jan-June 2021
Full Marks: 10 Duration: 30 mins

[Answers should be hand written. Mention Name Roll No. clearly on the top of
every page and write page No. at the bottom of the Page]
[Write precise and to the point answers.]
1. Why are insulators used with overhead lines? CO2 (1)
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of (i) pin-type

insulators and (ii) suspension type insulators. CO1 (2)
3. What is a strain insulator and where is it used? CO1 (1)
4. Define string efficiency. Why its value is always less than

100% for AC system? CO3 (2)
5. Discuss the disadvantages of providing too small or too

large sag on a transmission line. CO3 (1)
6. Why suspension insulators preferred for high voltage

power? CO3 (1)
7. Discuss the disadvantages of corona loss. Differentiate

between the critical disruptive voltage and visual critical
voltage. CO1 (2)
-----------X----------
Quiz 1 - EE 4602 - 02.03.2021
(EE4602_Jan-Jun_2021)
Full Marks - 10. Answer all the questions. There may be multiple correct answer of one question.
* This form will record your name, please fill your name.
1. A transmission line is carrying P MW of power at a voltage V volt. The amount of

power loss that occurs is P'. The voltage of the transmission line is doubled to 2V. If
the transmission line continue to carry P MW amount of power, what will be the new
value of the line loss?
(2 Points)
None of the above
Equal to original loss
1/4 times the original loss
4 times the original loss
2. A group of conductor consists of three conductors of radius R cm each. The

conductors are located at the three corners of an equilateral triangle. Each side of
the triangle is 2R cm. The geometric mean radius (GMR) of the group of conductor
is:
(2 Points)
√3 −0.7788×4𝑅
−−−−−−−−−−
√9 −(0.7788×4
−−−−−−−−−−−−
𝑅3−)
√9 −(0.7788×4
−−−−−−−−−−−−−
𝑅3)−3
√3 −(0.7788×4𝑅)
−−−−−−−−−−−−−3
7/18/2021
3. The following statement true regarding skin effect of conductor
(2 Points)
increases the effective resistance of the conductor
Does not happen in case of DC
all of the above
Increases the effective cross sectional area of the conductor
4. A stranded conductor have three layers of wire. What will be the diameter of
stranded conductor if diameter of each strand is 4 cm?
(1 Point)
24 cm
40 cm
12 cm
20 cm
5. To reduce the transmission loss over long distance transmission lines

(1 Point)
The power to be transmitted is increased
The voltage is increased
The frequency is increased
The current is increased
7/18/2021
6. The current is constant in a
(1 Point)
Both
Feeder
None
Distributor
7. Reliability is of Ring type distribution system compared to radial distribution system

is -
(1 Point)
More
Same for both the system
Cannot be commented on reliability
Less
This content is neither created nor endorsed by Microsoft. The data you submit will be sent to the form owner.
Microsoft Forms
7/18/2021
Quiz 2 - EE4602- 19.04.2021
(EE4602_Jan-Jun_2021)
Full Marks 10
* This form will record your name, please fill your name.
The ABCD parameters of a 3 phase transposed short transmission line have the
following properties-
(1 Point)
A B C D all are always equal
Only A and D are equal.
Only B and C are equal.
A B C D are never equal
7/18/2021
2
For the figure given below, determine the value of B and D

(2 Points)
4, 1/2
1/4, 1/2
1/4, 2
4, 2
The natural impedance of a transmission line having inductance is 100 mH and

capacitance is 10µF?
(1 Point)
10 kohm
1000 ohm
100 ohm
1 kohm
7/18/2021
4
For a given transmission line operating at a certain voltage if we increase the

length of the line, the surge impedance loading will
(1 Point)
increase
Cannot be commented, will be different for different transmission line.
decrease
remains unchanged
A transmission line is loaded to its SIL value and it is a lossless line. The receiving
end voltage will be _________ the sending end voltage.
(1 Point)
depends on the line reactance value.
same as
more than
less than
A transmission line has a surge impedance of 550 Ω is connected with the cable
having surge impedance of 65 Ω, a surge magnitude of 0.5 MV is travelling from
the transmission line towards the cable. Find the incident current?
(1 Point)
130 A
769 A
7.69 KA
909.09 A
7/18/2021
7
In comparison to a over head transmission line an underground cable is

______________ and _____________.
(1 Point)
costlier and requires more maintenance.
cheaper and aesthetically more preferred.
costlier and less prone to faults
cheaper and vulnerable due to weather condition.
The distribution system carrying power from a sub station to the load center is
split into two parts. First 100 km consists of a overhead transmission line having
surge impedance of 450 ohm and next 10 km is underground cable having a
surge impedance of 45 ohm. During rainy season lightning having a transient
voltage of 350 kV strikes at the mid point of the overhead line. The following will
happen to the lightening surge-
(2 Points)
The voltage surge will travel through the overhead line and then reflect from the point where
the underground cable starts, it wont enter the cable but will repeatedly reflect on overhead
line and eventually die down.
The voltage surge will travel through the overhead line and the underground cable , will be
lost as heat on the line and cable due to their impedance and eventually die down.
The voltage surge will travel through the overhead line and then reflect partly from the point
where the underground cable starts, will partly enter the cable but will repeatedly reflect and
eventually die down.
The voltage surge will travel through the overhead line and reach the point where the
underground cable starts, it will enter the cable and will repeatedly reflect and eventually die
down.
7/18/2021
This content is neither created nor endorsed by Microsoft. The data you submit will be sent to the form owner.
Microsoft Forms
7/18/2021
Assignment 1
Power Transmission and Distribution EE4602

Full Marks 10
Submit by: 19.03.2021, 2 pm.

[Submit only handwritten answer. Only PDF files are allowed. ]
[All the pages should bear the Name, Roll No, Subject Name and Page No.]
[Any symbol and parameter used must be defined.]
1. (a) What is transposition of transmission line? CO1 (1)

(b) What are the advantages of a transposed line? CO3 (1)
2. Prove that the three phases of a transposed line have equal average (4)
inductance for each phase. CO6
3. Define bundled conductor. Why it is used? CO3 (1)
4. (a) What is charging current of a transmission line? CO1 (1)
(b) What causes the charging current? CO2 (1)
5. How the presence of earth surface effects the calculation of capacitance of a three (1)
phase transmission line? CO2
___________
Assignment 2
Power Transmission and Distribution EE4602

Full Marks 10
Submit by: 29.03.2021, 2 pm.

[Submit only handwritten answer. Only PDF files are allowed. ]
[All the pages should bear the Name, Roll No, Subject Name and Page No.]
1 Consider a fully transposed three-phase flat horizontal transmission line. The (3)
line operates at 50 Hz frequency and 440kV. The spacing between two
neighbouring conductors is 15 cm and conductor diameter is 2 cm. Find the
capacitive reactance to neutral and the charging current. Consider the relative
permittivity of air 1.006. CO4
2 A three-phase 50 Hz, 30 Km long line has four conductors having 1.5 cm diameter (3)
each. The wires are spaced horizontally 2 m apart from each other. The
conductors are carrying currents I a, Ib and Ic and the neutral wire carries zero
current. The phase currents are:
Ia =-30 + j24 A CO5
Ib = - 20 + j26 A
Ic = 50 – j50 A
The conductors are untransposed. Find the flux linkage of the neutral conductor.
Hints: Determine the flux linkage for all the three phase conductors on the
location of neutral conductor and apply superposition to these values.
3 A single phase transmission line is composed of three conductors having radius (2)
rx = 0.5 cm. The return circuit is composed of two conductors having radius r y=
2.5 cm. Figure shows the conductor arrangement. Find the inductance. CO5
4 Configuration of a three phase, 50 Hz transposed transmission line is shown in (2)

figure below. The line reactance is 0.486 ohm/km. The conductor GMR is 2 cm. CO
4
Determine D.
___________
.

End-Semester Examination (July 2021) Session: 2020-21 Spring Semester
Full Marks: 40 Duration: 2 hours
1. a. A distribution feeder of 1 km length is fed from both the ends by

sources S1 and S2. Both voltage sources S1 and S2 are supplying
power at 400V. The feeder supplies three loads as shown in figure.
Determine the contributions of S1 and S2 in 100 A current supplied at

location P. CO4 (5)
b. If a 2 wire AC distribution system is replaced by a 3 wire AC
distribution system to transfer P amount of power between two
points, compare the volume of copper required in the two cases.
Assume the line to line voltage to be same for both the
arrangements. CO4 (5)
2. a. What is a stranded conductor? Why stranded conductor is preferred

over solid conductors? Mention from both mechanical and electrical
point of view. CO1 (1+(1+1)=3)
b. A composite conductor consists of three conductors of radius R each.
The conductors are arranged as shown below. The geometric mean
radius (GMR) (in cm) of the composite conductor is kR. Determine the
value of k, show step by step derivation. CO5 (5)
c. What is skin effect? CO1 (2)
3. a. What are the ranges of surge impedance for overhead lines and
underground cables? Why the surge impedance values are different
in these two cases? CO1 (2+1=3)
b. A surge of 230 kV travels on a line of surge impedance 500 Ω and
reaches the junction of the line with two branch lines as shown in
figure below. The surge impedances of the branch lines are 500 Ω and
50 Ω, respectively. Find the transmitted voltage and currents. Also
find the reflected voltage and current. CO4 (4)
c. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having long cross arm
in transmission tower? Explain each of the points. CO1 (3)
4. a. What is charging current of a transmission line? CO1 (1)

b. How the bundling of conductor affects the electrical parameters of the
transmission line? CO3 (2)
c. Why grading of an underground cable is required? CO1 (1)
d. For a high voltage line, instead of using a single insulator of high
capacity, series of multiple 11 kV insulators are used. Why? CO2 (2)
e. What is the effect of smoothness of conductor surface on the event of
corona? CO3 (1)
f. How a strain type insulator is different from a disc type? CO2 (1)
g. Aluminium is a better conductor than steel. Then what are the reasons
of using steel core in ACSR conductor? CO1 (2)
-----------X----------
RUBRICS FOR ASSESSMENT
Marks awarded on
Question type Statement
the scale from 0-10
The answer provided is not related to the question or is

0-2
presented in an inadequate or grossly incorrect manner.
Required Diagrams or equations are missing, only

3-5
explanation or description provided
Remember and
Explanation Equations and Diagrams are used but parameters are not
6-8
type question defined/described. Explanations are not provided
Answer is clear, to the point, precise; provides all the

required details, supported with necessary explanations, 9-10
required figures, and equations
The answer is not correct, student could not relate the

0-2
question with the related theory
Analysis type of The student could somehow identify the theoretical

3-5
Question for background but could not explain
practical Student identified the related theoretical background,
situations or explained and related the question with somehow near 6-8
problems correct answer
The student identified the problem solution method
correctly, written a precise and correct answer complete with 9-10
all explanations
The answer is incorrect and steps to solve the problem is

0-2
incorrect or the answer is not related to the question
The steps of problems are followed in a more or less correct

3-5
Numerical manner but the answer is incorrect
problems
The steps of the problem are followed correctly but the
6-8
answer is incorrect due to minor errors
The answer is correctly reported at each step with the proper
units and is presented in the correct order to solve the 9-10
problem
Full Name User ActionTimestamp
Dr. Mala DeJoined 2/9/2021, 9:33:30 AM
ADITYA SWAROOP
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:33:49 AM
GIREESH KUMAR
JoinedSINGH
2/9/2021, 9:33:50 AM
PRACHI GUPTAJoined 2/9/2021, 9:33:53 AM
RAHUL KUMAR Left 2/9/2021, 10:21:13 AM
Nikhil SinghJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:03 AM
LABALA RAKESH
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:15 AM
LABALA RAKESH
Left 2/9/2021, 9:36:08 AM
LABALA RAKESH
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:15 AM
Aman Kumar Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:19 AM
SHIVANG SHARMA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:20 AM
WASHIM RAZA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:21 AM
ABHISHEK KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:24 AM
AJAY KUMAR Joined
SHARMA2/9/2021, 9:34:24 AM
ASHAY KUMAR Joined
GUPTA2/9/2021, 9:34:26 AM
ASHAY KUMAR Left GUPTA2/9/2021, 9:35:38 AM
ASHAY KUMAR Joined
GUPTA2/9/2021, 9:35:55 AM
Aniruddha Joined
sharma 2/9/2021, 9:34:28 AM
CHANDRA MOHAN
Joined RAJ2/9/2021, 9:34:30 AM
Anjali A Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:36 AM
AMAN RAJ Left 2/9/2021, 9:47:59 AM
NIRANJAN KUMAR
Joined SINHA
2/9/2021, 9:34:38 AM
SUMIT KUMAR Joined
BHARTI2/9/2021, 9:34:38 AM
SUMIT KUMAR Joined
BHARTI2/9/2021, 9:55:40 AM
SANJAY KUMARJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:39 AM
ADARSH JHA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:39 AM
NIRANJAN KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:42 AM
VIVEKANAND Joined
VIVEKANAND
2/9/2021, 9:34:42 AM
Ayush GargJoined 2/9/2021, 9:34:43 AM
AMIT KUMAR Joined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:34:44 AM
AMIT KUMAR LeftSINGH 2/9/2021, 9:59:53 AM
AMIT KUMAR Joined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:59:59 AM
AMBIKA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:34:49 AM
DEVESH KUMAR
JoinedGUPTA2/9/2021, 9:34:52 AM
ADITYA KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:35:05 AM
Keerthana Prabhu
Joined A V2/9/2021, 9:35:05 AM
ANKIT KUMARJoined 2/9/2021, 9:35:12 AM
MOHIT KUMARJoinedGOND2/9/2021, 9:35:16 AM
VIVEK KUMARJoined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:35:19 AM
ZOHAIB BINJoined
HAMID 2/9/2021, 9:35:19 AM
ZOHAIB BINLeft
HAMID 2/9/2021, 10:40:36 AM
KETHA LAKSHMI
JoinedNAGA2/9/2021,
SRI DEEPTHI
9:35:35 AM
Priyanshu Shekhar
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:35:58 AM
RISHABH MISHRA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:02 AM
RISHABH MISHRA
Left 2/9/2021, 10:39:32 AM
Sumit KumarJoined 2/9/2021, 9:36:05 AM
Sumit KumarLeft 2/9/2021, 10:31:13 AM
AYUSH ARYANJoined 2/9/2021, 9:36:08 AM
HARSH RAJJoined 2/9/2021, 9:36:11 AM
SAURABH SANTOSH
Joined DHOTRE
2/9/2021, 9:36:27 AM
KAUSHIKI RAWAT
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:38 AM
KAUSHIKI RAWAT
Left 2/9/2021, 9:38:42 AM
KAUSHIKI RAWAT
Joined 2/9/2021, 10:02:30 AM
HRITIK SHARMA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:48 AM
BHUKYA BHANUMATHI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:36:53 AM
BHUKYA BHANUMATHI
Left 2/9/2021, 10:32:56 AM
BHUKYA BHANUMATHI
Joined 2/9/2021, 10:38:06 AM
keshav raj Joined 2/9/2021, 9:37:04 AM
PRIYANKA BHARTI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:37:07 AM
Roshan Joined 2/9/2021, 9:37:22 AM
UDIT SINGHJoined 2/9/2021, 9:37:24 AM
PRASHANT Joined
KUMAR MEENA
2/9/2021, 9:37:52 AM
SHYAM JEEJoined 2/9/2021, 9:38:04 AM
AVINASH Joined 2/9/2021, 9:38:13 AM
SANJEEV RANJAN
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:38:14 AM
SANJEEV RANJAN
Left 2/9/2021, 10:17:08 AM
SANJEEV RANJAN
Joined 2/9/2021, 10:17:17 AM
AMEESHA SINGH
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:38:21 AM
AMEESHA SINGH
Left 2/9/2021, 10:40:30 AM
RITIKA CHOUDHARY
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:39:17 AM
ANKIT KUMARJoined
SINGH 2/9/2021, 9:39:50 AM
RITIK KANNAUJIYA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:18 AM
ANAMIKA KUMARI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:30 AM
KUMAR SATYAM
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:32 AM
SHUBHAM Joined
KUMAR 2/9/2021, 9:40:43 AM
RAMKESH MEENA
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:40:43 AM
PRAKASH KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:41:15 AM
PADMAJA JHA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:43:00 AM
Himanshu Nagar
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:43:45 AM
ROHAN SRIVASTAV
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:44:37 AM
SHUBHAM Joined
PRAKASH 2/9/2021, 9:44:59 AM
SHUBHAM LeftPRAKASH 2/9/2021, 10:09:34 AM
NAVNEET KUMAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:45:07 AM
Vivek Kumar Joined 2/9/2021, 9:45:48 AM
Vivek Kumar Left 2/9/2021, 10:38:46 AM
NIRAJ KUMAR Joined 2/9/2021, 9:46:12 AM
Suraj Kumar Joined 2/9/2021, 9:46:51 AM
IZHAR AHMAD Joined 2/9/2021, 9:49:02 AM
SAMEER SHEKHAR
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:52:15 AM
ASHOK KALWA Joined 2/9/2021, 9:55:48 AM
ASHOK KALWA Left 2/9/2021, 9:56:29 AM
SHIVANSH PRATAP
Joined MAURYA
2/9/2021, 9:56:12 AM
SHIVANSH PRATAP
Left MAURYA
2/9/2021, 10:07:58 AM
ANUJ YADAV Joined 2/9/2021, 9:56:17 AM
ANJALI KUMARI
Joined 2/9/2021, 9:57:29 AM
Vishal SinghJoined 2/9/2021, 10:03:06 AM
suraj kumarJoined 2/9/2021, 10:12:48 AM
RAHUL DEVJoined 2/9/2021, 10:28:57 AM
RAHUL DEVLeft 2/9/2021, 10:29:53 AM
PRAJAS VIKASJoined
LOKHANDE
2/9/2021, 10:29:57 AM
BHEEM SINGH Joined
MEENA2/9/2021, 10:33:33 AM
Mayank KumarJoined 2/9/2021, 10:34:20 AM
Mayank KumarLeft 2/9/2021, 10:40:24 AM
SHASHWATJoined
AWASTHI 2/9/2021, 10:37:52 AM
PITTU GANESHJoinedREDDY2/9/2021, 10:39:18 AM
Registered Student Details

[email protected]
1902001 SHYAM JEE
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902003 KSHITIZ JHA
[email protected]
1902004 VIVEKANAND
[email protected]
1902008 ANKIT KUMAR

[email protected]
1902009 ROSHAN
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902013 ROBIN KUMAR
[email protected]
1902015 RAHUL KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902017 AVINASH
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902021 VIVEK KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902025 CHANDRA MOHAN RAJ
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902027 AVI SONI
[email protected]
1902028 SUHANI
[email protected]
[email protected]


[email protected]
1902031 RAYAPUREDDY LAKSHMI NARAYANA
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902033 PADMAJA JHA
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902036 AMAN RAJ
[email protected]
1902038 VISHAL SINGH
[email protected]
1902039 KEERTHANA PRABHU A V
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902041 SURAJ KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902044 AYUSH ARYAN
[email protected]
1902045 ANJALI
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902053 RAHUL DEV
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902059 PRACHI GUPTA
[email protected]
1902060 WASHIM RAZA


[email protected]
[email protected]
1902062 AMBIKA
[email protected]
1902064 PRASHANT KUMAR MEENA
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902068 SUBHAM RAI
[email protected]
1902069 AMAN KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902075 NIRAJ KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902078 ADARSH JHA
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902081 SURAJ KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902083 AMIT SINGH
[email protected]
1902084 AYUSH GARG
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902095 ANUJ YADAV
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902097 HARSH RAJ
[email protected]
[email protected]


[email protected]

[email protected]
1902103 KETHA LAKSHMI NAGA SRI DEEPTHI
[email protected]
1902104 SUMIT KUMAR
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902107 SAURABH SANTOSH DHOTRE
[email protected]
1902108 ASHOK KALWA
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902110 NIKHIL SINGH
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902113 UDIT SINGH
[email protected]
1902114 IZHAR AHMAD
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1902119 KESHAV RAJ
[email protected]
1902120 AMEESHA SINGH

END SEM
Dele
Pege
Name Shy amJee

Roll no 19020o
Branch Elettri cal En g
Course Code EE 4602
Course Titte Pouen trammission & eistribwion
Program Code 8 . TecCh ££)
ExamSate OG. 05. 2021
1, (a)
S Aoomn wo m>200m 200m
D S
400v
B
o0A 00A dooA
C)
I Curren Suppited by SL
resis Fan e Lengt
400 =(4oor)I + (2oorT -200) + 20or (1 30)
200r I -5ou) + 400
0 400r I + 200TI F o o0o + 2 0 o T7 - 6ouvo T
200 r i looo oor.
Loo Lr = 2 o0o 0 r
IZ 200 A
branch-8 s (I -200 )A
Curren in_
=
(200-20 ) A
OA
Date
Page
Shyam Jee
1902 00L
For Potnt P,
Source Suppiie 0 A Currew
8
S2 SuPPI ie 100 -o). A
10o A Currn
Henu, OA and oo A ConribuuHon O

S and S oo A Cure s Pe c'vely aP
.(b)For a 2 w ie Ac distribaHon Syshe
Peak vale of voltgebtwee Vm
Condu arY Vm Volh
Rms vo lage Vm vo Lh
P Vmx x Cos ooP
P Co : Powe
Vm Cos ¢
ine losse Paoss 212R 2/ 12P

Vm Co7
a V Cosly
a pe
hos, Vcoj2
Shyam Jee h
190200
Fe
Vol ume Of on ducor mates'a teg wre h 2 i
2a
2x p X
Volwme (
Phoss cor29
for 3 wi Ac dishrb un'on SYJ Pen

nOw
Max m
Voltqe bew ees Vm
2 Vw Volh
Outt Cond
Rm Vo Itoge b/w
et voly
2Vw
Ond
Vm
V TCos
Vm cos ovo tc maD
Poss fVm Cos a
V Coyp a
)Daie
(AP
Shyam Te
.6)
P2 PR
Pes V Cosa d
Volue_Oj Condu chor CoPPe e = 2.5 a'
2 SXPx PA2
PAoS VCos2
Compaing b o t eqn ci) 2
CoPPe te, in 2 win 8 R

YOl,
Vol, o Co PPe , n 3 uu
2 S P fRL
Ploss V Co2p
5
Date
Page
Shyam Jeia
90loo
a A ConduLctors which a mode u

muliple Small Stranola h i ch 9roupP
togethe make Single Conducr
known Stronded Con duCko r
ikmare xible than a Solid Condu Ckor

bulean cuable TheOutcrlaye Stronded
Coaduttor Conois Qluminiwm hiCh
provide ConducHyi- to Stranded Condu Ctor,
Stranded Comducto ra PrterredOve Sotid

Conductors beca 4 imi Aexibini'ty Srnded
Coble Qre much MOR Aexible and Can
Jalith Stand moHbending
In electrica poin vies Stronded

Coaduckor e pRAarred0hen high
HAiStance meral faiue equred
A high ernues Curren tta vels nean the
Su Lac oire becauar f Skin_£fet_
reaulig in increanedipowe
poweloisin
nwíe.
Because kghe 9euge condu chor vi thioneJ
bare Mortiserhon Lessthanlow aue
thui'CkL Condu cror dhonale.dd Cahle erhibitE
20 to o MoR aHenUaon than Sotld
Coppe ConducHors
Fage
ShyamTee A
190200L nio
2 b)
3R-
GienConduch rA ne elaerod tong Le

3R
Radiu R
Eoch Co ndu cor
Da Do Dbe=3 RR
Daa 2qu'vauensest'stonce O-77 gR
GR oCondu ce a
Do Dab Daa ) 3
(CGMe)a ( 3 R X3RX O.7 78s R) 3

Symmery
also due to
CGNR)a GMP )b =GMe)e

Dale
Page
Shyam e a
190200
DOwL-
Ovea GMR
((G MP)a GMR) (O mPJe
Daa DasOac)'a (Das Ogs Osc) ( Des Des Dec)
CaMR a
3Rx3R o77 8 sR)2
I913 R
Gen
KR 2 i : 9 1 3 R a c c n to queH on
K 912
Date
age
Shyamee
1902oo
2 (C) SKinefeec in
Its the tenduney 0 analternaing-

elechnc Cureut(Ac) to become di'stm'buted
lalthin Condu cko Such h a t the
a
Cunrental enaity S - long et ne ar he Svrta
Op the Cndu Ckor ond decreaa exponenhialty
Ath eate dept o he Condu Ckor
egee cive Cross

SKin_effe c reduca he
and hus
SecHon the Condueor
inCresaen i epfe CH re reistance Skin efe CE_

Cau ed
Cas by opposine eddy Curent
induced by he hanging magnedeifield_
Cuneh
reali the allernoig
Fachors affe CHngSkin eFfedt;-
Fregn
ii)iamekL e Condu cror
C)The Shape Condu coY
Civ) IPe maku'o SkiO eFfe
inoreanRs rth the in heast i n the
maeWol,
pemeabllity eL tha
Dete
PEge
Shyam J u s o t
3. (a) Rangs Suag imped an ce

Oerhead Jine Cable s berw en 30
4o0 and fr undegrour Cab le
Oh m
t's 4 toSo
SUure imp edane bave diPfe rent Value

both Case be cae eir differene
în Capa citance f undegremd Cable is
nMuCh MOKe fnan ei Overhead ine
ootX AO
Date
Pa3e
Shyam Teim
1902001
Z2 S0o
3.(6)
Soo
v 2 3o lv 2 SO
The Su Rache the ununon and ex eri en ce

e Pte cHon e to Changa in imp edan ce Ond
He ine 3 and2 ae Ponallel
So raomited Voltoge oil 6 San-e (ma)
V
2v2
223ó/sod KV
46/s KV 23 O0
12/so
V= SKv 38 33 KV
3
SO
transmi Hed Curr ent+ in bran tinuL)
V 3
=
/ 38-33X to A
Z Soo
= 76 7 A
Date
Pace
Shyam jee
19020 0
Th transmiHed CurrenU_in branu tine 22

t V/zz
3 33 x o 766. 674
A
S
The Pieched Voltege
v
X 23o
So
-o
X x
290) K
- 191 G7 KV
The tRPAeUAd
191 67 Xto3 A
383 34 A
Date
Page
1902 00lT vd
Shy am Jee o1
.(C)Adiantag long Cros towe in

frammlSsion Ioe:
LnCreaaing the Cro ss am Qto uwe iocreAes

the distance _bekween Condu o r ond to we
de to hich Capacteen bekueeh tou)e
an Conduuor R R duud
Atae Stri ng efii enc

Cm
VPh_X too VPh X 1oo

3V 3T+3m+m
So, ePrci ency increas e a m

whCh depend o So _0 we hane
Cm
dd Stanc Cs decreae h ic deortam

m whi Ch n Ceae
SHr'rq_ePRde
Hence lesse disc is eq uel to inene
Str n ePtiden
Cro Ss am aue uard to Supfer he ns ulaor

Sn
Dete
Pege
Shyamj
sad vondeae-
)I£e lncreas the Cro aum towe

Much CostF which is un elOn omi Cl,
) Aus lon4 umfak mu Spoc

Date
Page
Shyam Tei'
1902oo L
When Ahen the voltageiappiiedacre the

Sendiog end O he ransmi ssion ine
CurrentStarh tauwing betezn the_Conducho
due to im perpe hom di -ele ctric medium
ThisCuenb
Current
cCoulled
O tranSmis tion- i n e
the
Charging
For a Single phase ine h e chogi n
CurrenE
Le Vo V =j2nfcvA
J/we
ine- to -ne in_fuds

Copa ci ve eactn e idn Ohmy
Line Vol ltoge tn volh
4.(b)The bundli Coonductor afeHthe

ele Ctri cal Paamek 0 ond nmi'uion ltne
AS it reduce the reaCtanue o elechc

ran Smi SJron ine
_alaa ducR Voltoge gdient Corona lo33

Iadio in4er ferent Sugeimpedonea_ek
Hhe ron Smi sJfon Wn
Date
Page
Shyom Jee
190200 1
By akingbundled Con ducer thaeomenic

nean radi CMR) 0 he Conduckor
incRased AS the SeFGMR o Conduckr
inreye the in du cien e Conducho decreoe
AS theinducrance bundledConducsr is
teducrd he Sur impedance 4line is
reduce became
Whe Inductance p phant Pe unitlengh

Copotan e pe Pho Pe nu
t man ine.
Guradin undeground Cable Ls tqure

for woi form EiectroS tahc Strey dismburion
in the ah le
Que to radn undeom und Cobe Chan

e diel eticfai lure du cedin
Capaci an Grading
Sue to his dieechrc eS le at louea

vottega
Data
yPagp
Shyam Tee
1902 00o
4. (d)T make SyStem les tomplexweua

miuuHple ine 0P iky rathe than Sinqe
Voltag lina
In'ttal it is Conidere the tk 22 K

33 kv e baad On he tran m shon d'stec
and he Ae le yels w e e Sahsfocror
there franmission disanu So o ed to
addi hond level
malk ChangA Or m a k e
On ne
dueto hh
brea nd Sudteh Chage One
needed to manage he nw Syskem
4. e LE the Condw CHor rS Smoo th - he
ele cm'c red i be Mor un

O CAmpoed to the
COn duchor CawneU
depesHon di hu
oug h Sie deche osez he Corona
loSs tan Smi Ss/on
Date
Pege
Shyamjee
19020o
4.G) Strain tyfe inaulator 2ae haal cally e io

honzon to dead end a Conolu cor
6ut
diset insuator Oe used io VenncJy
Do son wih Con du Ckor
This s te onty ol Pfcrn oe Sereun ham
Skee_Coe ioACSR CondvCkor be2

SLeel o hlghe han olum nim
whi C lvs for me chon cad
tenion to be app1led On the Con duU
As CR îsa tte o igk -apauy hi
Sttengt Stronded Condo cr tyetcolty a d
Orer heas Po we (i'ne
SLeel also h a lo we
elastc Ond nelo tie
deformehon_due to Mech ont cal ad ing
Peman ent elon qohn ),
A ol X2E-3E
go 200]
Nome ShynmTee
Rolt. no 190200
Bran.ch F1ecticn Engg
CouueCode EE4602
Acade 03-02 2021
3 Eecde isiibutor
CondutHer Mbich ionneth t A Canducor Frem Lich
the Sub -Sutionto Hhe tpbing Kon for
rta whR the Power he Congu el
Suppiy
is disti bued
)_Current CaAuing a Paciy i volEage dreP olong i

isCoridestd for_ length Censi derd for
desiqn dsiqn
ii) Current Fhrouh it ) The Curent Aawig
alnau RMains Same thro ugh emaun
Same
1v) iv)
NO tobbing TE ha tapbing
2 Significanu Keivin 1as
t Keivin lao belps in findinq_ the economical Siz

ConducOr
The cost for rammission ine is mi nimum
Lakstya
Clogs lest
Name Shivansh Pnatap Maurya
Roll ho 1902007
Date 12-04-20.21
1vansmission and Distribution
Subject Power
Je knou thot highexthevoltagemgu umsulati

1 patortal
m sSuauHed du fo hughen
diffeiemco Ssuut im electuc asLhisugh
Uso maulatgU a Wid io xeuemt condudion
betiueeem poude me amd Bupport stuuctuuu
Q2 i) Pin-diye inaulotoa
0 Advantoq
Highc mechamical DHeMgth
* GbodCneepage diutamto
t iuAed on high vFOltag didubuten
* Consiuutiom JUs implén amd a

maintemamuouu 1Old
b) Disodyanta.qe-
s h o u l d be ued wAth spindl
Com only be ued in dustmbuuom
Jume
t Voltoge siating u dimited.
(2
i) Suspemsion-bybe unudodoy
a Advantage
* Cheaben uith hughe votage limd
9 one dinc uh.damaoed,uhoe ztrig
doe not become weegs
Provides gaecla flexihility
Providon podial pxotecdion fxom
igteming
b)DisodYdstoge.
Laogespacung beuden.condudow d
SsALec
a Stroun unaulators a eloic unsuddorg

desig ned do worR um biaim/mecnanicol &ensiO
Luch can. withstand dhe pull.of a supendod
elecbu Cable
ane O sed um 0bUmad O GAAAhe0d
peuse dme nd do vhupportJHOdio amienno
i n g eliienu dainmed as dha Snodio o

96tage acHGs dhe öunos do tha osodutd o
mbes1 o) oumg and ustag 0AG Unut
adjacst tung
Scam mhy dsecome100% JL 0oUa9p OcG
ea.ch dic exacty 3amme Lhach dh psaducal
mst posible Jaecaus 06llage alusa diGb
OcGM Jmulolon capacdamO
5 dh amsunt c 309 ún dous,dhamdha
colbta i exposed do hih medhoumical demuion
cohilt dy809 ún Jang,them. cemduudor mauy
Suimg o1 ghen amplltudo and mosy contod
cdiacincondudoY
6 Sm3wpemsicem uimaudotos numb o inaudatx

0o cemmedadúm seues Ad hioen vdltage
J becom wneconmical do e pin inulator
because312p 0md tseign oinyulason become
laoeHam 4npemion wmaulodos aa ukd
TCorona Jos &aduus3 dho eidemoy o pou

Jime t obso úm galnasa c Ozono
Uhich cosodath Conductosgt olo ` o l
um JnhtxJeomujm Yodio and TV zignal
Disnuptive Cyitikol Volkogg isCvitical Voltogz

ahis be dauned os
com Ah oedaxi bed o
com
mimimuum voltagg o uich mimimuma olàogg ot hu
dhe cogma eed.ocom Cosona ekdobpean amd
Joud com not lbe 3eom Com be 30m
bisualy.
Dofv
CassTest 2 poge
Noune: Poaqyesl Kuma5

Ro NO: 1902115
Suloec Distributim and Tansmi431on
Couse ode: EE 4602
Date: 12/04/902 i
- ) Ans Tsulatos ave U3ed to gebesafe

Lne Camcduucionfom Fach otHhey and
fo 5uhpartiug sucuneselecticaly.
AlgO gngulatoas olect he ansyn Asiom
ine m oVeyvadtagez uhih occY due to
Ughtning wttching, thex couse.
- 2 Ang
Pin tube ulatoos
AdvantaES-
h a s has hisn mechauica sbenth
.Thebin b e nulafo has Guvd at-
Coeepage lustance
). i s Ued cn he h's volHee dstaibBiom
une.
d) can be sd Vexalla welW as
hooIzomtally
Name Pxagyea Kumax
Date
Rolt No 9021S Pog
Dibcdva vntages
shouldbe uied with hesindfe.
i ny Ujed in
dtobution ine
dine
TheThe voltaseyafing is_initeod
D.Susbensi -tybe ivsulakoas
PdvontageA
a). Eac unit shesa fes the vola9e ofP
cbout 1JkV and nece dependur upon
+he volHete the alppropridBe nimbex of
dacs e comnecBed în sex)es wih n e
T me he unit damagecd, Hhen

sepladec by h e new ome and
hence no ne ed of 4ne
uhale
The conducBots ave place bela the
.
sbehsian inautatusA and hence i+
paxlybve tecBs the comducBor f
Litannin
The ssain free to a u r n ahA_
reelim and, hesefor re, goeat fle lbii

2 paoyided the toansmmion n e
Die Advan a e
Det
Pog
Disadvanepes u ssushenaim tbe insua hss

TnsBallodion s difficuts.
T h e hishes Vofa9, mne POcelaun
disc Bpenson insutatoK
CPoceloin die UspenNm ane easy o
clean
-3)
Ansula fos S an eleckical
A stodun
insulatr tha i> desanecd to csk 1n
mecha nica tensim, to withafand h e bull of
BUsbended elecs ial we os calol2
4
Poge
-58 ansmiaion unes cIS E

aCCs din to gagged
Bagged
4he COnducto 'A manusdctuxex
The 0a9
The depends ao the aYasage_
spa h e eclim t h e ne.
Sag3 as0 hate t be n aCOd ante
maxim um windá hat
the
mgit
Comductoc and te avad flosh over
Q6) Ans
As Ce nous 4hat
he cuUI TeN
Conducto8 aseAuspended
oY plotng auctuC b_aukpensidm
Sia the heht afthe comducioa_bostin
L alwap Res h a he taal
heigkt oP the
Lubboating suchuse Thexefse the ConduLef3
ma sale from ishtnins
DisadvanteeeF Coana s
The l o a ahea aOas he Conduckr

hich3hdus he power toAR wtmeh occure
. The aksdie noie occure becaue oP Ahe

Cona effect shich catukes the bouey
o s t h e Conduekr
Data
Poga
TheThe vibsadi Comducfor OCCABg
because
The COUMa boues (os educeM he
eicieno the une
Nami-Mhusonsh Patab PMausuyo
Rol no- 1902.00
Qato13J03/2021
Aienment-1
1a) Jnanaboiion o Tramumiuion lint dulumus
dhat Jo HGtatthe conducto) Jhiah tonult
m theConductsn n phane do be meved
do nixe phyncal location un buguula Aeguae.
2 b
b
3
b ranspond ine budua Hhi eleconoatalu

Cunlealane Cumong dhe dhwe phouves. Jd also
wxd dostalslize 0eltage umbalau
A also hulbs do ediuo nduuduue
CGbling9
4 m o econonmuas and Jeduus
project dime
((Date:
03 6umcllad conaluucign ahl dhoe conductss

uchfom two gH morl stamdad
conducdos bumdlled dogethen do get
moo c u t e t Casaumgcobocily
i wed do reduio
cosona, audiolo
and diduo n0iR amd also wncncase
dhe uuiemt -caUYUnG
cafbaciti dham
ungl Cenducton (Akin eet)
2 h
C b
3
Ubed b0sHamedeHA
o2 clitamu (seluoea m comoluudon 122

23=diudamco lyeluseam Coomoluchon 2&3
ja diotome belu@ eom comdudon
l&3
NGL Lhen condudon
Flux linkage Jox 'a, us a,b &c a e in pouion1
2xio JJam
DS Jln Jmdcb/ cObm
Simiulasby
Yo22x10'laInt
DS dn D23
t
Idm1
DI2)
Teacher's sic
Simdaay fox potion 3,
2 x 10
Jadn n dcn
he auerage ualus o) fux linhage fox a
3 b
In
Also Jo-CIhtTe)o Jet I1T(=O
SO V 2x131aln. + (1a) Jn
3
V x la in DubaDa
D
Ya2x16 a dmbn baa Da
Ds
SO La Ya 2% Y0 ey Hm
inilaby
Lp2X19 eo H/vo
DS
L 2x 10 De Hm
bs
Hene auvengg wnduutanue pe phnan
0o Cauay
Dotes
uSa> Jk RmSw dhot emluu tamamustOn

no cam lse taRen_ as abaciton adh
au a dielocbuC maduum Hemu
hen Gltage i applued omd Cunani
Hous Jsotuseini the emdudon, dhe unend
dhat lou du do inhont copodamu
u Calac) chaxgung cunnemt o dommuior
Qune
Aemgdh e chongimg cunnemi olapemds

Ono volBage Lauemuy and
Capacitamu odht ume
(0s the qttme Comcluto UA

uoh albeue dho gaeumd dhen uta
ehd can de heglucte o jos t h u
pha comduudoi)
Teacher's sign.
Grade
C
1902001
C
1902002
A
1902003
B
1902004
A+
1902005
C
1902007
B
1902008
A
1902009
A
1902010
D
1902011
C
1902012
I
1902013
B
1902015
D
1902016
B
1902017
C
1902018
C
1902019
C
1902020
C
1902021
B
1902022
B
1902023
C
1902025
A
1902026
B
1902027
B
1902028
B
1902029
C
1902030
C
1902031
B
1902032
B
1902033
C
1902034
B
1902035
B
1902036
B
1902038
A
1902039
A
1902040
D
1902041
C
1902042
A
1902043
Grade
A+
1902044
A+
1902045
C
1902046
C
1902047
C
1902048
D
1902050
A
1902051
D
1902052
C
1902053
D
1902054
A+
1902055
D
1902056
B
1902057
A
1902058
C
1902059
D
1902060
A
1902061
A+
1902062
C
1902063
D
1902064
B
1902065
B
1902067
B
1902068
A+
1902069
C
1902071
C
1902072
B
1902073
C
1902075
A
1902076
B
1902077
A+
1902078
B
1902080
A
1902081
A
1902082
B
1902083
A
1902084
A
1902086
C
1902091
C
1902092
Grade
B
1902094
C
1902095
B
1902096
B
1902097
D
1902098
B
1902099
C
1902100
C
1902101
C
1902103
B
1902104
C
1902105
B
1902106
A+
1902107
D
1902108
B
1902109
A
1902110
D
1902111
B
1902113
C
1902114
D
1902115
A
1902116
B
1902117
B
1902118
A
1902119
B
1902120
Power Transmission and Distribution (EE4602)
Attainment - 2018-19
The Subject is included in the Syllabus from 2018-19 batch onwards and taught first time in Jan-June 2020 session.
Academic Subject
Subject Name PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
Session Code
Power Transmission &
Jan-June2020 EE4602 2.17 2.17 1.44 0.72 0 0.72 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.17 0 0
Distribution
Power Transmission &
Jan-June 2021 EE4602 2.2 2.2 1.4 0.7 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.15 0 0
Distribution
Gap
Average
Year PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
Gap
2021-22 Target 2.25 2.25 1.5 0.75 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
2020-2021 2.2 2.2 1.4 0.7 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.15 0 0

Updated Target
2.25 2.25 1.5 0.75 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
2020-2021
Gap 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.05 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.15 0 0 0.02
2019-2020 2.17 2.17 1.44 0.72 0 0.72 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.17 0 0

Target 2019-2020 2.00 2.00 1.75 0.75 0 1.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
- -
Gap 0.31 0.03 0 0.28 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.17 0 0 0.02
0.17 0.17
Note:
NEGATIVE gap value indicates OVER ATTAINMENT of target
Weak Student Identification
Based on the performance of Class Test 1 – held in February 2021, after completion of the first
module, the following students are identified as weak students.
Students who scored less than 50% marks in Class Test 1 are identified in this category.
Roll No Email id Class Test 1 Marks (out of 10)

1902025 [email protected] 3
The students were given special attention during the regular classes and also special interactions
were arranged in the chamber of the faculty. The student’s performance was seen to improve. The
following table shows the performance of these students in later tests
Roll No Quiz 2 Class Test2 Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Quiz 1 End Sem Total Marks
1902025 10 7.5 10 10 10 36 86.5
1902097 10 8.5 10 10 10 29.5 81
1902098 7 3 10 10 3 35.5 71.5
1902114 10 7 10 10 10 25.5 75.5
1902013
1902001 10 6.5 10 10 10 34.5 85
1902002 10 7 10 10 9 33 83
1902041 8 2 9 10 10 31.5 74.5
1902050 7 2.5 10 10 8 34.5 76
1902052 6 6 10 10 6 30 72
1902053 10 5 10 10 10 33 82
1902054 7 2.5 10 10 8 36.5 78
1902056 8 6 10 10 8 33.5 79.5
1902063 10 7.5 10 10 10 30 81.5
1902075 10 9 10 10 10 37 90
1902077 9 8 9 10 10 37.5 87.5
1902096 10 6 10 10 8 34 82
1902100 9 6.5 10 10 8 32 79.5
1902103 7 7.5 10 10 7 35.5 81
1902105 10 4 9 10 7 36.5 80.5
1902111 10 5.5 9 10 9 36.5 84
Gap Identification and Corrective Actions Taken
The Course is taught for 2 semesters after the new syllabus is introduced. Based on the Gaps
identified in January-June 2020 Semester some Corrective actions were taken during the Lecture
sessions in January – June 2021.
Sl No Gap Actions taken Result

Unit 1 The average student After discussion with students (both in class Performance
performance was poor in session and one to one basis with poor have
earlier semester. performers) it was found out that students improved, less
need more detailed discussion on some number of
There were many
basic concepts. students are
mistakes found in
found to
numericals and
Number of lectures increased and more repeat similar
derivations.
time was provided and 18 Hours were mistakes
devoted to this unit.
Unit 3 Lectures are provided Number of Lectures reduced to 6 Other units
which are not required could be
provided with
more lectures
which
improved
student
performance
3 Lectures are provided Number of Lectures reduced to 6 from 10 The extra
which are not required as lecture hours
the similar types of used in Unit 1
derivations need to be
done for different line
structures, which are
repeatative and requires
less time
4 8 Hrs provided which is Number of Lectures reduced to 2 from 8 Lectures used
not required as the unit to discuss
talks about only structure new Unit
of cable and comparison relevant to
with overhead lines competitive
examinations.
5 Questions related to this Transients in Transmission Line – a new
subjects are very Unit is introduced in the syllabus.
frequently asked in
Competitive exams like
GATE and by taking a
student survey and by
checking the question
papers it was found that
Transients should be
included in the syllabus
mid-Semester Examination (march 2020) Session: 2019-20 Spring Semester
1. a. A distribution feeder of 1 km length is fed from both the ends
by sources S1 and S2. Both voltage sources S1 and S2 are
supplying power at 400V. The feeder supplies three loads as
shown in figure.
Determine the contributions of S1 and S2 in 100 A current

supplied at location P. (5) CO4
b. If a 2 wire AC distribution system is replaced by a 3 wire AC
distribution system to transfer P amount of power between two
points, compare the volume of copper required in the two
cases. Assume the line to line voltage to be same for both the
arrangements. (5) CO4
2. a. What is a stranded conductor? What is the effect stranding on CO1
the resistance of a conductor? (1+2=3) +CO3
b. A composite conductor consists of three conductors of
radius R each. The conductors are arranged as shown below.
The geometric mean radius (GMR) (in cm) of the composite
conductor is kR. Determine the value of k, show step by step
derivation. (5)
CO5
c. What is skin effect? (2) CO1
3. a. What is transposition of transmission line? What are the CO1
advantages of a transposed line? (3) +CO2
b. Prove that the three phases of a transposed line have equal
average inductance for each phase. (4) CO5
c. Define bundled conductor. Why it is used? (3) CO1
+CO2
-----------X----------
End-Semester Examination (July 2020) Session: 2019-20 Spring Semester
1. a. What are the ranges of surge impedance for overhead lines and CO1
underground cables? What is the reason behind the variation in
values of surge impedance in these two cases? (1+2=3)
b. A surge of 230 kV travels on a line of surge impedance 500 Ω CO4
and reaches the junction of the line with two branch lines as
shown in figure below. The surge impedances of the branch
lines are 500 Ω and 50 Ω, respectively. Find the transmitted
voltage and currents. Also find the reflected voltage and
current. (3)
c. A 190 km long 50 Hz transmission line has a total series CO4

impedance of R+jX ohms and a total shunt admittance of Rx10-
3 mho. The receiving-end load is 130 kW at 11 kV with 0.95
lagging power factor. Find the sending-end voltage and current

using nominal-T representation method. Where R is the last 2
digits of your roll number and X is the last 3 digits of your roll
number. (4)
2. a. What is charging current of a transmission line? What causes the

CO1
charging current? (1+1=2)
b. Consider a fully transposed three-phase flat horizontal CO4
transmission line. The line operates at 60 Hz frequency and
440kV. The spacing between two neighbouring conductors is 5R
cm and conductor diameter is R cm. Where R is the last 2 digits
of your roll number. Find the capacitive reactance to neutral and
the charging current. Consider the relative permittivity of air
1.006. (5)
Attendance Sheet
Month-
Branch : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Exam Session : JAN-JUN_2020
Course Code : EE4602 Title : Power Transmission & Distribution
Faculty Name : Mala De
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Name of the No
S. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Student Roll No
N Date
of
o Class
RAVI KUMAR 1702016

1
BHANU PRATAP 1702018
2 CHAUHAN
RAJ GOPAL 1702023
3
SACHIN SAROJ 1702051
4
POOJA KUMARI 1802001
5
ANSHUMAN GUPTA 1802002
6
RAJEEV KUMAR 1802003
7
ADARSH KUMAR 1802005
8
DEEPAK KUMAR 1802006
9
ASHISH KUMAR 1802007
10
SURAJ SAXENA 1802008
11
RITESH KUMAR 1802009
12
AKHIL RAWAT 1802010
13
SOURAV RAJ 1802011
14
AVINASH KUMAR 1802012
15
AMIT RAO 1802013
16
MANOJ KUMAR SAH 1802014
17
NEERAJ KUMAR 1802015
18 SHARMA
NIKHIL KUMAR 1802016
19
PRIYANSH KHARE 1802017
20

Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Name of the No
S. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Student Roll No
N Date
of
o Class
JUHI KUMARI 1802018

21
HARSH DEEP 1802019
22
ISHITVA SRIVASTAVA 1802021
23
RAJAN KUMAR PANDEY 1802023
24
SHIVRAJ CHANDEL 1802024
25
RAHUL KUMAR JAIKAR 1802025
26
PREM CHANDRA ARYA 1802026
27
RAJEEV RANJAN 1802027
28
RAM KUMAR 1802028
29
KESHAV KASHYAP 1802029
30
MRITYUNJAY MAHATO 1802030
31
SUNNY KUMAR 1802031
32
DHIRAJ KUMAR 1802032
33
RAGHUNANDAN KUMAR 1802033
34 RAJAK
RAKESH KUMAR 1802034
35
SAMARTH NAGSEN 1802038
36
QAZI WALI AZAM 1802039
37
PRASHANT KUMAR 1802042
38
ANKIT KUMAR 1802043
39
SRIYANK SUMAN 1802044
40
ABHISHEK VERMA 1802045
41
SHIVAM KUMAR 1802047
42
SUSHANT KUMAR RAI 1802048
43
SACHIN KUMAR 1802049
44

Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Name of the No
S. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Student Roll No
N Date
of
o Class
ABHIJEET TATHAGAT 1802050

45
ARPIT KUMAR 1802051
46
SONU KUMAR 1802052
47
MADDULA NAGA 1802053
48 VENKATA EESWARI SAI
SUREKHA
AASHI KUMARI 1802054
49
VENKATESH MAHTO 1802056
50
ANSHU KUMARI 1802057
51
RANJAN KUMAR 1802059
52 BHARDWAJ
MARISARLA SAI 1802061
53 PRASANTH
MONU PRAJAPATI 1802062
54
AYUSH KUMAR JHA 1802063
55
SHIVAM PRAKASH 1802064
56
RAJA SATYAM 1802068
57
GUGULOTHU 1802069
58 SANGEETHA
RAHUL RAJ 1802070
59
RANJANA KUMARI 1802071
60
ARUN KUMAR 1802072
61 MANDAWARIYA
SONU MEENA 1802073
62
PARITOSH KUMAR 1802074
63
RAHUL KUMAR 1802076
64
PRINCE KUMAR SINGH 1802077
65
ASHUTOSH SHARMA 1802079
66
MANISHA KUMARI 1802082
67
PAWAN BAIRWA 1802085
68

Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Name of the No
S. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Student Roll No
N Date
of
o Class
ROHIT KUMAR 1802086

69
MD SHARIF NAWAZ 1802087
70
ANIL KUMAR 1802088
71
ANIL KUMAR YADAV 1802089
72
PRANAY KUMAR 1802090
73
RAHUL KUMAR VERMA 1802091
74
OMESHWAR KUMAR 1802094
75
SAKET SRIVASTAVA 1802095
76
VISHAL KASUDHAN 1802096
77
Power System
MAYANK JAIMAN 1802098
78
RISHU PAL 1802099
79
TANISHQ SINGH 1802100
80
YASH KUMAR POSWALIA 1802101
81
JITENDRA KUMAR 1802102
82
RISHIKESH KUMAR 1802103
83 MAURYA
ASHISH KUMAR 1802104
84
PREMSAGAR KUMAR 1802105
85
BALDHEER SINGH 1802106
86
MALOTH RAHUL NAIK 1802107
87
MANISH BAJYA 1802109
88
RAGHAV GAUR 1802110
89
BISAI HARSHAVARDHAN 1802112
90
MANISH CHOUDHARY 1802113
91
VARUN BARUA 1802114
92

Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Name of the No
S. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Student Roll No
N Date
of
o Class
SATYASHEEL 1802115
93 SRIVASTAVA
NITESH KUMAR 1802116
94
AKANSH OMAR 1802117
95

Course Code: EE4602: Power Transmission & DistributionSession: Jan-June 2020
Course PO Attainment 2.3666667 2.367 1.578 0.789 0 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.37 0

Average: 3 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
C202.1 CO1 3 3 3
C202.2 CO2 3 3 1 3
C202.3 CO3 3 3 2 1 3
C202.4 CO4 3 3 3
C202.5 CO5 3 3 2 3
C202.6 CO6 3 3 1 3
Correlation levels 1, 2 or 3 as defined below:
1 Slight (Low)
2 Moderate (Medium)
3 Substantial (High)
Blooms’
SlNO DESCRIPTION Taxonomy
Level
C202.1 CO1 Recall fundamental components of transmission and distribution system. R - L1
C202.2 CO2 Explain different type of phenomena occurring in transmission and distribution system. U - L2
Associate the operating principles, design aspects, physical phenomenon of transmission system to the practical
C202.3 CO3 power system. U - L2
Solve quantitative problems on performance parameters of radial distribution system, electrical and mechanical
C202.4 CO4 design parameters of transmission and distribution system. P - L3
C202.5 CO5 Determine the metrics for steady state and transients condition for transmission line. A - L4
C202.6 CO6 Evaluate the inter-relationship between different performance and design parameters of transmission system. E - L5
Bench mark Attainment of COs: Level Blooms Taonomy

If 80% students got greater than the target then attainment is 3 1 Remembering (R)
If 70% students got greater than the target then attainment is 2 2 Understanding (U)
If 60% students got greater than the target then attainment is 1 3 Applying (P)
4 Analysing (A)
5 Evaluate (E)
6 Create (C)
Course Attainment EE4602: Power Transmission & Distribution
Direct Assessment
Average Average
Course Outcome Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Attainment Quiz-1 Quiz-2 Class Test-1 Class Test-2 End Semester Attainment
(Open Book) Closed Book)
CO1 1 1 2 3 3 2.666666667
CO2 1 1 2 3 3 2.666666667
CO3 1 1 3 3 3
CO4 1 1 2 3 2.5
CO5 1 1
CO6
Attainment 1 2.708333333
Weighted % 20 80
Weighted Direct Attainment 0.2 2.166666667
Total of Direct Attainment for the course 2.366666667

EE5604 Q1a Q1b,c Q2a Q2b Q2c,d Q3a,b Q3c,e,fQ4 TOTAL Percentage FM 30
CO1 3 2 9 5 16.67
CO2 5 1 5 16.67
CO3 3 5 8 26.67
CO4 7 5 12 40
CO5 0
CO6 0
TOTAL 3 7 2 5 3 5 5 10 30

Competence of 60% Threashold 8.4 2.4 1.8 7.2 0 0
Attainment in %: 98.95 98.9 97.89 82.1053 0 0

Total Students 95 3 7 2 5 3 4 6 10 39 14 4 3 12 0 0
Roll No Name Q1a Q1b,c Q2a Q2b Q2c,d Q3a,bQ3c,e,f Q4 TOTAL CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6
1702016 RAVI KUMAR 1 3 1 1 2.5 4 2 7.5 22 8.75 4 2.5 4 0 0
1702018 BHANU
PRATAP 1 3 1 1 2.5 4 3.5 7.5 23.5 8.75 4 2.5 4 0 0
1702023 RAJ GOPAL 1 7 2 5 2.5 4 5.5 10 37 12 4 2.5 12 0 0
1702051 SACHIN 1 7 1 2 2.5 4 4 7.5 29 8.75 4 2.5 9 0 0
1802001 SAROJ
POOJA 1 7 1 3 3 3.5 5.5 10 34 10 3.5 3 10 0 0
1802002 KUMARI
ANSHUMAN 0.5 7 0.5 5 1 4 5.5 3.5 27 3.65 4 1 12 0 0
GUPTA
1802003 RAJEEV 1 7 2 5 3 3.5 5 8.5 35 10.65 3.5 3 12 0 0
1802005 KUMAR
ADARSH 1 6 1 2 2.5 4 6 8 30.5 8.7 4 2.5 8 0 0
KUMAR
1802006 DEEPAK 3 7 1 5 3 4 5 8 36 9.2 4 3 12 0 0
1802007 KUMAR
ASHISH 3 3 1 1 1 3 4 7.5 23.5 8.75 3 1 4 0 0
KUMAR
1802008 SURAJ 1 7 1 0 3 3 5 8 28 11.2 3 3 7 0 0
1802009 SAXENA
RITESH 1 7 1 0 2 4 6 9.5 30.5 12.55 4 2 7 0 0
KUMAR
1802010 AKHIL RAWAT 1 3 2 0 3 4 6 9 28 11.1 4 3 3 0 0
1802011 SOURAV RAJ 3 7 2 5 3 3.5 6 9.5 39 11.55 3.5 3 12 0 0
1802012 AVINASH 1 7 1 1 3 4 5 10 32 11 4 3 8 0 0
1802013 KUMAR
AMIT RAO 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 12.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802014 MANOJ 1 6 1.5 5 2.5 4 4.5 7 31.5 8.8 4 2.5 11 0 0
1802015 KUMAR
NEERAJSAH
KUMAR 3 7 1 5 2.5 4 6 10 38.5 11 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802016 NIKHIL 1 7 2 5 2.5 4 5.5 9 36 11.1 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802017 KUMAR
PRIYANSH 1 7 1.5 5 3 4 6 9.5 37 13.05 4 3 12 0 0
1802018 KHARE
JUHI KUMARI 1 3 1 0 3 4 5.5 9 26.5 10.1 4 3 3 0 0
1802019 HARSH DEEP 1 3 1 5 3 4 5.5 9 31.5 10.1 4 3 8 0 0
1802021 ISHITVA 1 7 1 0 3 4 5 9 30 10.1 4 3 7 0 0
1802023 SRIVASTAVA
RAJAN
KUMAR 3 7 2 5 3 4 4 10 38 12 4 3 12 0 0
1802024 SHIVRAJ 3 7 1 5 3 4 3.5 10 36.5 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802025 CHANDEL
RAHUL
KUMAR 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9 35.5 12.1 4 3 12 0 0
1802026 PREM
CHANDRA 2.5 7 2 4 3 4 5 10 37.5 14 4 3 11 0 0
1802027 RAJEEV 1 7 1.5 0 3 2 5.5 9.5 29.5 11.05 2 3 7 0 0
1802028 RANJAN
RAM KUMAR 3 3.5 1 1 3 4 6 9.5 31 12.05 4 3 4.5 0 0
1802029 KESHAV 1 7 1 1 3 4 5.5 9.5 32 10.55 4 3 8 0 0
1802030 KASHYAP
MRITYUNJAY
MAHATO 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 12.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802031 SUNNY 1 3 1 0 3 4 5.5 9.5 27 10.55 4 3 3 0 0
1802032 KUMAR
DHIRAJ 1 7 1 1 3 4 5 9 31 10.1 4 3 8 0 0
1802033 KUMAR
GHUNANDAN
KUMAR RA 1 3 1 0 2.5 4 5 8.5 25 9.65 4 2.5 3 0 0
1802034 RAKESH 1 7 1 4.5 2.5 4 5 10 35 11 4 2.5 11.5 0 0
1802038 KUMAR
SAMARTH 3 7 1 0.5 3 4 5 9.5 33 10.55 4 3 7.5 0 0
1802039 NAGSEN
QAZI WALI 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 8.5 35 9.65 4 3 12 0 0
1802042 AZAM
PRASHANT 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 12.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802043 KUMAR
ANKIT 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 10.55 4 3 12 0 0
KUMAR
1802044 SRIYANK 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 10.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802045 SUMAN
ABHISHEK 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9 35.5 10.1 4 3 12 0 0
VERMA
1802047 SHIVAM 1 7 1 5 3 4 4 9 34 10.1 4 3 12 0 0
1802048 KUMAR
SUSHANT 1 7 1 3 3 4 5.5 9.5 34 10.55 4 3 10 0 0
1802049 KUMAR
SACHIN RAI 1 7 1 1 3 4 5.5 9.5 32 10.55 4 3 8 0 0
1802050 KUMAR
ABHIJEET 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9 35.5 10.1 4 3 12 0 0
1802051 TATHAGAT
ARPIT 1 7 1 5 3 4 6 10 37 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802052 KUMAR
SONU KUMAR 1 7 2 5 3 3 5.5 10 36.5 12 3 3 12 0 0
1802053 GA VENKATA
EESWARI S 1 7 1 5 3 3.5 6 10 36.5 11 3.5 3 12 0 0
1802054 AASHI 1 7 1.5 5 3 4 5.5 8.5 35.5 10.15 4 3 12 0 0
1802056 KUMARI
VENKATESH 1 7 1.5 5 3 3 5.5 10 36 11.5 3 3 12 0 0
1802057 MAHTO
ANSHU 1 7 2 5 3 4 5.5 10 37.5 12 4 3 12 0 0
1802059 KUMARI
ANJAN
KUMAR 1 7 1 0 3 4 4.5 10 30.5 11 4 3 7 0 0
1802061 ARISARLA SAI
PRASANT 1 7 1.5 0 3 4 6 9.5 32 11.05 4 3 7 0 0
1802062 MONU 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 10.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802063 PRAJAPATI
AYUSH 1 7 1 5 3 4 4.5 9 34.5 10.1 4 3 12 0 0
1802064 KUMAR
SHIVAM JHA 1 7 1 5 2.5 4 4.5 10 35 11 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802068 PRAKASH
RAJA 1 7 1 0 3 4 5.5 9.5 31 10.55 4 3 7 0 0
1802069 SATYAM
UGULOTHU
SANGEETH 1 7 1 5 3 4 6 10 37 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802070 RAHUL RAJ 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 10.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802071 RANJANA 1 7 2 5 3 4 6 9.5 37.5 11.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802072 KUMARI
UN KUMAR
MANDAWAR 1 7 1 1 3 4 5.5 8.5 31 9.65 4 3 8 0 0
1802073 SONU MEENA 1 7 1.5 5 3 4 5.5 10 37 11.5 4 3 12 0 0
1802074 PARITOSH 3 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 38 10.55 4 3 12 0 0
1802076 KUMAR
RAHUL 1 7 1 4.5 3 4 5.5 9.5 35.5 10.55 4 3 11.5 0 0
1802077 KUMAR
PRINCE
KUMAR 1 7 1 4 3 4 5.5 9 34.5 12.1 4 3 11 0 0
1802079 ASHUTOSH 1 7 1 4 3 4 4.5 10 34.5 11 4 3 11 0 0
1802082 SHARMA
MANISHA 1 7 1 3 3 4 5.5 9.5 34 10.55 4 3 10 0 0
1802085 KUMARI
PAWAN 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9.5 36 10.55 4 3 12 0 0
BAIRWA
1802086 ROHIT 1 7 1 4 3 4 5.5 9 34.5 10.1 4 3 11 0 0
1802087 KUMAR
MD SHARIF 1 7 1 5 2.5 4 5.5 9.5 35.5 10.55 4 2.5 12 0 0
NAWAZ
1802088 ANIL KUMAR 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 9 35.5 10.1 4 3 12 0 0
1802089 ANIL KUMAR 1 7 1 5 2.5 4 5.5 9.5 35.5 10.55 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802090 YADAV
PRANAY 1 7 1 5 2.5 4 5.5 9.5 35.5 10.55 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802091 KUMAR
RAHUL
KUMAR 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 10 36.5 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802094 OMESHWAR 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 10 36.5 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802095 KUMAR
SAKET 1 7 1.5 5 2.5 4 5.5 9.5 36 11.05 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802096 SRIVASTAVA
VISHAL 1 7 2 5 2.5 4 4.5 9.5 35.5 11.55 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802098 KASUDHAN
MAYANK 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 10 36.5 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802099 JAIMAN
RISHU PAL 1 7 1 5 3 4 5 9 35 10.1 4 3 12 0 0
1802100 TANISHQ 1 7 1 5 3 3 5.5 9 34.5 10.1 3 3 12 0 0
1802101 SINGH
YASH KUMAR
POSWALIA 1 7 1 5 2.5 4 4.5 8 33 9.2 4 2.5 12 0 0
1802102 JITENDRA 1 7 1 4.5 3 4 4.5 10 35 11 4 3 11.5 0 0
1802103 KUMAR
RISHIKESH
KUMAR MAUR 1 7 1 2.5 3 4 5.5 10 34 11 4 3 9.5 0 0
1802104 ASHISH 1 7 1 5 3 4 5.5 10 36.5 11 4 3 12 0 0
1802105 KUMAR
PREMSAGAR 1 7 1.5 5 2.5 3 5.5 10 35.5 11.5 3 2.5 12 0 0
1802106 KUMAR
BALDHEER 1 7 1 2 3 4 5.5 10 33.5 11 4 3 9 0 0
1802107 SINGH
MALOTH 1 3 1 0 2.5 3.5 6 10 27 11 3.5 2.5 3 0 0
1802109 RAHUL
MANISHNAIK 1 6.5 1 5 2.5 3.5 6 9.5 35 10.55 3.5 2.5 11.5 0 0
BAJYA
1802110 RAGHAV 3 7 1.5 3 2.5 4 5.5 9.5 36 11.05 4 2.5 10 0 0
1802112 GAUR
BISAI
HARSHAVAR 3 7 1.5 3 3 4 6 9.5 37 11.05 4 3 10 0 0
1802113 MANISH 2 7 1.5 2.5 2.5 4 5.5 10 35 13.5 4 2.5 9.5 0 0
1802114 CHOUDHARY
VARUN 1 3 1.5 2.5 2.5 4 5 9 28.5 12.6 4 2.5 5.5 0 0
1802115 BARUA
SATYASHEEL
SRIVASTAV 1 7 1.5 5 3 4 6 9 36.5 11.6 4 3 12 0 0
1802116 NITESH 2.5 7 1.5 5 3 4 5.5 10 38.5 11.5 4 3 12 0 0
1802117 KUMAR
AKANSH 1 4 1 5 3 4 5 9.5 32.5 10.55 4 3 9 0 0
OMAR
EE5604 Q1 Q2ai,cQ2aii Q2b Q3ai,ci
Q3aii,cii Q3b Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTALPercentage FM 30
CO1 5 5 16.6667
CO2 4 4 13.3333
CO3 2 2 6.66667
CO4 10 10 33.3333
CO5 9 9 30
CO6 0 0
TOTAL 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30

Competence of 60% Threashold 3 2.4 1.2 6 5.4 0
Attainment in %: 63.1579 63.15789 63.15789 63.1579 63.1579 0
CO Attainment 1 1 1 1 1

Total Students 95 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 5 4 2 10 9 0
Roll No Name Q1 Q2ai,c Q2aii Q2b Q3ai,ci Q3aii,cii Q3b Q8 Q9 Q10 TOTAL CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6
1702016 RAVI KUMAR 9.0 9 1.5 1.2 0.6 3 2.7 0
1702018 BHANU 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PRATAP
1702023 RAJ GOPAL 4.0 4 0.667 0.533 0.27 1.333 1.2 0
1702051 SACHIN 3.0 3 0.5 0.4 0.2 1 0.9 0
SAROJ
1802001 POOJA 17.0 17 2.833 2.267 1.13 5.667 5.1 0
KUMARI
ANSHUMAN 13.0
1802002 13 2.167 1.733 0.87 4.333 3.9 0
GUPTA
1802003 RAJEEV 29.0 29 4.833 3.867 1.93 9.667 8.7 0
KUMAR
1802005 ADARSH 24.0 24 4 3.2 1.6 8 7.2 0
KUMAR
1802006 DEEPAK 13.0 13 2.167 1.733 0.87 4.333 3.9 0
KUMAR
1802007 ASHISH 7.0 7 1.167 0.933 0.47 2.333 2.1 0
KUMAR
1802008 SURAJ 23.0 23 3.833 3.067 1.53 7.667 6.9 0
SAXENA
1802009 RITESH 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
KUMAR
1802010 AKHIL 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
1802011 RAWAT
SOURAV RAJ 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
1802012 AVINASH 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
1802013 KUMAR
AMIT RAO 15.0 15 2.5 2 1 5 4.5 0
1802014 MANOJ 15.0 15 2.5 2 1 5 4.5 0
1802015 KUMAR
NEERAJSAH 29.0 29 4.833 3.867 1.93 9.667 8.7 0
1802016 KUMAR
NIKHIL 17.0 17 2.833 2.267 1.13 5.667 5.1 0
1802017 KUMAR
PRIYANSH 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802018 KHARE
JUHI KUMARI 16.0 16 2.667 2.133 1.07 5.333 4.8 0
1802019 HARSH DEEP 19.0 19 3.167 2.533 1.27 6.333 5.7 0
1802021 ISHITVA 2.0 2 0.333 0.267 0.13 0.667 0.6 0
1802023 SRIVASTAVA
RAJAN 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
1802024 KUMAR
SHIVRAJ 29.0 29 4.833 3.867 1.93 9.667 8.7 0
CHANDEL
1802025 RAHUL 24.0 24 4 3.2 1.6 8 7.2 0
1802026 KUMAR
PREM 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CHANDRA
1802027 RAJEEV 22.0 22 3.667 2.933 1.47 7.333 6.6 0
1802028 RANJAN
RAM KUMAR 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802029 KESHAV 28.0 28 4.667 3.733 1.87 9.333 8.4 0
1802030 KASHYAP
MRITYUNJAY 23.0 23 3.833 3.067 1.53 7.667 6.9 0
1802031 MAHATO
SUNNY 15.0 15 2.5 2 1 5 4.5 0
1802032 KUMAR
DHIRAJ 22.0 22 3.667 2.933 1.47 7.333 6.6 0
KUMAR
1802033 GHUNANDAN 18.0 18 3 2.4 1.2 6 5.4 0
1802034 KUMAR
RAKESHRA 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
1802038 KUMAR
SAMARTH 14.0 14 2.333 1.867 0.93 4.667 4.2 0
NAGSEN
1802039 QAZI WALI 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802042 AZAM
PRASHANT 16.0 16 2.667 2.133 1.07 5.333 4.8 0
KUMAR
1802043 ANKIT 21.0 21 3.5 2.8 1.4 7 6.3 0
1802044 KUMAR
SRIYANK 23.0 23 3.833 3.067 1.53 7.667 6.9 0
SUMAN
1802045 ABHISHEK 20.0 20 3.333 2.667 1.33 6.667 6 0
1802047 VERMA
SHIVAM 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
KUMAR
1802048 SUSHANT 5.0 5 0.833 0.667 0.33 1.667 1.5 0
1802049 KUMAR
SACHIN RAI 17.0 17 2.833 2.267 1.13 5.667 5.1 0
KUMAR
1802050 ABHIJEET 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802051 TATHAGAT
ARPIT 17.0 17 2.833 2.267 1.13 5.667 5.1 0
1802052 KUMAR
SONU 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
KUMAR
1802053 GA VENKATA 19.0 19 3.167 2.533 1.27 6.333 5.7 0
1802054 EESWARI
AASHI S
27.5 27.5 4.583 3.667 1.83 9.167 8.25 0
KUMARI
1802056 VENKATESH 21.0 21 3.5 2.8 1.4 7 6.3 0
1802057 MAHTO
ANSHU 29.0 29 4.833 3.867 1.93 9.667 8.7 0
1802059 KUMARI
ANJAN 13.0 13 2.167 1.733 0.87 4.333 3.9 0
1802061 KUMAR
ARISARLA 18.0 18 3 2.4 1.2 6 5.4 0
1802062 SAI
MONU 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
1802063 PRAJAPATI
AYUSH 23.0 23 3.833 3.067 1.53 7.667 6.9 0
1802064 KUMAR
SHIVAM JHA 22.0 22 3.667 2.933 1.47 7.333 6.6 0
1802068 PRAKASH
RAJA 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
SATYAM
1802069 UGULOTHU 4.0 4 0.667 0.533 0.27 1.333 1.2 0
1802070 SANGEETH
RAHUL RAJ 22.0 22 3.667 2.933 1.47 7.333 6.6 0
1802071 RANJANA 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
1802072 KUMARI
UN KUMAR 18.0 18 3 2.4 1.2 6 5.4 0
1802073 MANDAWAR
SONU 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802074 MEENA
PARITOSH 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802076 KUMAR
RAHUL 19.0 19 3.167 2.533 1.27 6.333 5.7 0
1802077 KUMAR
PRINCE 28.0 28 4.667 3.733 1.87 9.333 8.4 0
1802079 KUMAR
ASHUTOSH 17.0 17 2.833 2.267 1.13 5.667 5.1 0
SHARMA
1802082 MANISHA 28.0 28 4.667 3.733 1.87 9.333 8.4 0
1802085 KUMARI
PAWAN 24.0 24 4 3.2 1.6 8 7.2 0
BAIRWA
1802086 ROHIT 30.0 30 5 4 2 10 9 0
1802087 KUMAR
MD SHARIF 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
NAWAZ
1802088 ANIL KUMAR 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802089 ANIL KUMAR 28.0 28 4.667 3.733 1.87 9.333 8.4 0
1802090 YADAV
PRANAY 18.0 18 3 2.4 1.2 6 5.4 0
1802091 KUMAR
RAHUL 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
KUMAR
1802094 OMESHWAR 20.0 20 3.333 2.667 1.33 6.667 6 0
1802095 KUMAR
SAKET 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
SRIVASTAVA
1802096 VISHAL 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
1802098 KASUDHAN
MAYANK 28.0 28 4.667 3.733 1.87 9.333 8.4 0
1802099 JAIMAN
RISHU PAL 23.0 23 3.833 3.067 1.53 7.667 6.9 0
1802100 TANISHQ 19.0 19 3.167 2.533 1.27 6.333 5.7 0
1802101 SINGH
YASH 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
1802102 KUMAR
JITENDRA 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
KUMAR
1802103 RISHIKESH 17.0 17 2.833 2.267 1.13 5.667 5.1 0
1802104 KUMAR
ASHISH 4.0 4 0.667 0.533 0.27 1.333 1.2 0
KUMAR
1802105 PREMSAGAR 24.0 24 4 3.2 1.6 8 7.2 0
1802106 KUMAR
BALDHEER 15.0 15 2.5 2 1 5 4.5 0
SINGH
1802107 MALOTH 5.0 5 0.833 0.667 0.33 1.667 1.5 0
1802109 RAHUL
MANISHNAIK 18.0 18 3 2.4 1.2 6 5.4 0
1802110 BAJYA
RAGHAV 13.0 13 2.167 1.733 0.87 4.333 3.9 0
1802112 GAUR
BISAI 25.0 25 4.167 3.333 1.67 8.333 7.5 0
1802113 HARSHAVAR
MANISH 24.0 24 4 3.2 1.6 8 7.2 0
1802114 CHOUDHARY
VARUN 19.0 19 3.167 2.533 1.27 6.333 5.7 0
1802115 BARUA
ATYASHEEL 25.5 25.5 4.25 3.4 1.7 8.5 7.65 0
1802116 SRIVASTAV
NITESH 26.0 26 4.333 3.467 1.73 8.667 7.8 0
1802117 KUMAR
AKANSH 27.0 27 4.5 3.6 1.8 9 8.1 0
OMAR
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
c. How the presence of earth surface effects the calculation of CO2
capacitance of a three phase transmission line? (1)
d. How the bundling of conductor affects the electrical parameters CO2
of the transmission line? (2)
3. a. For high voltage transmission of power which mode is preferred CO2

– overhead lines or underground cables? What are the reasons
of the choice? (2)
b. In case of low voltage distribution system compare the CO2
advantages and disadvantages of using underground cable
compared to overhead lines. (1+1=2)
c. What is the parameter of deciding the diameter of a cable CO3
conductor? Explain. (1)
d. Why grading of cable is required? (1) CO2
e. Consider an overhead conductor where corona occurrence has CO3
started. In this condition if the voltage of the conductor is
increased further what will happen? What will be the effect of
smoothness of conductor surface on this event? (1+1=2)
f. Which factor differentiates between disruptive critical voltage CO3
and visual critical voltage in the context of occurrence of
corona? Which of these voltages has a higher value? (1+1=2)
4. a. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having long CO1

cross arm in transmission tower? Explain each of the points.
(2+2=4)
b. Aluminium is a better conductor than steel. Then what are the CO1
reasons of using steel core in ACSR conductor? (2)
c. Why stranded conductor is preferred over solid conductors? CO1
Mention from both mechanical and electrical point of view.
(1+1=2)
d. How a strain type insulator is different from a disc type? (1) CO1
e. For a high voltage line, instead of using a single insulator of CO2
high capacity, series of multiple 11 kV insulators are used.
Why? (1)
-----------X----------

EE4602 JanJune20-21

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EE4602 JanJune20-21

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EE4602 JanJune20-21

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Subject : Power Transmission & Distribution

Subject Code : EE4602 L-T-P-Cr: 3-0-0-3

Objective: To learn the basic of power system distribution and transmission

Subject Code : EE4602 L-T-P-Cr: 3-1-0-4

Objective: To learn the basic of power system distribution and transmission.

Subject Code : EE4602 L-T-P-Cr: 3-1-0-4

Objective: To learn the basic of power system distribution and transmission.

Unit 1. Distribution: Material provided in PDF form during class

Electrical Power Systems (2006) - D Das (Provided)

Unit 3. Mechanical Design: Chapter 15 of Electrical Power Systems (2006) - D Das

A few supportive materials will be provided in coming weeks.

https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108104051/ui/Course_home-2.htm and Grainger

Section Corona – Chapter 14 of Electrical Power Systems -D Das

5 1 Types, insulating materials, stress in insulation and capacitance inter

3 Course PO Attainment 2.152 2.152 1.43467 0.7173 0 0.71733 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.152 0 0

19 C202.1 CO1 Recall fundamental components of transmission and distribution system. R - L1

Total of Direct Attainment for the course 2.152

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6

Question wise Maximum Marks: MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6

Question wise Maximum Marks MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6

Question wise Maximum Marks: MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6

Question wise Maximum Marks MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5CO6

Question wise Maximum Marks MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6

Question wise Maximum Marks MAXIMUM MARKS CO WISE

Registered Student Details

Branch : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Exam-Session : JAN-JUN_2021

Course Code : EE4602 Title :Power Transmission & Distribution

RollNo Studnet Name EmailId

1902008 ANKIT KUMAR

IT Solution Provided By National Informatics Centre , Bihar State Centre, Patna

Course Code : EE4602 Title :Power Transmission & Distribution

RollNo Studnet Name EmailId

IT Solution Provided By National Informatics Centre , Bihar State Centre, Patna

Course Code : EE4602 Title :Power Transmission & Distribution

RollNo Studnet Name EmailId

IT Solution Provided By National Informatics Centre , Bihar State Centre, Patna

Course Code : EE4602 Title :Power Transmission & Distribution

RollNo Studnet Name EmailId

1902101 ROHAN SRIVASTAV

IT Solution Provided By National Informatics Centre , Bihar State Centre, Patna

Activities FeedBack Details

Debarred Student Program B.Tech-EE

Grade Chart View Section A

Check Feedback Total No.

23.2| 26.4| 9.4|

Interaction and 19.6| 22.95|

Report Printed on : 02/12/202107:05:52 Program : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Paper : EE4602

Report Printed on : 02/12/202107:05:52 Program : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Paper : EE4602

Report Printed on : 02/12/202107:05:52 Program : B.Tech-EE Semester : sem 4 Paper : EE4602

Lecture 25: Mechanical Design

Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Mala De (EE Dept, NITP)

Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Mala De (EE Dept, NITP)

Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Mala De (EE Dept, NITP)

Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Mala De (EE Dept, NITP)