PowerSytem Quantum

1
QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Third Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
Power System - I
By
Ankit Yadav
TM
QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.

Ghaziabad New Delhi
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Power System - I (EN : Sem-5)

1st Edition : 2010-11
2nd Edition : 2011-12
3rd Edition : 2012-13
4th Edition : 2013-14
11th Edition : 2020-21 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
Price: Rs. 80/- only
Printed Version : e-Book.

3
CONTENTS
KEE–501 : POWER SYSTEM - I
UNIT-1 : POWER GENERATION (1–1 B to 1–14 B)
Introduction: Basic structure of power system, sources of electric
energy: conventional and nonconventional; Layout of Hydro-electric,
Thermal and Nuclear power plants, Concept of cogeneration,
combined heat and power, and captive power plants. Load curve,
load duration curve, Concept of Connected Load, Maximum
Demand, Average load, Demand Factor, Load factor, Diversity
Factor, Capacity Factor, Utilization factor, Plant use factor, Installed
capacity, Reserves, role of load diversity in power system economy.
Load Sharing between Base load and Peak Load.
UNIT-2 : TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER - I
(2–1 B to 2–56 B)
Single line diagram of Power system, choice of transmission voltage,
Different kinds of supply system and their comparison.
Configurations of transmission lines: Types of conductors, Bundled
Conductors, resistance of line, skin effect, Kelvin’s law, Proximity
effect, Corona Effect, factors affecting the Corona, Corona Power
Loss, Advantages and Disadvantages.
Performance of Lines: Representation of lines, short transmission
lines, medium length lines, nominal T and -representations, long
transmission lines. The equivalent circuit representation of a long
Line, A, B, C, D constants, Ferranti Effect.
UNIT-3 : TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER - II
(3–1 B to 3–28 B)
Mechanical Design of Over Headlines: Catenary curve, calculation
of sag & tension, effects of wind and ice loading, sag template,
vibration dampers.
Overhead line Insulators: Type of insulators and their applications,
potential distribution over a string of insulators, methods of
equalizing the potential, string efficiency.
UNIT-4 : TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS (4–1 B to 4–33 B)
Inductance and Capacitance Calculations of Transmission Lines:
Line conductors, inductance and capacitance of single phase and
three phase lines with symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing,
Composite conductors-transposition, bundled conductors, and
effect of earth on capacitance.
UNIT-5 : INSULATED CABLES (5–1 B to 5–24 B)
Introduction, insulation, insulating materials, Extra high voltage
cables, grading of cables, insulation resistance of a cable, Capacitance
of a single core and three core cables, Overhead lines versus
underground cables, types of cables.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 B to SQ-18 B)
SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 B to SP-16 B)

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM-I
Pre-requisites of the course: Basic Electrical Engineering, Networks Analysis and Synthesis,
Electromagnetic Field Theory.
Course Outcome Knowledge

Level, KL
Upon the completion of the course, the student will be able to:
Describe the working principle and basic components of conventional power

CO1 K2
plants as well as the other aspects of power generation.
Recognize elements of power system and their functions, as well as compare the
different types of supply systems. Illustrate different types of conductors,
CO2 K4
transmission lines and various performance parameters of transmission line for
short, medium and long transmission line.
Calculate sag and tension in overhead lines with and without wind and ice
CO3 loading. Classify different type of insulators, determine potential distribution K4
over a string of insulator, string efficiency and its improvement.
Compute the inductance and capacitance of single phase, three phase lines with
symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing, Composite conductors-transposition, K4
CO4
bundled conductors, and understand the effect of earth on capacitance of
transmission lines.
Elucidate different types of cables and assess the Resistance and capacitance
CO5 K4
parameters of cables, grading of cables and compare overhead lines and cables.
KL- Bloom’s Knowledge Level (K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6)
K1 – Remember K2 – Understand K3 – Apply K4 – Analyze K5 – Evaluate K6 – Create
Detailed Syllabus:
UNIT-I (Power Generation):

Introduction: Basic structure of power system, sources of electric energy: conventional and non-
conventional; Layout of Hydro-electric, Thermal and Nuclear power plants, Concept of cogeneration,
combined heat and power, and captive power plants.
Load curve, load duration curve, Concept of Connected Load, Maximum Demand, Average load, Demand
Factor, Load factor, Diversity Factor, Capacity Factor, Utilization factor, Plant use factor, Installed capacity,
Reserves, role of load diversity in power system economy. Load Sharing between Base load and Peak Load
UNIT-II (Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power- I):

Single line diagram of Power system, choice of transmission voltage, Different kinds of supply system and
their comparison.
Configurations of transmission lines: Types of conductors, Bundled Conductors, resistance of line, skin
effect, Kelvin’s law, Proximity effect,
Corona Effect, factors affecting the Corona, Corona Power Loss, Advantages and Disadvantages.
Performance of Lines: Representation of lines, short transmission lines, medium length lines, nominal T and
ᴫ-representations, long transmission lines. The equivalent circuit representation of a long Line, A, B, C, D
constants, Ferranti Effect.
Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme EN (V & VI semester) Page 5

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNIT-III (Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power- II):
Mechanical Design of Over Headlines: Catenary curve, calculation of sag & tension, effects of wind and ice
loading, sag template, vibration dampers
Overhead line Insulators: Type of insulators and their applications, potential distribution over a string of
insulators, methods of equalizing the potential, string efficiency
UNIT-IV (Transmission Line Parameters):

Inductance and Capacitance Calculations of Transmission Lines: Line conductors, inductance and
capacitance of single phase and three phase lines with symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing, Composite
conductors-transposition, bundled conductors, and effect of earth on capacitance.
UNIT-V (Insulated Cables):

Insulated Cables: Introduction, insulation, insulating materials, Extra high voltage cables, grading of cables,
insulation resistance of a cable, Capacitance of a single core and three core cables, Overhead lines versus
underground cables, types of cables
Textbooks:
1. Kothari & Nagrath, “Power System Engineering”, Tata McGraw-Hill Education
2. B.R. Gupta, “Generation of Electrical Energy”, S. Chand Publication.
3. Chakrabarti A., Soni M.L., Gupta P.V., and Bhatnagar U.S., 'A textbook on Power Systems
Engg.', Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New Delhi.
4. JB Gupta, ‘A course in Power Systems’, S.K. Kataria and Sons.
5. C.L. Wadhwa, “Electrical Power System”, New Age international Ltd. Third Edition.
6. A. J. Wood & B.F. Wollenburg, “Power Generation, Operation and Control “John Wiley &
Sons.
7. Arun Ingole, "Power Transmission and Distribution", Pearson Education, 2018
Reference Books:
1. Wadhwa, C.L., ‘Generation Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy', New Age
International publishers.
2. Deshpande M.V, `Elements of Electrical Power systems Design’, Pitman, New Delhi, PHI
Learning Private Limited,
3. S.N. Singh, “Electric Power Generation, Transmission &Distribution”, PHI Learning.
Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme EN (V & VI semester) Page 6

Power System-I 1–1 B (EN-Sem-5)
1 Power Generation
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction : Basic Structure of ............ 1–2B to 1–7B
Power System, Sources of Electric
Energy : Conventional and Non
Conventional, Layout of
Hydro Electric, Thermal and
Nuclear Power Plants
Part-2 : Concept of Cogeneration, ......................... 1–7B to 1–9B

Combined Heat and Power,
and Captive Power Plants
Part-3 : Load Curve, Load Duration .................... 1–9B to 1–11B

Curve, Concept of Connected
Load, Maximum Demand, Average
Load, Demand Factor, Load Factor,
Diversity Factor, Utilization Factor,
Plant Use Factor, Installed Capacity,
Reserves
Part-4 : Role of Load Diversity in ....................... 1–12B to 1–13B

Power System Economy, Load Sharing
Between Base Load and Peak Load
Power Generation 1–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
PART-1
Introduction : Basic Structure of Power System, Sources of Electric
Energy : Conventional and Non Conventional, Layout of
Hydro Electric, Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Draw the basic structure of power system.
Answer
An electrical power system is a network of electrical elements that are
used to transfer the power from the power stations to the end consumers.
A power system has three main stages :
1. Generation : The place where power is generated is known as ‘power
plant’ or ‘power house’.
~ ~ ~ Generation
Transmission level
(132,220,400 kV)
Very large Tie lines to
consumers other grids
Subtransmission level
66 kV
Large Large
consumers consumers
Medium Medium
Primary Distribution
consumers consumers
(33,11 kV)
Secondary Distribution
(400 V)
Small consumers (400/230 V)

Fig. 1.1.1.
2. Transmission : Transmission of electrical supply is the part of a power

system where the electric supply is transmitted from one station to
another station.
3. Distribution : Distribution of power supply is the part of power system
where the supply is distributed among the consumers.
Que 1.2. Explain the conventional and non-conventional energy

sources.
Answer
A. Conventional energy sources : The conventional sources of energy
are generally non-renewable source of energy. These are the sources of
energy which are exhaustible i.e., cannot be replaced if once they are
used, e.g., coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.
B. Non-conventional energy sources : Non-conventional source of
energy are generally renewable source of energy. These are the sources
of energy which are inexhaustible i.e., can be used to produce energy
again and again, e.g., solar, wind, etc.
Que 1.3. Give general layout and function of essential element of

hydro-electric power plant.
Answer
1. Fig.1.3.1 shows a general layout of a hydro-electric plant in which an
artificial storage reservoir formed by constructing dam has been shown.
Dam
Head
Energy line
race
h1
2
(V1 /2g)
Impulse
Penstock Net
turbine
head H 1
head H
Gross
(P1/W)
Tail race
Nozzle
z1 z2
Datum
Fig. 1.3.1. General layout of a hydro-electric power plant.

2. The water surface in the storage reservoir is known as head race level
or simply head race.
3. Water from the storage reservoir is carried through penstocks or canals
to the power house.
4. Penstocks are pipes of large diameter usually made of steel wood or
reinforced concrete which carry water under pressure from the storage
reservoir to the turbine.
5. Water after passing through the turbines is discharged to the tail race.
6. The tail race is the channel which carries water (known as tail water)
away from the power house after it has passed through the turbine.
Functions of different Components in storage reservoir plants
1. Reservoir :
i. It is a basic requirement of a hydro-electric plant.
ii. Its purpose is to store water which may be utilised to run the prime
mover to produce electrical power.
iii. A reservoir stores water during the rainy season and supplies the same
during the dry season.
2. Dam :
i. The function of dam is to provide a head of water to be utilised in the
water turbine.
ii. Though many times all high dams may be built solely to provide the
necessary head to the plant.
iii. A dam also increases the reservoir capacity.
3. Forebay : The forebay serves as a regulating reservoir storing water
temporarily when load on the plant is reduced and providing water for
initial increase on account of increasing load during which time water in
the canal is being accelerated.
4. Surge Tank :
i. This may be considered as an additional storage space near the turbine,
usually provided in high-head, medium head plants when there is a
considerable distance between the water source and turbine which
necessitates a long penstock.
ii. As the load on the turbine decrease or during load rejection by the
turbine the surge tank provides space for holding water.
5. Pen stock : It is a conduit system for taking water from the intake
works and forebay to the turbines.
6. Spillway :
i. This may be considered a sort of safety valve for a dam.
ii. A spillway serves to discharge excess in the reservoir beyond the full
permissible level.
7. Power House :
i. It is generally located at the foot of the dam and near the storage reservoir.
ii. If the power house is near the dam, the loss of head due to friction in the
penstock would be less.
8. Prime Mover :
i. The purpose of prime mover is to convert kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy.
ii. Commonly used prime movers are Pelton wheel, Francis, Kaplan and
propeller turbines.
Que 1.4. Give the layout of a modern thermal power plant and
explain it briefly.
Answer
The layout of a modern thermal power plant comprises of the
following four circuits :
1. Coal and ash circuit : Coal arrives at the storage yard and after
necessary handling, passes on to the furnaces through the fuel feeding
device. As resulting from combustion of coal, it collects at the back of the
boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard through ash handling
equipment.
2. Air and gas circuit : Air is taken in from atmosphere through the
action of a forced or induced draught fan and passes on the furnace
through the air pre-heater, where it has been heated by the heat of flue
gases which passes to the chimney via the pre-heater.
Coal
To chimney
storage
Flue gases
Coal Air pre- Air
handling heater
plant
Econo- Feed water

miser
Ash Ash handl- Boiler Super-

Turbine
storage ing plant heater
Steam
Condenser
Low pressure
heater
Circulating
water pump Cooling tower
River or canal
Fig. 1.4.1. Layout of a thermal power plant.

3. Feed water and steam flow circuit : Water and the condensed
steam leaving the condenser is first heated in a closed feed water heater
through extracted steam from the lowest pressure extraction point of
the turbine. It then passes through the deaerator and a few more water
heaters before going into the boiler through economiser.
4. Cooling water circuit : The cooling water supplied to the condenser
helps in maintaining a low pressure in it. The water may be taken from
a natural source such as river, lake or sea or the same water may be
cooled and circulated over again.
Que 1.5. Give general layout and operation of nuclear power

plant.
Answer
1. A nuclear power system consists of the following :
a. A controlled fission heat source.
b. A coolant system to remove and transfer the heat produced.
c. Equipment to convert the thermal energy contained in the hot coolant
to electric power.
2. Regardless of the type of fission heat sources used, the basic mechanism
is fission of nuclear fuel to produce thermal energy.
3. This thermal energy is removed from the heat source by contacting the
fuel with a coolant which can be used directly as the working fluid.
4. In some cases, an intermediate heat-transfer loop is inserted between
the reactor coolant and the working fluid, to increase isolation of the
radioactive reactor coolant from the conventional power-producing
equipment. The working fluid is then used to drive a turbo-generator
set to produce electrical power.
5. Nuclear power system differ in a number of respects from fossil-fuel
systems some of more important consideration that differentiate nuclear.
6. The schematic representation of nuclear power systems using the direct
and indirect heat transfer approaches are as shown in Fig. 1.5.1 and
Fig. 1.5.2.
Working fluid
Reactor
Turbine Generator
Condenser
Cold reactor coolant
Pump
Fig. 1.5.1. Direct cycle, reactor coolant used as the working fluid.
Hot reactor coolant Hot working

Fluid
Reactor
Heat
exchanger Turbine Generator
Cold Condenser
Cold reactor working
Pump
Coolant Fluid
Pump
Fig. 1.5.2. Indirect cycle reactor transfer heat of separate working fluid.
PART-2
Concept of Cogeneration, Combined Heat and Power,
and Captive Power Plants.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.6. Explain the concept of cogeneration (combined heat and

power).
Answer
1. Cogeneration means sequential conversion of energy contained in fuel
into two or more usable forms.
2. In one manifestation the energy of coal is converted into heat in the
boiler to produce steam. This steam is used to generate electrical energy
and in addition provides heat for manufacturing process.
3. In another manifestation gas is used in gas turbine to generate electrical
energy. The remaining heat is used to produce steam in a heat recovery
boiler. This steam is used for generating more electrical energy or is
used as process steam for manufacturing process.
4. Thus a conventional system uses energy of fuel to produce electrical
energy or thermal energy (for manufacturing process) whereas a
cogeneration system produces both from the same primary fuel.
5. A conventional system needs more fuel to give the same total energy
output than a cogeneration system.
6. A cogeneration system can be either an inplant power generation system
or a reject heat utilisation system.
7. The inplant power generation is used in industries and is shown in
Fig. 1.6.1. The industry needs both process steam and electricity.
8. In conventional method steam is produced by a boiler and electricity is

either purchased from a utility or generated by a diesel generating set.
9. If cogeneration is used, the boiler is made to produce steam at a higher
temperature and pressure than needed for manufacturing purposes.
This steam is used in a turbine generator set to produce electricity. The
exhaust steam (from turbine) is used for manufacturing purpose.
Electric power
Steam for
manufacturing
process
Turbine ~
Steam Generator
Boiler
Condensate
Fuel Water
Fig. 1.6.1. Inplant power generation system (Cogeneration).
10 The reject heat utilization system is used in power plant. Some steam is
extracted from the turbine (at a suitable temperature and pressure) and
supplied to an adjacent industry for manufacturing purposes. This is
shown in Fig. 1.6.2.
Exhaust steam to adjacent industry Electric power
Turbine ~
Steam Generator
Boiler
Condensate
Water Fuel Electric utility
Fig. 1.6.2. Reject heat utilization system.
Que 1.7. Discuss the captive power plants.
Answer
1. A captive power plant is a facility that provides a localised source of
power to an energy user.
2. These are typically industrial facilities, large offices or data centres.
3. The plants may operate in grid parallel mode with the ability to export
surplus power to the local electricity distribution network. Alternatively
they may have the ability to operate in island mode, i.e., independently
of the local electricity distribution system.
4. Captive power plants are a form of distributed generation, generating
power close to the source of use. Distributed generation facilities the
high fuel efficiency along with minimising losses associated with the
transmission of electricity from centralised power plants.
5. Gas engine can be combined with other power generation or storage
technologies in microgrids.
6. Gas engines make ideal captive power plants where there is a localised
supply of gas.
PART-3
Load Curve, Load Duration Curve, Concept of Connected
Load, Maximum Demand, Average Load, Demand Factor,
Load Factor, Diversity Factor, Utilization Factor,
Plant Use Factor, Installed Capacity, Reserves.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.8. Define the terms :

i. Load curve ii. Load duration curve
iii. Concept of connected load iv. Maximum demand
v. Average demand vi. Demand factor
vii. Load factor viii. Diversity factor
ix. Utilization factor x. Plant use factor
xi. Installed capacity xii. Reserves.
Answer
i. Load curve :
1. Load curve is a graphical representation between load and time where
the load in kW or (MW) and the time in hours. It shows the variation of
load on the power station.
Power demand (kW)
Peak
load
Average
load
Base load
Time (hours)
Fig. 1.8.1. Load curve.
ii. Load duration curve : A load duration curve represents re-

arrangements of all the load elements of chronological load curve in
order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived from the
chronological load curve.
iii. Concept of connected load : Connected load is the sum of continuous
ratings of all loads connected to the system.
iv. Maximum demand : The maximum demand of an installation or system
is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during the specific
period of time.
v. Average demand : It is the ratio of energy consumed in a given period
of the time in hours.
Energy consumed in a given period
Average load =
Hours in that time period
vi. Demand factor (DF) : The demand factor is the ratio of the actual
maximum demand of the sytem to the total connected load of the system.
 Maximum demand
DF 
Total connected load
vii. Load factor : Load factor of a system is the ratio of the average load
over a given period of the time to the maximum demand (peak load)
occurring in that period.
Average load
Load factor 
Peak load
viii. Diversity factor (FD) : Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the
individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system to
the maximum demand of the whole system.
Diversity factor
Sum of individual maximum demands
(FD) 
Coincident maximum demand of the whole system
ix. Utilization factor (Fu) : It is the ratio of maximum demand of a system
to the rated capacity of the system.
 Maximum demand
Fu 
Rated system capacity
x. Plant use factor : Plant use factor is the ratio of kWh generated to the
product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which the plant
was in operation.
Plant use factor = Actual energy produced/(plant capacity * plant
operation time in hours)
xi. Installed capacity : Installed capacity of a power system represents
the maximum capacity that the system is designed to run at. It is also
known as “peak installed capacity” or rated capacity.
xii. Reserves capacity : It is the difference between plant capacity and
maximum demand.
Reserved capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand
Que 1.9. The load-duration curve for a system is shown in

Fig. 1.9.1. Determine the load factor.
15
Load in MW
10
0 8 16 24
Time in hours
Fig. 1.9.1.
Answer
1. From the load-duration curve, the actual energy consumed
= 15 × 8 + 10 × 8 + 5 × 8 = 240 MWh
240
2. Average load = = 10 MW
24
3. Maximum demand = 15 MW
Average load 10
4. Load factor = = = 0.666
Maximum demand 15
Que 1.10. The yearly load duration curve of a power plant is a

straight line. The maximum load is 500 MW and the minimum load
is 400 MW. The capacity of the plant is 750 MW. Find (a) plant capacity
factor, (b) load factor, (c) utilization factor, (d) reserve capacity.
Answer
Given : Maximum load = 500 MW, Minimum load = 400 MW, Capacity of
the plant = 750 MW
To Find : Plant capacity factor, load factor, utilization factor, reserve
capacity.
500  400
1. Average annual load = = 450 MW
2
Average annual load 450
2. Capacity factor = = = 0.6
Capacity of the plant 750
Average load 450
3. Load factor = = = 0.9
Maximum demand 500
Maximum demand 500
4. Utilization factor = = = 0.667
Capacity of the plant 750
5. Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand
= 750 – 500 = 250 MW
PART-4
Role of Load Diversity in Power System Economy,
Load Sharing Between Base Load and Peak Load.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.11. What do you understand by load diversity ? Explain the

role of the load diversity in power system economy.
Answer
A. Load diversity : It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of
two or more individual loads and the peak of the combined load.
 n 
Load diversity    Di  – Dg
 i  1 
B. Role of load diversity :
1. Diversity between the loads of different consumers and different areas
leads to a reduction in generation, transmission and distribution facilities.
2. The most significant time periods for considering diversity are the day
and the year.
3. Daily diversity is caused by a marked and consistent difference between
the daily load cycles in two or more adjoining load areas which results in
peaks at different times during the day. Daily load diversity results in
reduced operating expenses.
4. The benefits of daily diversity can be attained by economy energy
transaction or daily diversity exchange agreements.
5. Such transactions reduce fuel expense and unit start up and shut down
costs but may not have any effect on capital requirements.
6. Annual diversity usually results from a marked and consistent difference
in the annual weather and customer’s load requirement patterns
between two or more load areas.
7. One system may have its annual peak load during winter while another
may have its peak load during summer.
8. Similarly one system may have peak in the morning while another may
have the evening peak.
9. Annual load diversity affords an opportunity for capital savings by
reducing the installed generating capacity requirements.
10. This requires a prediction of future diversity and a commitment to a
decision many years in advance of the new capacity requirements.
11. The factors which affect load diversity between systems are such that
about 10 years of historical data is required before any high degree of
confidence can be attributed to the future predictions.
12. These factors include temperature, weather, economic conditions, time
behaviour patterns of electric users, new electric devices etc.
13. The diversity analysis is an integral part of generation capacity planning
and as such should not be separated as a component since its identity
does not result in fully reduced margin requirements.
14. Therefore in coordinated planning between systems, all types of
diversities can be fully accounted for by combining the system loads so
that adequate capacity and interconnection capability can be determined.
15. Any variation in diversity caused by statistical and historical analysis
can be incorporated in the load fore-casting error.
Que 1.12. Discuss the load sharing between base load and peak
load.
Answer
A. Base Load :
1. The base load is the load below which the demand never falls and is
supplied 100 % of the time.
2. The base load plants are heavily loaded because continuous operation of
base load plants at high load factor improves the capacity factor of these
plants and this makes the operation of costly plant an economic
preposition.
3. A high capital cost is permissible if low operating costs can be maintained.
B. Peak Load : Peak load is the maximum load supplied for a particular
day. The peaking load occurs for about 15 % of the time.
Peak load
Daily load
curve Load-duration curve
Power demands
Intermediate load Intermediate load
Based load Based load

O tp
Time
Peak period
t1
Fig. 1.12.1.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Draw the basic structure of power system.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.1, Unit-1.
Q. 2. Give general layout and function of essential element of

hydro-electric power plant.
Q. 3. Give the layout of a modern thermal power plant and explain

it briefly.
Q. 4. Give general layout and operation of nuclear power plant.

Q. 5. Explain the concept of cogeneration (combined heat and

power).
Q. 6. Discuss the captive power plants.

Q. 7. Define the terms :

i.Load curve ii. Load duration curve
iii.Concept of connected load iv. Maximum demand
v.Average demand vi. Demand factor
vii.Load factor viii. Diversity factor
ix.Utilization factor x. Plant use factor
xi.Installed capacity xii. Reserves.
Q. 8. Discuss the load sharing between base load and peak load.

2 Transmission and
Distribution of
Electric Power-I
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Single Line Diagram of Power ............... 2–2B to 2–18B
System, Choice of Transmission
Voltage, Different Kinds of
Supply System and Their Comparison
Part-2 : Configurations of Transmission .......... 2–18B to 2–28B

Lines : Types of Conductors,
Bundled Conductors,
Resistances of line, Skin Effect,
Kelvin’s Law, Proximity Effect.
Part-3 : Corona Effect, Factors ........................... 2–28B to 2–39B

Affecting the Corona,
Corona Power Loss, Advantages
and Disadvantages
Part-4 : Performance of Lines : .......................... 2–39B to 2–49B

Representation of Lines,
Short Transmission Lines
Medium Length Lines, Nominal
T and  representations
Part-5 : Long Transmission Lines, ..................... 2–49B to 2–55B

The Equivalent Circuit
Representation of a Long
Line, A, B, C, D
Constants, Ferranti Effect
Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I 2–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
PART-1
Single Line Diagram of Power System, Choice of Transmission
Voltage, Different Kinds of Supply System and Their Comparison.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Draw and explain single line diagram of power system.
Answer
1. The single line diagram of a power system network shows the main
connections and arrangements of the system components along with
their data (such as output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance etc.).
T1 T2
j60 
G M
Generator : 40 MVA, 11 kV, X  = 20 %
Motor : 30 MVA, 11 kV, X  = 30 %

Transformer T1 : 40 MVA, 11/220 kV, X  = 15 %
Transformer T 2 : 40 MVA, 220/11 kV, X  = 15 %
Fig. 2.1.1. Single line representation of a typical power system.
2. In a single line diagram, the system components are usually drawn in

the form of their symbols.
S. No. Components Symbol
1. Motor or generator
2. Two winding transformer

3. Transmission line
4. Liquid (oil) circuit breaker
5. Air circuit breaker

6. Delta connection
7. Y-connection, ungrounded
8. Y- connection, grounded
Que 2.2. Draw single line diagram of a three bus system having
generator G1 connected to bus-1 through transformer T1, generator
G2 connected to bus-2 through transformer T2, three synchronous
motors M1 to M3 connected to bus-3 through transformer T 3,
transmission lines TL1, TL2 and TL3 connected between bus 1-2, 2-3
and 1-3 respectively. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
TL3
M1
G1 G2 M2
T1 T2 T3
M3
TL1 TL2
Bus-1 Bus-2 Bus-3
Fig. 2.2.1. Single line diagram.
Procedure :
1. Draw buses 1, 2, and 3.
2. Connect transmission lines TL1, TL2, TL3.
3. Connect G1 to bus 1 through T1.
5. Connect M1, M2, M3, to bus 3 through T3.
Que 2.3. Discuss choice of transmission voltage in power system.
Answer
While selecting an optimum transmission voltage following two factors
are to be considered :
1. Power to be transmitted : If the power to be transmitted is large,
large generating and transforming units are required which reduces
the cost per kW of terminal station equipment.
2. Distance of transmission line : If power is transmitted over a long

distance then the cost of terminal equipments is decreased which causes
reduction in overall cost of transmission.
3. Above two terms can be related in an empirical formula which is as
follows :
0.5
L P 
V = 5.5  
 1.6 100 
where, V = Line voltage in kV
L = Distance of line in km
P = Power to be transmitted in kW
A standard voltage nearest to this calculated value should be selected.
4. Following are voltages which are generally adopted :
Generation = 6.6 kV, 11 kV
Primary transmission = 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV
Secondary transmission = 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV
Primary distribution = 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV
Secondary distribution = 440 V
Que 2.4. What are the different kinds of supply system ?

OR
Find the ratio of volume of copper required to transmit a given
power over a given distance by overhead system using (i) DC two
wire system (ii) 3-phase 4-wire system. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Derive formula to calculate the ratio of copper volume used in two
phase four-wire system and a two-wire dc system.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
OR
Compare the relative weight of copper required for a distribution
network on the DC-3 wire, and 3-phase 4-wire system. Assume in
both cases the same voltage at the consumer’s terminals, the same
copper losses, the loads are balanced, and unity power factor in
3-phase case. Neglect the losses in neutral.
Answer
1. In overhead system, maximum voltage between each conductor and
earth forms the basis of comparison.
2. Maximum voltage to earth is same.
a. DC Systems :
i. DC 2-Wire system with one conductor earthed :

I1
+
Vm
–
I1
Fig. 2.4.1.
1. Maximum voltage between conductors = Vm volts
Power to be transmitted = P watts
P
Load current, I1 =
Vm
2
 P  l  l 
2. Line losses, W = 2I12R1 = 2    R1   a 
 V m  a1  1
2P 2 l
3. Area of cross section of conductor, a1 =
WVm 2
4P 2 l 2
4. Volume of conductor material required = 2a1l = = K (say)
WVm 2
ii. DC two-wire system with midpoint earthed :
I2
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I2
Fig. 2.4.2.
P
1. Load current, I2 =
2V m
2
 P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I22R2 = 2   
 2V m  a 2 2 a 2 Vm 2
P 2l
3. a2 =
2WVm 2
P 2l 2
4. Volume of conductor material required = 2a2l = = 0.25 K
WVm 2
5. Hence volume of conductor material required is one-fourth of that
required in two-wire DC system with one conductor earthed.
iii. DC three-wire system :

I3
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I3
Fig. 2.4.3.
P/2 P
1. Load current, I3 = 
Vm 2V m
2
 P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I32R3 = 2   
 2V m  a3 2 a3V m 2
P 2l
a3 =
2WVm 2
3. Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire as half of that of any of
the outers.
2.5P 2l 2
Volume of conductor material required = 2.5a3l = = 0.3125 K
2WVm 2
b. Single-phase AC systems :
i. AC single-phase two-wire system with one conductor earthed :
I4
Vm
I4
Fig. 2.4.4.
1. Peak value of voltage between conductors = Vm volts
Vm
RMS value of voltage between conductors = volts
2
Load current, I4 = P 2P

Vm Vm cos 
cos 
2
where cos  is the power factor of the load
2. Line losses, W = 2I42R4
2
 2 P  l 4 P 2l
=2   
 Vm cos   a4 a4V m 2 cos 2 
4 P 2l
a4 =
WVm 2 cos 2 
Volume of conductor material required
8 P 2l 2 2
= 2a4l =  K
WVm 2 cos 2  cos 2 
ii. AC single-phase two-wire system with midpoint earthed :
P
2V m cos 
I5
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I5
Fig. 2.4.5.
2
 P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I52R5 = 2    2 2
 2V m cos   a5 a5V m cos 
P 2l
a5 =
WVm 2 cos 2 
3. Volume of conductor material required
2 P 2l 2 0.5 K
= 2a5l = 
iii. AC single-phase three-wire system :
I6
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I6
Fig. 2.4.6.
P/2 P
1. Load current, I6 = =
Vm 2Vm cos 
cos 
2
2
P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I62R6 = 2 
 2V m cos   a6  V m 2 cos 2 a6
P 2l
a6 =
WV m 2 cos 2 
2.5 P 2l 2 0.625 K
= 2.5a6l = 
c. Two-phase AC systems :
i. AC two-phase four-wire system :
I7
2Vm
2Vm I7
I7
I7
Fig. 2.4.7.
P
1. Load supplied by each phase =
2
P
2. I7 =
2 2Vm cos 
2
 P  l P 2l
=4    
 2 2Vm cos   a7 2V m a7 cos 2 
2
P 2l
a7 =
2Vm W cos 2 
2

2 P 2l 2 0.5 K
= 4a7l = 
Vm 2 cos 2 W cos 2 
ii. AC two-phase three-wire system :
P/2 P
1. Current in each of outer conductors, I8 = 
Vm / 2 cos  2Vm cos 
2. Current in neutral wire = (I8 2  I8 2)  2I8
Outer
I8
Vm
Neutral
2 I8
Vm
Outer
I8
Fig. 2.4.8.
3. Assuming current density constant, area of cross section of neutral wire
is 2 times of that of either of the outers.
So resistance of neutral wire
R8 l
= 
2 2a 8
R8
4. Line losses, W = 2I82R8 + ( 2 I 8 ) 2
2
l P 2l
= I82 (2  2)  (2  2)
a8 2Vm cos 2 a8
2
P 2l
a8 = (2  2)
2Vm W cos 2 
2

= 2a8l + 2 a8 l  a8 l(2  2)
P l 2 2
= (2  2) 2
2Vm W cos 2 
2
P 2l 2
= ( 2  1) 2 = 1.457 K
2Vm 2 W cos 2  cos 2 
d. 3-phase AC systems :
i. AC 3-phase 3-wire system :
P/3 2P
1. Load current per phase, I9 = 
Vm 3V m cos 
cos 
2
2
 2 P  l 2 P 2l
=3   
 3Vm cos   a9 3V m 2 cos 2 a9
2 P 2l
a9 =
3V m 2 W cos 2 
I9
Vm
Vm I
9
Vm
I9
Fig. 2.4.9.

2 P 2l 2 0.5 K
= 3a9I = 
Vm 2 W cos 2  cos 2 
ii. AC 3-phase 4-wire system :
Outer
I10
Vm
Neutral
Vm I
10
Vm Outer
I10
Outer
Fig. 2.4.10.
1. Assuming balanced load, there will be no current in neutral wire and
copper losses will be same as in 3-phase 3-wire system
2 P 2l
i.e., W=
3Vm cos 2 a10
2
2 P 2l
a10 =
3Vm 2 cos 2 W
2. Taking cross section of neutral wire as half of either outer.
7P 2 l 2 0.583
= 3.5a10l =  K
3 cos 2 V m 2W cos 2 
Que 2.5. Discus s comparis on of cos t of conductors for

underground systems.
Answer
1. In the underground system, maximum voltage between conductors forms
the basis of comparison of volume conductor material required.
2. The maximum voltage between two conductors is same (say, Vm volts).
3. Remaining calculation is same as overhead system.
a. DC systems :
i. DC two-wire system :
I1
+
Vm
– I1
Fig. 2.5.1.
4 P 2l 2
= 2a1l = = K (say)
WVm 2
I2
Vm
I2
Fig. 2.5.2.
Volume conductor material required
4 P 2l 2
= =K
WVm 2
iii. DC three-wire system :

I3
Vm
I3
Fig. 2.5.3.
5 P 2l 2
Volume of conductor material required = 2.5a3l = = 1.25 K
Vm 2W
b. Single-phase AC systems :
i. AC single-phase two-wire system :
I4
Vm
I4
Fig. 2.5.4.
8 P 2l 2 2K
= 2a4l = 
ii. AC single-phase two-wire system with midpoint earthed :
I5
Vm
I5
Fig. 2.5.5.
This system is the same as a 2-wire single-phase AC system.
iii. AC single-phase three-wire system :
I6
Vm
I6
Fig. 2.5.6.
10P 2 l 2 2.5
= 2.5a4l =  K
c. Two-phase AC systems :
i. AC two-phase four-wire system : This system is equivalent to two-
wire AC system. In this case cross section area of each conductor is
taken half of that of single phase two-wire AC system but four wires are
required in place of two wires, so the same volume of conductor material
2
is required i.e., times of that required in case of two-wire DC
cos 2 
system.
I7
Vm
I7
I7
I7
Fig. 2.5.7.
ii. AC two-phase three-wire system :

Outer
I8
Vm/ 2
Neutral
Vm
2 I8
Vm/ 2
Outer
I8
Fig. 2.5.8.
2.914 K
Volume of conductor material required =
cos 2 
d. 3-phase AC systems :
i. AC three-phase three-wire system :
I9
Vm
3 Vm
I9
Vm
I9
Fig. 2.5.9.
6 P 2l 2 1.5
= 3a9I =  K
ii. AC three-phase four-wire system :
Outer
I10
Vm
3 Vm
N Neutral
Outer
Vm I10
Outer Vm
I10
Fig. 2.5.10.
7 P 2l 2 1.75 K
= 3.5a9l = 
Table 2.5.1.
S. No. System Volume of conductor material required
Maximum voltage Maximum voltage

between conductor between any two
and earth conductors
1. DC System :
i. Two-wire 1 1
ii. Two-wire with mid point earthed 0.25 1
iii. Three-wire 0.3125 1.25
2. AC single phase system :

2 2
i. Two-wire cos 2  cos 2 
0.5 2
ii. Two-wire with mid point earthed cos 2  cos 2 
0.625 2.5
iii. Three wire cos 2 
cos2 
3. AC two-phase system :
0.5 2
i. Two-phase four-wire cos 2  cos 2 
Que 2.6. A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load of

5 MVA, 33 kV at 0.8 power factor lagging. The efficiency of
transmission is 90 %. Calculate the volume of aluminium conductor
required for the line when
i. 1 2-wire system is used.
ii. 3, 3-wire system is used.
Take the resistivity of aluminium as 2.85 × 10–8 -m.
Answer
Given : l = 50 km; Apparent power = 5 MVA; V = 33 kV;

cos  = 0.8 (lagging),  = 90 %,  = 2.85 × 10 – 8 -m
To Find : Volume of aluminium conductor required.
i. 1, 2-wire system :
1. Power transmitted = MVA × cos  = 5 × 0.8 = 4 MW = 4 × 106 W
2. Line loss, W = (100 % – %) of power transmitted.
= 10 % of power transmitted = (10/100) × 4 × 106

= 4 × 105 W
3. For single phase, 2-wire system :
Apparent power = VI1
Apparent power 5  106
 I1 =  = 151.5 A
V 33  103
4. Suppose a1 is the area of cross-section of aluminium conductor.
 l 
Line loss, W = 2I12R1 = 2I12   
 a1 
2I1 2l 2  (151.5)2  (2.85  10 8 )  50  103
 a1 = =
W 4  105
= 1.635 × 10 – 4 m2
5. Volume of conductor required = 2a1l = 2 × (1.635 × 10–4) × 50 × 103
= 16.35 m3
ii. 3, 3-wire system :
1. MVA = 3 VLIL × 10 – 6
5= 3 × 33 × 103 × IL × 10 – 6
5  10 6
Line current, IL = = 87.5 A
3  33  103
2. Let the area of each phase conductor be A2.
l
Total line loss, pL = 3IL2R2 = 3IL2
A2
3 I L 2l 3  (87.5)2  2.85  10  8  50  103
A2 = 
pL 4  105
= 0.818 × 10 m– 4 2
3. Volume of aluminium required,

= 3lA 2 = 3 × 50 × 103 × 0.818 × 10 – 4 = 12.27 m3
Que 2.7. What is the difference between isolator and circuit

breaker ? A single phase AC system supplies load of 200 kW and if
this system is converted to 3-phase, 3-wire ac system by running a
third similar conductor, calculate the 3-phase load that can now be
supplied if the voltage between the conductors is the same. Assume
power factor and transmission efficiency to be same in both cases.
Answer
A. Difference between isolator and circuit breaker :
S. No. Isolator Circuit breaker
1. Isolator is an off-load device. Circuit breaker is an on-load device.

2. It is a switch, o pe rate d Circuit bre aker o pe rate d
manually. automatically.
B. Numerical :
Given : Load, P1 = 200 kW.
To Find : 3 load can be supplied.
I2 V
V
I2
I1 V
V
I2
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.7.1.
Suppose V is the voltage between conductors for the two cases. Power
factor is unity. Let R be resistance per conductor in each case.
i. Single phase ac system :
1. Power supplied, P1 = VI1 = 200 kW
2. Power loss, W1 = 2I12 R
3. Percentage of power loss
2I12 R
= × 100 ...(2.7.1)
VI1
ii. 3-phase, 3 wire AC system :
1. Power supplied, P2 = 3 VI2

2. Power loss, W2 = 3 I22 R
3 I22 R
3. Percentage power loss = × 100 ...(2.7.2)
3 VI2
4. The transmission efficiency is same in both cases. Hence, percentage of
power loss will become
2I12 R 3 I12 R
× 100 = × 100
VI1 3VI2
2I1 = 3 I2
2
 I2 = I1
3
2
3V I1
P2 3 VI2 3
5. Now, = 
P1 VI1 VI1
P2
=2
P1
 P2 = 2P1 = 2 × 200 = 400 kW
PART-2
Configurations of Transmission Lines : Types of Conductors,
Resistances of line, Skin Effect, Kelvin’s Law, Proximity Effect.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.8. Explain different types of conductors in power system.
Answer
Conductors which are generally used for transmission lines are :
A. Hard-Drawn Copper Conductor :
1. It is mostly used for short lines for voltages up to 33 kV. It has high
electrical conductivity and long life.
2. It is most suitable for distribution work where tappings are more. Also
hard drawn copper has high tensile strength.
B. Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) :
1. ACSR is used for high voltage lines having large span and heavy weight
is to be supported.
2. Aluminium alone cannot be used for construction of long span
transmission line due to low mechanical strength. So to make it strong
we use steel wire in the core aluminium conductors.
C. Cadmium Copper Conductor :
1. By adding cadmium to copper, the strength can be increased to 50
percent but the conductivity decreases by 15 percent.
2. Due to high tensile strength the longer spans of transmission line can
be erected with same sag.
3. This conductor is widely used in hilly areas.
D. Steel Cored Copper Conductor (SCC) :
1. In SCC a steel wire is surrounded by layers of copper strands. Steel
core increases the tensile strength of conductor. So the overall strength
of conductor increases.
2. Bituminized cotton tape is used between the steel core and copper
strands to protect conductor from the galvanic action.
E. Hard-Drawn Aluminium Conductor :
1. Due to increase in the cost of copper, the aluminium is replacing copper
for transmission work. For a given resistance the cross-section of
aluminium is greater while weight is lesser.
2. So handling, transportation and erection of aluminium conductor lines
is economical. For conductor use, aluminium is electrolytically refined
and is rolled and hard drawn.
3. These conductors are used in urban areas having short transmission
lines with lower voltages. Corona effect is also reduced due to higher
conductor diameter.
F. Phosphor-Bronze Conductor :
1. Phosphor-Bronze Conductor is stronger than copper conductor, but
has a low conductivity. Its conductivity can be improved by using
cadmium copper core.
2. It is generally used as a conductor material where very long spans are
required such as river crossings.
G. Galvanized Steel Conductor :
1. This conductor is used for very long spans particularly in rural areas
where load is small. These conductors have high tensile strength.
2. Galvanized steel conductor is a magnetic material having large
resistance, inductance and voltage drop. It has comparatively short
life.
Que 2.9. What is a bundle conductor and how does the use of
bundled conductor reduce corona loss in EHV line ?
Answer
1. A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more conductors,
called the sub-conductors, per phase in close proximity compared with
the spacing between phases Fig. 2.9.1.
2. A bundled conductor is the sub-conductors of a bundled conductor

separated from each other by a constant distance varying from
0.2 m to 0.6 m depending upon designed voltage and surrounding
conditions throughout the length of the line with the help of spacers.
3. The bundled conductors have filter material or air space inside so that
the overall diameter is increased.
Phase A Phase B Phase C
r s r
d d
Fig. 2.9.1.
4. The use of bundled conductors per phase reduces the voltage gradient
in the vicinity of the line and thus, reduces the possibilities of the
corona discharge.
5. Hence the bundled conductors are used on EHV transmission lines to
reduce corona loss and radio interference.
Que 2.10. What are ACSR conductors ? Explain the advantages of
ACSR conductors. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
A. Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) : Refer Q. 2.8,
Page 2–18B, Unit-2.
B. Advantages :
1. High mechanical strength.
2. Low corona loss.
3. Less skin effect.
4. Less expensive than copper conductor.
5. Longer span possible.
6. Breakdown possibility is low.
Que 2.11. Explain resistance of transmission line. Also discuss
effect of skin effect on effective resistance of conductor.
OR
What is Skin effect ?
Answer
A. Resistance of transmission line :
1. Every electric conductor offers opposition to the flow of current and
this opposition is called the resistance.
2. The resistance of a solid conductor (wire) is given by
l
R=
a
where,  = Resistivity of conductor
l = Length of conductor
a = Cross-sectional area of conductor
B. Skin effect :
1. When a direct current flows through a conductor, it is uniformly
distributed in a conductor.
2. But when an alternating current passes through a conductor, it is non-
uniformly distributed in cross section of the conductor.
3. Due to which current density at the surface of conductor is higher
than the current density at the centre of the conductor. This effect is
known as skin effect.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
No current flow
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Current flow over the

surface
Fig. 2.11.1.
C. Skin effect on resistance of conductor :

1. Due to skin effect, the effective cross-section of conductor, through
which the current flows, is reduced.
1
2. Since, resistance  . Hence, skin effect increases
Area of cross- section
effective resistance of conductor.
Que 2.12. Explain Kelvin’s Economy Law and derive the condition
for most economical cross-sectional area of the conductor.
OR
Explain Kelvin’s law for economic size of conductor. Discuss
limitations. Show how skin effect increases effective resistance of
the conductor. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Kelvin’s law : The most economical area of conductor is that for
which the total cost of transmission line is minimum. This is known as
Kelvin’s law.
B. Derivation :
1. Total annual cost consists of two parts :
i. The fixed standing charges : The fixed charges consist of the interest
on the capital cost of the conductor, the allowance for depreciation,
and the maintenance cost.
ii. The running charges : The running charges consist of cost of
electrical energy wasted due to losses during operation.
2. But, the capital cost (the interest and depreciation on it) and cost of
electrical energy wasted in the line are governed by the size of the
conductor.
3. The interest and depreciation on the initial investment will be directly
proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor.
4. The cost of energy loss will be inversely proportional to the conductor
cross-section.
5. Mathematically,
i. Annual interest and depreciation cost
C1  a or C1 = K1 a
and annual cost of energy dissipated in the line
K2
C2  1/a or C2 =
a
where K1 and K2 are constants, and a represents the area of cross-
section of conductor. The total annual cost may be given by
K2
C = C1 + C2 = K1a +
a
ii. For an economical design there will be one size of conductor at which
the total cost is minimum.
iii. For the most economical cross-section, the total annual cost is
differentiated with respect to the cross-section and the result is equated
to zero.
dC
=0
da
d  K2 
 K1 a   =0
da  a 
K K
K 1  22 = 0; K1 a = 2
a a
K2
C1 = C2 and a = ...(2.12.1)
K1
iv. Hence the most economical cross-sectional area of the conductor is
that which makes the annual cost of energy loss equal to the annual
interest and depreciation on the capital cost of the conductor material.
This is known as Kelvin’s law.
The cost
P C
Annual cost
Cost of energy
loss
n C1 Annual
conductor
C2 cost
Conductor area
Fig. 2.12.1. Graphical representation
of Kelvin’s law.
C. Limitations :
i. Total amount of energy losses cannot be estimated accurately due to
difference in load, load factors and future load conditions, which are
difficult to predict accurately.
ii. Cost of energy loss is difficult to calculate because prices of conductor
material and the rates of interest are continuously changing.
iii. Two systems having same energy demand can have different cost due
to different energy costs.
iv. Voltage drop may be beyond the permissible limits in some cases if
economical conductor size is selected.
v. Most economical size of conductor may not be suitable to carry the
required amount of current due to its thermal rating and temperature
rise limits.
vi. Economical section may not have adequate mechanical strength.
vii. Problems of corona, leakage currents, skin effect etc. oppose the use
of economical section at extra high voltage.
D. Skin effect on resistance of conductor : Refer Q. 2.11, Page 2–20B,
Unit-2.
Que 2.13. Briefly explain Proximity effect.

OR
Explain briefly skin effect and proximity effect in reference to
overhead lines. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A. Skin effect : Refer Q. 2.11, Page 2–20B, Unit-2.
B. Proximity effect :
1. When two or more conductors are near to each other, their magnetic
field interacts and it results in circulating currents inside the conductor.
This effect is known as proximity effect.
2. Due to proximity effect, the current in each conductor is redistributed

and it flows through that part of conductor which is farthest from the
other conductors. This effect results in apparent increase in resistance
of conductor.
3. Proximity effect can be influenced by following factors :
i. Size of conductor
ii. Frequency of supply
iii. Resistivity of material
iv. Distance between conductors.
Que 2.14. The daily-load cycle of a three-phase, 33 kV, 10 km
transmission line is as follows : 2500 kVA for 8 hours, 2000 kVA for
9 hours and 1500 kVA for 7 hours. Determine the most economical
cros s s ection if the cos t of line including erection is
Rs. (7500) + 6000a) per km where a is the area of each conductor in
sq. cm. The rate of interest and depreciation is 8 percent and cost of
energy is 15 paise per unit. The line is in use for 250 working days
a year. The resistance per km and per sq. cm. is 0.173 ohm.
Answer
Given : Cost of line = Rs. (7500 + 6000a) × 10; VL = 33 kV

l = 10 km; kVA = 2500 kVA for 8 hour, 2000 kVA for 9 hour,
1500 kVA for 7 hour ; rate of interest and depreciation = 8 %;
Cost of energy = 15 paise per unit; working days in a year = 250,
Resistance per km and per sq. cm. = 0.173 ohm
To Find : Most economical cross section.
1. Cost of line = Rs. (7500 + 6000a) × 10
2. Annual interest and depreciation on capital cost
= Rs. (7500 + 6000a) × 10 × 8/100
= Rs. (6000 + 4800a)
3. Resistance of each conductor,
0.173  10 1.73
R= 
a a
3VL I L
= kVA
1000
4. The load current at various loads are calculated by the above formula
as follows :
At 2500 kVA, load current
2500  1000
I1 = = 43.8 A
3  33  1000
2000  1000
I2 = = 35 A
3  33  1000
1500  1000
I3 = = 26.2 A
3  33  1000
5. Daily energy loss
8 9 7
= 3I12R ×  3 I22 R   3 I32 R 
1000 1000 1000
3R
= (8I12 + 9I22 + 7I32)
1000
1.73
= 3× × 10 – 3 [8(43.8)2 + 9(35)2 + 7(26.2)2]
a
79.8 57.2 24.9 161.9
=    kWh
a a a a
161.9
6. Annual energy loss = × 250 kWh
a
7. Cost of energy loss per annum
161.9 15 6071
= Rs.  250   Rs.
a 100 a
8.  By Kelvin’s law,
6071
= 4800a
a
6071
a= = 1.124
4800
9.  The most economical cross-section
= 1.124 cm2 = 112.4 mm2
Que 2.15. Explain the limitations of Kelvin law. A 2-wire feeder

carries a constant current of 250 A throughout the year. The portion
of capital cost which is proportional to the area of cross section is
Rs. 5 per kg of copper conductor. The interest and depreciation of
total 10 % per annum and the cost of energy is 5 paisa per kWh. Find
the most economical area of cross section of the conductor. Given
that the density of copper is 8.93 gm/cm2 and its specific resistance
is 1.73 × 10–8 -m. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. Limitations of Kelvin law : Refer Q. 2.12, Page 2–21B, Unit-2.
B. Numerical :
Given : I = 250 A; Capital cost = Rs. 5 per kg
Cost of energy = 5 paise per kWh
To Find : Most economical area of cross section.
1. Let l = Length of each conductor in m
a = Area of cross section in sq m
2. Volume of conductor = la m3
3. Mass of conductor = la × 8.93 × 10 kg
4. Capital cost of conductor
= Rs. 5 × 8.93 × 10 × la
= Rs. 446.5 la
5. Interest and depreciation cost
10
= Rs. 446.5 × la
100
= Rs. 44.65la
6. Copper loss per conductor
= I2 R × 10 – 3 kW
 8 l 3
= (250)2  1.73  10    10
 a
l
= 1.08 × 10 – 6 kW
a
7. Cost of energy loss per year
l 5
= Rs. 1.08 × 10  6  365  24 
a 100
l
= Rs. 4.73 × 10 – 6
a
8. According to Kelvin’s law, interest and depreciation cost and cost of
energy loss must be equal for most economical area of cross-section of
conductor.
l
44.65la = 4.73 × 10 – 6
a
 a = 0.00325 m2 = 3.25 cm2
Que 2.16. Determine the best current density in amperes/mm2 for
a three phase overhead line. The line is in use for 3600 hours per
year and if the conductor costs Rs. 3.0/kg. It has a specific resistance
of 1.73 × 10 –8  -m and weights 6200 kg/m 3 cost of energy is
12 paise/unit. Interest and depreciation is 10 % of conductor cost.
Answer
Given : Line in use = 3600 hours per year;

Conductor costs = Rs. 3 per kg;  = 1.73 × 10 – 8 -m
Weights = 6200 kg/m3; Cost of energy = 12 paise/unit.
To Find : Current density in amperes/mm2.
1. l = Length of each conductor
a = Area of cross section
2. Volume of conductor = la × 6200 kg
= 6200 × la kg
3. Capital cost of the conductor
= Rs. 3 × la × 6200
= Rs. 18600 × la
4. Interest and depreciation
= Rs. 186 × la × 10
= Rs. 1860 × la
5. Cupper loss per conductor
 l 
= I2R × 10–3 kW = I2   × 10 – 3
 a
 6 l 3
= I2 1.73  10    10
 a
l
= I2 × 1.73 × 10–9
a
l
= 1.73 × 10–9 × I2 kW
a
6. According to Kelvin’s law, the two costs should be equal for the best
current density.
l
1860 la = 1.73 × 10–9 × I2
a
I2 1860
= × 109
a2 1.73
I
= 1.03 × 106 A/mm2
a
Que 2.17. State Kelvin’s law. Determine the best current density
in amp/mm2 for a three phase overhead line. The line is in use for
2600 hours per year and conductor costs Rs. 3.0 / kg. It has a specific
resistance of 1.73 × 10– 8 -m and weights 6200 kg/m3. Cost of energy
is 10 paise/unit. Interest and depreciation is 12 % of conductor costs.
Answer
i. Kelvin’s law : Refer Q. 2.12, Page 2–21B, Unit-2.
ii. Numerical : The procedure is same as Q. 2.16, Page 2–26B, Unit-2.
Ans.
The best current density :
I
= 0.705 A/mm2
a
PART-3
Corona Effect, Factors Affecting The Corona, Corona
Power Loss, Advantages and Disadvantages.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.18. Discuss phenomenon of corona and how it is formed.
Answer
A. Corona : The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production
of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
B. Phenomenon of corona :
1. When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors,
whose spacing is large in comparison with their diameters, then the
atmospheric air surrounding the conductors is subjected to electrostatic
stresses.
2. At low voltage there is no change in the condition of atmospheric air
around the conductors.
3. However, when the potential difference is gradually increased, a stage
arrives when a luminous glow of violet colour appears together with a
hissing noise and production of ozone gas.
4. If the potential difference is raised still further, the glow and the noise
will increase until a spark-over owing to breakdown of air insulation
will take place.
B. Theory of corona formation :
1. The air around the conductor contains a number of free electrons.
When the potential is applied between the two conductors a potential
gradient is established and under its influence the electrons acquire a
uniformly increasing acceleration.
2. Thus, the free electrons attain speed and these free electrons collide
with the other slow moving or neutral molecules and in the process
dislodge electron from it.
Air with dVd

=
dielectric strength dr
r
dVg
E=
dr
Conductor
surface
Fig. 2.18.1. Corona formation.

3. When the potential gradient reaches about 30 kV (max. value) per cm,
the velocity acquired by the free electrons dislodge one or more electrons
from it.
4. These dislodged electrons and the previous free electrons strike other
neutral molecules producing more number of electrons. When the
saturation point is reached the insulating property of air is destroyed
and the air becomes conducting and corona forms.
5. Corona occurs if
dVd dVg
<
dr dr
dVg
where, = Electric potential at conductor surface
dr
dVd
= Dielectric strength
dr
where r is a radial vector, perpendicular to conductor surface.
If potential gradient (dVg/dr) exceeds the dielectric strength (dVd/dr)
the corona occurs.
Que 2.19. Deduce expressions for critical disruptive voltage and

visual critical voltage.
Answer
1. Let us consider the two-wire line shown in Fig. 2.19.1,
r = Radius of line conductor
d = Distance between their centres
+ q = Charge on conductor A
– q = Charge on conductor B
+q A B –q
P
+ +
x d–x
d r
Fig. 2.19.1.
2. Consider point P at a distance of x metres from conductor A.

q
3. Electric field intensity at point P due to charge on conductor A =
20 x
acting towards B.
4. Electric field intensity at point P due to induced charge on conductor
q
B= acting towards B.
2 0 (d  x)
5. Resultant electric field intensity at point P,
q q q 1 1 
Ex = 2 x  2 ( d  x)  2  x  d  x 
0 0 0
6. Potential difference between conductors A and B,
d r dr
q 1 1 
V=  Ex dx      dx
r r
2 0  x d  x 
q q dr
=
2 0
 log e x  log e (d  x)dr  r   log e r
0
7. Now, since r is very small as compared to d, d – r  d and, therefore,
q d
V= log e ...(2.19.1)
 0 r
8. Now gradient at any point x from the centre of the conductor A is given
by
q 1 1  q d
Ex =    ...(2.19.2)
2 0  x d  x  2 0 x( d  x)
9. Substituting for q from eq. (2.19.1) in eq. (2.19.2), we have
 0V 1 d V d
Ex = 
d 2 0 x(d  x) d x( d  x)
log e 2log e
r r
V d
and Ex = ...(2.19.3)
d x( d  x)
log e
r
where V is the line to neutral voltage of the system.
10. In case of 3-phase system,
Line- to- Line voltage
V
V =  L
3 3
11. The potential gradient is maximum when x = r, and this value is given by
V d V
gmax = Er = Emax =  ...(2.19.4)
d d
r(d  r) log e r log e
r r
where, r = Radius
12. When the disruptive gradient of air is reached at the conductor surface
Vd0
g0 =
d
r log e
r
Critical disruptive voltage,
d
Vd0 = g0 r log e ...(2.19.5)
r
The complete formula becomes
d
Vd0 = g0 m0 r log e ...(2.19.6)
r
where  = Air density factor
m0 = Conductor surface condition factor.
13. The value of Vd0 is known as critical disruptive voltage, and is defined as
the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
Visual critical voltage :
1. Visual critical voltage is defined as the minimum phase to neutral voltage
at which glow appears all along the line conductors.
2. Thus the visual critical voltage is
 0.3  d
Vv0 = g0mv r  1   log e r kV (rms) to neutral ...(2.19.7)
 r 
where mv = Roughness factor, which is unity for smooth conductors.
Que 2.20. Explain corona loss. How is critical disruptive voltage

estimated ? Give advantages and disadvantages of corona loss.
Answer
A. Corona loss :
1. Power wasted due to corona in lines is known as corona power loss.
2. F.W. Peek’s formula for the corona loss for the single phase and
equilaterally spaced 3 lines under fair weather conditions is given by,
Peek’s formula :
244 r
Pc = ( f  25) ( En  E0 )2  10 5 kW/km/phase
 D
where, Pc = Corona power loss
f = Frequency of supply
= Air density factor
En = Rms phase voltage (line to neutral)
E0 = Disruptive critical voltage per phase
r = Radius of conductor
D = Spacing or equivalent spacing between conductors
For single phase,
1
En = × line voltage
2
For three phase,
1
3
3. Peek’s formula is not accurate when losses are low and En/E0 is less
than 1.8. In that condition, we use Peterson’s formula.
Peterson’s Formula :
En2
Pc = 2.1 f F 2
 10 5 kW/km/conductor
 D
 log 10 
r
f= Supply frequency in hertz
En = Voltage per phase (line to neutral) voltage in kV (rms)
r= Radius of conductor in metres
F= Corona loss function
Deq
E0 = g0max m0 r 2/3 ln V/phase (rms)
r
D = Spacing
B. Estimation of critical disruptive voltage : Refer Q. 2.19,
C. Advantages of corona :
1. Due to corona, the air surrounding the conductor is ionised and becomes
conducting. This increases the virtual diameter of the conductor.
2. Corona reduces the effect produced by the surges and conductor is
saved from possibility of lighting. It acts as a safety device.
D. Disadvantages of corona :
1. It reduces the transmission efficiency.
2. The third harmonic components produced due to corona makes the
current non-sinusoidal. This increases the corona loss.
3. The ozone gas formed due to corona chemically reacts with the conductor
and can cause corrosion.
Que 2.21. Explain the phenomenon of corona formation and

factors affecting corona. What is visual critical voltage ?
OR
Explain the situation under which corona phenomenon starts in
high voltage power transmission lines. Identify the factors with
reason that affect corona. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
A. Phenomena of Corona : Refer Q. 2.18, Page 2–28B, Unit-2.
B. Factors affecting corona :
1. Effect of frequency : Corona loss depends on the supply frequency.
Higher the supply frequency, higher is the corona loss.
2. Line voltage : The line voltage directly affects the corona and the
corona loss. For lower line voltage corona may be absent. But for voltages
higher than disruptive voltage, corona starts. Higher the line voltage,
higher is the corona loss.
3. Atmospheric conditions : The pressure and temperature together
decide the value of  which affects the disruptive voltage and the corona
loss. Lower the value of , higher is the corona and vice-versa.
4. Size of the conductor : The corona loss is directly proportional to square
root of radius of conductor. Hence, loss is more if size of conductor is more.
5. Surface conditions : The corona depends on the surface conditions.
For rough and uneven surfaces, the value of disruptive voltage is less
and corona effect is dominant. Similarly corona loss is also more for
rough and dirty surfaces.
6. Number of conductors per phase : For higher voltages a single
conductor per phase produces large corona loss. Hence bundled
conductors are used due to which self GMD of the conductor  increases,
which increases the disruptive voltage, reducing corona loss.
7. Spacing between conductors : If the spacing is made very large,
corona can be absent.
8. Clearance from ground : The height of the conductors from the
ground also affects the corona loss. The smaller the clearance of the
conductors from the ground, higher is the corona loss.
C. Visual critical voltage : Refer Q. 2.19, Page 2–29B, Unit-2.
Que 2.22. What are the methods of reducing corona loss ?

OR
Explain the phenomenon of corona. What are the various factors
affecting it ? How can it be reduced ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A. Phenomenon of corona : Refer Q. 2.18, Page 2–28B, Unit-2.
B. Factors affecting corona : Refer Q. 2.21, Page 2–33B, Unit-2.
C. Methods of reduced corona :
1. Voltage of the line : There is negligible corona loss below disruptive
critical voltage. So if voltage is below disruptive critical voltage, there is
no corona loss and as the line voltage goes beyond it, corona losses
become large.
2. Spacing between conductors : Spacing between the conductors
increases disruptive critical voltage. But this method increases overall
cost of line as cross arm length got increased. Also there is an increase
in voltage drop due to increase in the inductive reactance.
3. Increasing diameter of conductor : Increasing diameter of conductor
is widely used to reduce corona loss. Diameter of conductor can be
increased either by using Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
conductor (ACSR) or by using hollow conductor.
4. Bundled conductors :
i. Presently bundled conductors are used more often to reduce corona loss.
ii. It consists of two or more parallel conductors grouped together having
spaces between them. Bundle acts as conductor having diameter much
larger than component conductors.
iii. It reduces the voltage gradient thus reducing corona loss.
Que 2.23. Determine the corona characteristics of a three phase

160 km long line having conductor diameter 1.036 cm, 2.44 m delta
spacing, air temperature 26.67 degree having an appropriate
barometric pressure of 73.15 cm, operating voltage 110 kV at 50 Hz.
Surface irregularity factor is 0.85. Assume a value of mv = 0.72,
dielectric strength of air = 21.1 kV/cm (rms). Disruptive voltage
under foul weather = 0.8 times fair weather value.
Answer
Given : Diameter = 1.036 cm, d = 2.44 m, t = 26.67°,

mv = 0.72, b = 73.15 cm, f = 50 Hz
To Find : Corona characteristics.
1.036
1. Radius of conductor =  0.518cm
2
d 2.44
The ratio =  100  471
r 0.518
r 1
 = 0.046075
d 471
3.92b 3.92  73.15
2. = =  0.957
273  t 273  26.67
3. Assuming a surface irregularity factor 0.85, the critical disruptive voltage
d
Vd = 21.1  0.85r ln
r
= 21.1 × 0.85 × 0.957 × 0.518 ln 471
= 54.72 kV line to neutral
 0.3  d
4. Visual critical voltage Vv = 21.1mv r  1   ln
 r  r
0.3
Vv = 21.1  0.72  0.957  0.518 1  
 ln 471 = 66 kV
 0.518  0.957 
f  25 r
5. Power loss = 244  10  5 (V  Vd )2 kW/phase/km
 d
75 2
= 244  10  5   0.046075  63.5  54.72 
0.957
= 0.679 kW/phase/km
= 108.64 kW/phase = 325.92 kW for three phase
6. Corona loss under foul weather condition will be when the disruptive
voltage is taken as 0.8 × fair weather value, i.e.,
Vd = 0.8 × 54.72 = 43.77 kV
7. Loss per phase/km will be
75
244  10  5 0.046075(63.5 – 43.77)2 = 3.3664 kW/km/phase
0.975
= 537.6 kW/phase
8. Total loss = 1612.8 kW for all the three phases.
Que 2.24. An 110 kV, 50 Hz, 175 km long, 3-phase transmission line
consists of 1.2 cm diameter stranded copper conductor spaced in 2 m
delta arrangement. Assume that temperature is 25 °C and barometric
pressure is 74 cm. Assume surface irregularity factor m = 0.85, mv for
local corona = 0.72 and mv for general corona = 0.82. Find :
i. Disruptive critical voltage.

ii. Visual corona voltage for local corona.
iii. Visual corona voltage for general corona.
iv. Power loss due to corona using peek’s formula under fair weather
and wet weather conditions. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 2.23, Page 2–34B, Unit-2.
(Ans. i. 61.15 kV
ii. 72.13 kV
iii. 82.14 kV
iv. 115.25 kW)
Que 2.25. Dis cuss electromagnetic interference with

communication lines.
Answer
1. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is caused when a power conductor
with a strong magnetic field is placed near other conductors
(communication lines). The flux lines of the strong magnetic field cut
the nearby conductors (communication lines) and induce voltages on
them. Presence of EMI can interfere with the communication signal.
2. Consider a three-phase overhead transmission system consisting of
three conductors R, Y and B spaced at the corners of a triangle and two
telephone conductors P and Q below the power line conductors running
on the same supports as shown in Fig. 2.25.1.
R
DRQ
DRP
B Y
DYQ
DBP DBQ
DYQ
P Q
Fig. 2.25.1. Three-phase power line and communication line.
3. Let us assume that the radius of each conductor is r and consider the
loop formed by the conductors R and P. Now the distances between R
and P, and R and Q are DRP and DRQ, respectively.
4. Flux linkages of conductor P due to currents in all conductors of power

line given by ;
7  1 1 1 
p = 2  10  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
 DRP DYP DBP 
5. Flux linkages of conductor Q due to currents in all conductors of power
line,
7  1 1 1 
Q = 2  10  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
 DRQ DYQ DBQ 
6. Total flux linkages of communication lines,
 = P – Q
 1 1 1 
= 2  10 7  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
 DRP DYP DBP 
 1 1 1 
  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
 D D D 
= 2  10 7  I R ln RQ  IY ln YQ  I B ln BQ 
 DRP DYP DBP 
Therefore, the induced voltage in the communication line,
V = 2 f  V/m
7. Here, the voltage induced and flux linkages of communication line
depends upon the values of IR, IY, and IB
Case-I : If the currents IR, IY, and IB are balanced and power lines are
transposed, then flux linkages with the communication lines are zero.
Therefore, voltage induced is also zero.
Case-II : If the currents IR, IY, and IB are balanced and power lines are
untransposed, then flux linkages with the communication lines are
small. Therefore, voltage induced is also small.
Case-III : If the currents IR, IY, and IB are unbalanced, then there is flux
linkage with the communication lines and therefore, voltage is induced.
8. The induced voltage can be reduced by increasing the distance between
the power lines and the communication lines or even by transposing
them.
Que 2.26. Explain electrostatic interference with communication

lines.
OR
Derive expressions for voltages induced due to (i) electromagnetic
and (ii) electrostatic effects of interference between power and
telephone lines and show how these results can be used for
calculating electromagnetically and electrostatically induced emf’s
on telephone line when the power line is 3-phase and there are two
telephone conductors. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
A. Electrostatic interference :
1. In electrostatic interference the electric potential of the communication
lines is raised which may be dangerous.
2. Consider a three-phase system consisting of three conductors R, Y, and
B, which are place d at the co rners of a triangle and two
telecommunication lines P, Q connected parallel to the three-phase
system as shown in Fig. 2.26.1.
3. The potential distribution between the three-phase system and plane
(earth) is the same as the potential distribution between the image of
the three-phase system and the plane.
4. Consider a conductor R of a three-phase system. Let HR be the height of
conductor R from the ground. q is the charge per metre length of
conductor R and – q is the charge on image of conductor R.
R
B HR Y
P Q
HB HY
B1 Y1
R1
Fig. 2.26.1. Three-phase power line communication

line and image of power line.
5. The electric-field intensity at a distance x from the centre of conductor R,
q q
Ex = 
2 x 2 (2 H R  x)
The potential of conductor R with respect to earth,
HR HR
q 1 1 
VR = E dx    x  (2 H dx
 x 
x
r
2 r R
q  1 1  q 2H R  r
VR =  ln  ln  r  ln
2  r 2HR  2 r
q 2 HR
= ln ( 2HR >> r)
2 r
where, r is the radius of conductor R
6. Suppose P is placed at a distance DPR from the conductor R, then the
potential of conductor P with respect to earth,
HR HR
q 1 1 
VPR =  Ex dx    x  (2 H  x)  dx
DPR
2 DPR R
 2 H R  DPR 
ln  
q 2 H R  DPR  DPR
= ln  VR
2 DPR 2 HR
ln
r
Similarly, the potential at P due to the charge on conductors Y and B i.e.,
VPY and VPB can be calculated.
7. In addition, the resultant potential of P with respect to earth due to
charge on conductors R, Y and B is VP = VPR + VPY + VPB (vector addition).
In a similar way, the resultant potential of conductor Q with respect to
the earth due to charge on conductors, R, Y, and B can be calculated.
B. Electromagnetic interference : Refer Q. 2.25, Page, 2–36B, Unit-2.
PART-4
Performance of Lines : Representation of Lines, Short Transmission Lines
Medium Length Lines, Nominal T and  representations.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.27. Derive the expression for the regulation and efficiency
of a short transmission line. Draw the required circuit and phasor
diagram.
Answer
1. From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.27.1,
Vr = Vs – IZ (since I = Ir = Is) ...(2.27.1)
where, IZ = Voltage drop along the line.
Is Ir
R jX
Vs Vr
Z
Fig. 2.27.1. Short transmission-line model.

2. From Fig. 2.27.2, we can write
Vs = OC = (OE)2  ( EC) 2
= (OD  DE)2  ( EB  BC )2
= (Vr cos  r  IR)2  (Vr sin r  IX )2
= Vr2  2Vr IR cos  r  2Vr IX cos r  I 2 ( R2  X 2 )
2 IR 2 IX I2
= Vr 1  cos  r  sin r  2 ( R2  X 2 )
Vr Vr Vr
2( IR cos r  IX sin r )
 Vr 1 
Vr
I 2 ( R2  X 2 )
because is very small when compared with the other terms
Vr2
 ( IR cos  r  IX sin  r  H igher order terms) 

 Vs = Vr  1  2 
 2Vr
...(2.27.2)
Vs
C
IZ
Vr IX

O
s A
r
I IR B
D
E
Fig. 2.27.2. Phasor diagram.
3. In practice, the value of higher order terms of eq. (2.27.2) are small and
can be neglected, and therefore we get the approximate formula for Vs
for
Vs  Vr + IR cos r + IX sin r ...(2.27.3)
4. From Fig. (2.27.2), the power factor at sending end is given by
OE Vr cos r  IR
cos s = 
OC Vs
Regulation :
Vs  Vr
% Regulation =  100
Vr
= Vr  IR cos r  IX sin r  Vr  100

Vr
IR cos  r  IX sin r
=  100 ...(2.27.4)
Vr
Efficiency :
1. Power delivered, Pr = VrI cos r
Line losses per phase = I2R
Power supplied per phase, Ps = VrI cos r + I2R
2. The efficiency of a short transmission line,
Power delivered
%=  100
Power supplied
Pr
=  100 ...(2.27.5)
Ps
A, B, C, D constants for short transmission lines :
The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are expressed
in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end.
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(2.27.6)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2.27.7)
1. For the network shown in Fig. 2.27.1, we may write
Vs = Vr + ZIr ...(2.27.8)
and Is = Ir ...(2.27.9)
2. For generalized transmission circuit constants, comparing eq. (2.27.8)
and (2.27.9) with the eq. (2.27.6.) and (2.27.7), we get
A = 1, B = Z
C = 0, D = 1
1 Z
The transfer matrix for the network is 
0 1 
Que 2.28. Deduce an expression for transmission efficiency and

regulation for medium transmission line using nominal -method.
OR
Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal  model of a medium
transmission line and draw its phasor diagram.
OR
Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal  model of a medium
line and draw its phasor diagram. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
1. The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are expressed
in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end.
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(2.28.1)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2.28.2)
Is I Ir
R jX
Ic2 Ic1
Y Z Y
Vs Vr
2 2
Fig. 2.28.1.  -equivalent circuit of medium transmission line.
G E
Ic2 Ic1 Vs
C
 A
O IX
s r Vr
Is
IR
Ic2
F
Ir Ic1
D
2. From Fig. 2.28.1,
Vc1 = V r
Y Y
Ic1 = Vc1 = Vr
2 2
I = Ir + Ic1
Y
= Ir + Vr ...(2.28.3)
2
Vc2 = Vc1 + IZ
 Y 
= Vr +  Ir  Vr  Z
 2 
 YZ 
Vc2 =  1   Vr  ZIr
 2 
Vc2 is also equal to Vs
 YZ 
 Vs =  1   Vr  ZIr ...(2.28.4)
 2 
Y
3. The charging current, Ic2 = Vs
2
The sending-end current, Is = I + Ic2
Y  YZ  Y
= Ir  Vr   1   Vr  ZI r 
2  2  2
 Y Y Y 2Z  YZ 
=     Vr   1   Ir
2 2 4  2 
 YZ   YZ 
= Y 1   Vr   1   Ir ...(2.28.5)
 4  2 
4. For general network constants, comparing the eq.(2.28.4) and eq. (2.28.5)
with general transmission circuit constants of eq. (2.28.1) and eq. (2.28.2)
YZ
A = D = 1 ; B=Z
2
 YZ 
C = Y 1  
 4 
 YZ 
 1 2 Z 
5. The transfer matrix for the network is  
  YZ  YZ 
 Y  1  4  1  2 
Regulation :
1. To calculate regulation, it is required to calculate the no load receiving-
end voltage (Vr) keeping Vs as constant. The voltage at the receiving
end at no load Vr is equivalent to Vc1.
2. From Fig. 2.28.1, the voltage at the receiving end under no load is
 j2 
Vs   
Vr =  C 
j2
R  jX 
C
Vr   Vr
Vr
Efficiency :
Power delivered at the receiving end ( Pr )
=
Power delivered at the receiving end ( Pr )  3 I 2 R
Que 2.29. Deduce an expression for transmission efficiency and

regulation for medium transmission line using (i) Nominal T-method
(ii) Nominal -method. Also calculate A, B, C and D parameter.
OR
Draw a phasor diagram of a nominal-T transmission line and find
its A, B, C, D constants. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are expressed
in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(2.29.1)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2.29.2)
i. Nominal T method :
R jX R jX
Is 2 2 Vc 2 2
Ir
Ic
Z/2 Z/2
Vs Vc Y = j C Vr
Fig. 2.29.1. T-equivalent circuit of medium transmission line.
G
Ic
Vs E
C
O Is X
 A Vc 2
r 
s Vr Is R D
2
Ir R
Ir Is
H
2 Ir X
2
Ic B
F
1. From Fig. 2.29.1,
Z
Vc = Vr +
I ...(2.29.3)
2 r
2. The current through the shunt admittance is
Ic = V c Y
 Z 
=  Vr  Ir  Y
 2 
YZ
Ic = YVr 
Ir
2
3. Now the sending-end current is
Is = Ir + Ic
YZ
= I r  YVr  Ir
2
 YZ 
Is = YVr   1   Ir ...(2.29.4)
 2 
and the sending-end voltage is
Z
Vs = Vs  Is
2
Z Z  YZ  
= Vr  I r   YVr   1   Ir
2 2  2  
 YZ   Z Z YZ 2 
= 1   Vr      Ir
 2  2 2 4 
 YZ   YZ 
 Vs =  1   Vr  Z  1   Ir ...(2.29.5)
 2  4 
4. For general transmission circuit constants, comparing the eq. (2.29.4)
and eq. (2.29.5) with eq. (2.29.1) and eq. (2.29.2) respectively, we get
YZ  YZ 
A = 1 = D; B = Z 1  , C=Y
2  4 
 YZ  YZ  
1  2 Z 1 
 
4  
5. The transfer matrix for the network is  ...(2.29.6)
 YZ 
 Y 1
2  
Regulation :
1. Under no load condition, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.29.1 is shown in
Fig. 2.29.3.
R jX
Is 2 2 Vc
Ir
Ic
Vs Vc Y = j C Vr
Fig. 2.29.3.
2. At no load, the voltage at the receiving end (Vr) of the transmission line
is same as the voltage (Vc) across the admittance, which is located at
midpoint of the transmission line.
3. From Fig. 2.29.3, the voltage across the capacitor by using voltage divider
rule is
 j
Vs 
 C 
Vc =
R X j
j 
2 2 C
When the receiving end is on no load, the no-load voltage, Vr = Vc
Vr   Vr
Vr
Efficiency :
Power delivered at the receiving end ( Pr )
=
R
Power delivered at the receiving end ( Pr )  3 ( Ir2  I s2 )
2
ii. Nominal  method : Refer Q. 2.28, Page 2–41B, Unit-2.
Que 2.30. The A, B, C, D constants of a 3 transmission line are
A = D = 0.936 + j0.016,
B = 33.5 + j138 
and C = (– 0.9280 + j901.223) × 10 – 6 mho
The load at receiving end is 40 MW, 200 kV at power factor of 0.86
lagging. Find the magnitude of the sending end voltage, current,
power and voltage regulation. Assume that the magnitude of
sending end voltage remains constant. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
Given : Phase voltage at receiving end, Load = 40 MW,

V = 200 kV, pf = 0.86 (lag).
To Find : Vs, Is, Ps, Vr.
1. Receiving end voltage to neutral,
200  103
Vr = = 115.47 kV
3
2. Receiving end current,
40000  103
Ir =
3  200  103
= 115.47 – cos–1 0.86 A
= 115.47 – 30.68 A
= (99.3 – j58.9) A
3. Sending end voltage to neutral :
Vs = AV r + BIr
= (0.936 + j0.016) × 115.47 × 103 + (33.5 + j138)
× 115.47 –30.68
= 120306.07 6.480° V
= 120.30607 6.480° kV
4. Line voltage at sending end
|V sl| = 3 |Vs| = 3 × 120.306 = 208.376 kV

5. Sending end current
Is = CV r + DIr
= (– 0.9280 + j901.223) × 10–6 × 115.47 0. 103
+ (0.936 + j0.016) × 115.47  – 30.68
= 106.52 28.30A
6. Power factor at sending end = cos s = cos (6.48° – 28.30°)
= 0.92
7.  Power at sending end = Ds = 3 Vsl Is cos s
= 3 × 120306.07 × 106.52 × 0.92
= 35369407.11 W = 35.36 MW.
8. Voltage regulation :
Vs = A Vnl,
Vs 120306.07
So, Vnl =  = 128532.12 V
A 0.936
|Vnl | |Vfl |
VR =  100
|Vfl |
128532.12 – 115.47  103

VR = × 100
115.47  103
= 11.31 %.
Que 2.31. In a 3-phase line with 132 kV at the receiving end the
following are the transmission constants :
A = D = 0.98  30°, B = 110  750° ,
C = 0.0005  880° S
If load at the receiving end is 50 MVA at 0.8 pf lagging, determine the
value of the sending end voltage. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
(Ans. Vs = 95.03  38.73° kV)
Que 2.32. A 50 Hz, three-phase transmission line has total series

impedance per phase of (40 + j125) ohms and shunt admittance of
10 – 3 mho. The load is 50 MW at 220 kV, 0.8 pf lagging.
Using nominal  method, calculate the sending end voltage current
and power factor. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Given : Z = 40 + j125 = 131.24 72.20 , Y = 10 – 3 mho,

Vr = 220 kV, cos r = 0.8 lag.
To Find : Vs, Is and cos s.
220
1. Vr =  103 = 127.01 kV/ph
3
P 50  106
2. Ir =  = 164.02 A (lagging)
3 V cos  3  220  103  0.8
Vr Y (127.01  103 0)  (10  3 90)

3. Ic1 =  ( Vc1 = Vr)
2 2
= 63.5 90° A
Is I Ir
Ic2 (40 + j125) 

Ic1 50 MW
0.8 lag
Vs Vr
10 – 3 10 – 3
 
2 2
Fig. 2.32.1.
4. I = Ir + Ic1 = 164.02  – cos – 1 0.8 + 63.5 90°

= 164.02  – 36.86 + 63.5 90°
= 135.79  – 14.8 °A
5. Vs = Vc2 = Vc1 + IZ = Vr + IZ
= 127.01 × 103 0° + (135.79  – 14.8) × (131.24 72.2°)
= 137.45  6.26° kV/ph
VsY (137.45  103 6.26)  (10 3 90)

6. Ic2 =  = 137.45  96.26° A
2 2
7. Is = I + Ic2 = 135.79  – 14.8° + 137.45  96.26° = 154.65  41.23° A
8. cos s = cos (96.26° – 41.23°) = 0.57
PART-5
Long Transmission Lines, The Equivalent Circuit Representation at Long
Line A, B, C, D Constants Ferranti Effect.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.33. Deduce the expression for sending end voltage and
current in terms of receiving end voltage and current for long
transmission lines.
Answer
1. The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are expressed
in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(2.33.1)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2.33.2)
2. Let z = Series impedance per unit length
y = Shunt admittance per unit length
l = Length of the line
Then, Z = zl = Total series impedance of the line
Y = yl = Total shunt admittance of the line
3. Consider a very small element of length x at a distance of x from the
receiving-end of the line.
4. The voltage and current at distance x from the receiving-end are V, I
and at distance x + x are V + V and I + I, respectively.
So, the change of voltage, V = Izx
where, zx is the impedance of the element considered.
V
= Iz
x
V dV
Lt = = Iz ...(2.33.3)
 x  0 x dx
Is I +  I I Ir
L
o
Vs Vr a
V + V V
d
X X
Fig. 2.33.1. Equivalent single-phase
representation of a long transmission line.
5. Similarly, the change of current, I = Vyx
where, y x is the admittance of element considered
I
= Vy
x
I dI
Lt = = Vy ...(2.33.4)
 x  0 x dx
6. Differentiating the eq. (2.33.3) with respect to x, we get
d 2V dI
= z ...(2.33.5)
dx 2 dx
dI
7. Substituting the value of from eq. (2.33.4) in eq. (2.33.5), we get
dx
d 2V
= zyV ...(2.33.6)
dx 2
8. Eq. (2.33.6) is a second order differential equation. The solution of this
equation is
yzx
V = Ae  Be yzx ...(2.33.7)
9. Differentiating eq. (2.33.7) with respect to x, we get
dV
= A yz e yzx  B yz e yzx
...(2.33.8)
dx
10. From eq. (2.33.3) and eq. (2.33.8)
yzx yzx
Iz = A yz e  B yz e
y yzx y  yzx
I= A e B e ...(2.33.9)
z z
11. From eq. (2.33.7),
V = Aex + Be– x ...(2.33.10)
12. From eq. (2.33.9),
A x B  x
I= e  e ...(2.33.11)
Zc Zc
z
where, Zc = is known as characteristics impedance or surge
y
impedance and  = yz is known as propagation constant.

A, B, C and D parameter :
1. The constants A and B can be evaluated by using the conditions at the
receiving end of the line. The conditions are
at x = 0, V = Vr and I = Ir
Substitute the above conditions in eq. (2.33.10) and eq. (2.33.11), we get
 Vr = A + B ...(2.33.12)
1
and Ir = ( A  B) ...(2.33.13)
Zc
2. Solving eq. (2.33.12) and eq. (2.33.13), we get
Vr  Ir Zc V  Ir Zc
A= and B = r
2 2
3. Now substituting the values of A and B in eq. (2.33.10) and (2.33.11),
V can be expressed as :
Vr  I r Zc x Vr  Ir Zc  x
V= e  e
2 2
 ex  e x   ex  ex 
= Vr    Ir Zc  
 2   2 
 V = Vr cosh x + Ir Zc sinh x ...(2.33.14)
1  Vr  Ir Zc x Vr  Ir Zc x 
I= e  e 
Zc  2 2 
1  e x  e x   ex  e x 
= Vr    Ir  
Zc  2   2
Vr
= cosh x + Ir sinh x ...(2.33.15)
Zc
where, V and I are the voltages and currents at any distance x from the
receiving end.
4. At x = l, V = Vs and I = I
Putting these values in eq. (2.33.14) and eq. (2.33.15), Vs and Is is
expressed as
Vs = Vr cosh l + Ir Zc sinh l ...(2.33.16)
Vr
Is = sinh l + Ir cosh l ...(2.33.17)
Zc
5. By comparison of eq. (2.33.16) and eq. (2.33.17) with general transmission
circuit constant of eq. (2.33.1) and eq. (2.33.2), we get
A = D = cosh l,
B = Zc sinh l and
1
C= sinh l.
Zc
Que 2.34. Explain Ferranti effect.
Answer
1. When medium or long transmission lines are operated at no-load or
light-load, the receiving-end voltage becomes more than the sending-
end voltage. The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the receiving-end of
a transmission line during no load or light load condition is called the
Ferranti effect.
2. The charging current produces a voltage drop in the series reactance of
the line. This voltage drop is in phase opposition to the receiving-end
voltage, and hence the sending-end voltage becomes smaller than the
receiving-end voltage.
3. In order to determine the magnitude of voltage rise, one-half of the total
line capacitance will be assumed to be concentrated at the receiving-end
as shown in Fig. 2.34.1(a). The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 2.34.1(b).
R jXL Ir = 0
Is
D IcX L
Ic C B
Vs
Vs C/2 Vr
Ic IcZ IcR
A
O Vr
(a) Circuit diagram. (b ) Phasor diagram
Fig. 2.34.1.
4. Taking receiving-end voltage as reference phasor, we have
Vr = Vr 0°
and is represented by phasor OA.
5. Charging current
Ic = YV r
This is represented by phasor OD.
6. The sending-end voltage
Vs = Vr + Ic(R + jXL)
= Vr + jYVr(R + jXL)
= Vr – YXLVr + jYRVr
7. The vector OC represents the sending-end voltage under no-load
condition and is less than the receiving-end voltage. The line resistance
is usually small as compared to the line inductive reactance. Hence, the
resistance is neglected.
8. Neglecting resistive drop of the line, IcR, we get
Rise in voltage, V = OC – OA
= Vs – Vr
= – YXLVr ...(2.34.1)
The negative sign in eq. (2.34.1) indicates that Vr is more than Vs.
9. If C0 and L0 are the capacitance and inductance of the transmission line
per meter length, respectively and l is the length of the line in meters,
then eq. (2.34.1) becomes,
C0 l
V =   L0 l  Vr
2
 2C0 L0l 2Vr
V = 
2
10. In case of short lines, the effect is negligible, but it increases rapidly with
the increase in length of the line. Therefore, this phenomenon is
observable only in medium and long lines.
11. For long high voltage and EHV transmission lines, shunt reactors are
provided to absorb a part of the charging current or shunt capacitive
VAr of the transmission line under no load or light load conditions, in
order to prevent the over voltage on the line.
Que 2.35. Explain the term surge impedance loading (SIL).
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. The surge impedance loading (SIL) of a transmission line is the power
(MW) loading of a transmission line when the line is lossless.
2. A transmission line produces reactive power (MVAr) due to their
capacitance. The amount of MVAr produced is dependent on the
transmission line capacitive reactance (Xc) and the voltage (kV) at which
the line is energized.
3. Now the MVAr produced is,
(kV )2
MVAr =
Xc
4. MVAr used by transmission line = I2XL

where, I is in kA.
5. Transmission line SIL is the MW loading (at a unity power factor) at
which the line MVAr usage is equal to the line MVAr production. Hence,
SIL occurs when :
(kV )2
I2XL =
Xc
2
XLXc = (kV2 ) ...(2.35.1)
I
And the eq. (2.35.1), can be rewritten as
V2 2fL
= (Since for lossless line, R  0)
I2 2fC
V L
= = Surge impedance
I C
6. The surge impedance loading SIL is equal to the ratio of voltage squared
(in kV) to surge impedance (in ohms).
VL2 L
 SIL (MW) =
Surge impedance
7. For loading much higher than SIL, shunt capacitor may be needed for
improving the voltage profile along life and for light load conditions, i.e.,
load much less than the SIL, shunt inductors may be needed to reduce
the line charging current.
Que 2.36. Explain surge impedance loading. Determine ABCD

constants for a 3-phase 50 Hz trans miss ion line 200 km
long having the following distributed parameters l = 1.3 × 10–3 H/km,
c = 9× 10–9 F/km, r = 0.20 /km, g = 0. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15
Answer
A. Surge impedance loading : Refer Q. 2.35, Page 2–53B, Unit-2.
B. Numerical :
Given : f = 50 Hz, l = 1.3 × 10 – 3 H/km, c = 9 × 10 – 9 F/km
r = 0.20 /km, g = 0
To Find : A, B, C and D constants.
1. z = r + jl
= 0.2 + j × 2 × 50 × 1.3 × 10–3
= 0.2 + j0.408407
= 0.454748  63.9° ohm/km.

2. y = jc
= j × 2 × 50 × 9 × 10–9
= 2827.4334 × 10–9 90° S/km
z 0.45474863.9
3. Zc = =
y 2827.4334  10 9 90
= 401.04 –13.04567° ohm
4. = zy
= 1.1339 × 10–3 76.95°
5. l = 0.22678 76.95°
= 0.051189 + j0.2208
6. cosh l = cosh (0.051189 + j0.2208)
= cosh 0.051189. cos 0.2208
+j sinh 0.51189 sin 0.2208
= 1.001310× 0.9757 + j0.0512113 × 0.2190
= 0.97698 + j0.0112158
= 0.97704 0.65770°
7. sinh l = sinh (0.97698 + j0.00112158)
= sin h 0.97698 cos 0.0112158
+ j cosh 0.97698 sin 0.112158
= 0.05112113 × 09757 + j1.001310 × 0.219
= 0.04995 + j 0.21928 = 0.22489 77.167°
8. A = D = cosh l
= 0.97704 0.65770°
9. B = Zc sinh l
= 401.04 –13.04657° × 0.22489 77.167°
= 90.18989 64.12133°
1 0.2248977.167
10. C= sinh l =
Zc 401.04   13.04567
= 0.000561 90.21267°

Q. 1. Find the ratio of volume of copper required to transmit a

given power over a given distance by overhead system using
(i) DC two wire system (ii) 3-phase 4-wire system.
Q. 2. Explain different types of conductors in power system.
Q. 3. Explain resistance of transmission line. Also discuss effect
of skin effect on effective resistance of conductor.
Q. 4. Explain Kelvin’s Economy Law and derive the condition
for most economical cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Q. 5. Briefly explain Proximity effect.
Q. 6. Explain corona loss. How is critical disruptive voltage
estimated ? Give advantages and disadvantages of corona
loss.
Q. 7. Explain the phenomenon of corona formation and factors
affecting corona. What is visual critical voltage ?
Q. 8. Derive the expression for the regulation and efficiency of a
short transmission line. Draw the required circuit and
phasor diagram.
Q. 9. Deduce an expression for transmission efficiency and
regulation for medium transmission line using (i) Nominal
T-method (ii) Nominal -method. Also calculate A, B, C and
D parameter.
Q. 10. Explain Ferranti effect.

3 Transmission and
Distribution of
Electric Power-II
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Mechanical Design of Over ....................... 3–2B to 3–7B
Headlines : Catenary Curve,
Calculation of Sag and Tension
Part-2 : Effects of Wind and Ice ............................ 3–7B to 3–15B

Loading, Sag Template,
Vibration Dampers
Part-3 : Overhead Line Insulators : ................... 3–15B to 3–18B

Types of Insulators and their
Applications
Part-4 : Potential Distribution ............................ 3–18B to 3–27B

Over a String of Insulators,
Methods of Equalizing the Potential,
String Efficiency
Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II 3–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
PART-1
Mechanical Design of Over Headlines : Catenary Curve,
Calculation of Sag and Tension.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Explain sag. Also derive expression for sag of a conductor
in overhead transmission line when supported at equal levels and
at two different levels.
OR
Deduce an expression for sag in overhead transmission lines when
i. Supports are at equal levels
ii. Supports are at unequal levels. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A. Sag : The difference in levels between point of support and the lowest
point on the conductor is called sag.
The sag is denoted by S as shown in Fig. 3.1.1.
A l B
S
O
Conductor
Fig. 3.1.1.
B. Supports at equal levels :
A l/2 l/2 B
x/2 P S
y
T
O wx
x
Fig. 3.1.2. Supports at equal level.

1. Let l= Span length
w= Weight per unit length of conductor
T= Tension in the conductor
S= Sag
2. Consider a point P on the conductor. Its coordinates are x and y, taking

O as the origin.
3. If the curvature is considered so small that curved length is equal to its
horizontal projection, i.e., OP = x, then the forces acting on the portion
OP are :
i. The weight wx of the conductor acting at a distance x/2 from O.
ii. The tension T acting at O.
4. Taking moments of these forces about point P, we get
T × y = wx × x / 2
wx 2
y=
2T
The maximum sag (dip) is represented by the value of y at either of the
supports A and B.
5. At support A (or B),
x = l/2 and y = S
w(l / 2) 2 wl2
 Sag, S = 
2T 8T
C. Supports at unequal level :
1. Let l = Span length
h = Difference in levels between two supports
x1 = Distance of support A from O
x2 = Distance of support B from O
w = Weight per unit length of conductor
T = Tension
B
h
S2
A
S1
O
x1 x2
l
Fig. 3.1.3. Supports at unequal levels.
wx12 wx22
2. Now, S1 = , and S2 =
2T 2T
Also, x1 + x2 = l ...(3.1.1)
2 2
3.  S2 – S1 = wx2  wx1  w (x22 – x12)
2T 2T 2T
w
= ( x2  x1 )( x2  x1 )
2T
wl
S2 – S1 = ( x2  x1 )
2T
4. But, S2 – S1 = h
wl
 h= ( x2  x1 )
2T
2Th
(x2 – x1) = ...(3.1.2)
wl
5. Adding eq. (3.1.1) and (3.1.2), we get
2Th
2x2 = l 
wl
l Th
x2 = 
2 wl
 l Th  l Th
6. And, x1 = l     
 2 wl  2 wl
After finding x1 and x2, the values of S1 and S2 can be calculated.
Que 3.2. Explain catenary method for the calculation of sag and
tension in transmission line.
Answer
1. When sag is comparable with the span then conductor takes the form of
catenary.
2. Consider a conductor, supported at the points A and B with O as the
lowest point on the conductor, as shown in the Fig. 3.2.1.
y
A l B
Ty
T
dc
dy
Tx 
P P dx
c Tangent at
point P
x
H O
Fig. 3.2.1.
3. Let w = Weight per unit length
T = Tension at point P.
4. Let P be the point on the conductor such that OP = c. The point O is
origin and the co-ordinates of point P are (x, y). The tension T is acting
tangentially at point P.
5. The various forces acting on the curve portion OP of the wire are
i. Horizontal tension, H acting at O.
ii. Weight of the portion OP which is wc acting vertically downward through
centre of gravity.
iii. Horizontal and vertical components of tension T in the conductor i.e., Tx
and Ty acting at P.
6. In the equilibrium condition, horizontal and vertical components will
balance each other.
 Tx = H
and Ty = wc
Ty wc
Now tan  = 
Tx H
7. tan  can also be written as,
dy wc
tan  =  ...(3.2.1)
dx H
8. Now (dc) = (dx)2 + (dy)2
2
2 2
 dc   dy 
   = 1   
dx dx
9. Substituting from equation (3.2.1) we get,
2
dc  wc 
= 1 
dx  H
dc
 dx =
w 2 c2
1
H2
10. Integrating both sides
 H  wc 
x =   sin h 1  A
 w  H 
where A = Constant of integration
11. Now at x = 0 i.e., at point O, c = 0
hence we get A = 0
 H 1  wc 
x =   sinh   ...(3.2.2)
w H
12. Taking hyperbolic sine of both sides,
 wx  wc
sinh 
 H  = H
H  wx 
 c= sinh  ...(3.2.3)
w  H 
13. From eq. (3.2.1),
dy wc
=
dx H
dy w H  wx  
 = sinh 
dx H  w  H  
 wx 
 dy = sinh  dx
 H 
14. Integrating both sides,
H  wx 
y= cosh  B ...(3.2.4)
w  H 
where B = Constant of integration
15. when y = 0, x = 0 at point O
H
0= B
w
H
 B= 
w
H  wx  H
 y= cosh  
w  H  w
H  wx  
 y= cosh   1 ...(3.2.5)
w   H  
This is the required equation of the catenary form of conductor.
Calculation of tension T and conductor half span length :
1. The tension T at any point P is,
2 2
T2 = Tx  Ty = H2 + w2c2
H2  wx 
= H 2  w2 sinh2 
w2  H 
  wx  
= H 2 1  sinh 2 
  H  
 wx 
T2 = H2 cosh2  
H
 wx 
 T = H cosh  
H
2. l = Half span length
and the supports A and B are at same level then,
H  wl 
c= sinh  
w  H
This is length of curved conductor in half span.
3. While the sag S can be obtained by putting y = S in eq. (3.2.5).
H  wl  
 S= cosh    1
w   H 
H  wL  
=  cosh    1
w  2H 
4. The eq. (3.2.3) giving the arc length c can be expanded as,
H  wx 
c= sinh 
w  H 
H  wx w3 x3  w2 x3
=   3
 ........  x 
w  H 3! H  6H2
5. In such approximation we can assume H = T.
w2 x 3
 c x +
6T 2
6. So half span length can be obtained by substituting x = l,
w2 l3  w2 l2 
 c = l 2
 l 1  
6T  6T 2 
Que 3.3. Explain catenary method for the calculation of sag and
An overhead line has a span of 200 metres, the line conductor weights
0.7 kg per meter. Calculate the maximum sag if allowable tension in
the line is 1,400 kg. Prove formula used. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Catenary method for calculation of sag and tens ion :
Refer Q. 3.2, Page 3–4B, Unit-3.
B. Numerical :
Given : l = 200 m, w = 0.7 kg per meter, T = 1400 kg
To Find : Maximum sag, S.
wl2 0.7  200  200

Maximum sag, S= =
8T 8  1400
= 2.5 m
wl 2
Proof of S = : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3–2B, Unit-3.
8T
PART-2
Effects of Wind and Ice Loading, Sag Template,
Vibration Dampers.
Questions-Answers

Que 3.4. Dis cus s the effect of atmos pheric condition on

transmission line.
OR
Derive expression for sag and tension in power conductor string
between two supports at equal heights taking into account wind
and ice loading. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A. Expression for sag and tension for supports at equal heights :
B. Effect of atmospheric condition on transmission line :
a. Effect of Ice coating :
1. When the transmission line is coated with ice, the thickness and size of
the conductor increases. This thickness depends on the weather
conditions.
2. This causes increase in weight of the conductor; increase in weight
increases the vertical sag.
3. The weight of ice acts vertically downwards, in the same direction as
that of the conductor.
4. Consider a conductor with diameter d. It is coated with ice thickness t as
shown in Fig. 3.4.1. Hence the overall diameter of the coated conductor
is D.
t
d
D
Fig. 3.4.1. Ice coated conductor.
D = d + 2t
and the area of the coated conductor is
 2
= D
4
5. Area of the ice covering,
 2
Ai = [ D  d2 ]
4
6. The density of ice is 915 kg/m3. Hence the total weight of ice can be
obtained as,
 2
wi = 915  [ D  d 2 ] kg/m
4
= Weight of ice per unit length

= 915  [( d  2t)2  d 2 ]
4
 2
= 915  [ d  4 dt  4 t 2  d 2 ]
4
= 915 ×  [dt + t2]
wi = 915t (d + t) kg/m
B. Effect of wind pressure :
1. The wind flows horizontally and hence the wind pressure on the
conductor is considered to be acting perpendicular to the conductor.
2. Thus force due to wind act at right angles to the projected surface of the
conductor as shown in Fig. 3.4.2.
Conductor
Wind
force
Fig. 3.4.2. Direction of wind force.
3. The wind force ww can be obtained as,

ww = Wind force per unit length in kg/m
= Wind pressure per unit area × Projected surface
area per unit length
= Wind pressure × [(d + 2t) × 1]
ww = P[d + 2t]
where, P = Wind pressure in kg/m2
d = Diameter of conductor
t = Thickness of ice coating if exists
C. Effect of ice and wind :
1. Let w = Weight of conductor itself acting vertically
downward
wi = Weight of ice acting vertically downward
ww = Wind force acting horizontally

2. Hence the total force acting on the conductor is vector sum of the
horizontal and vertical forces as shown in Fig. 3.4.3.
o ww
(w + wi) wt
Fig. 3.4.3.
wt = Total weight acting on conductor
= (w  wi )2  (ww )2
3. The sag direction is at an angle  measured with respect to vertical.
Hence the sag is called slant sag. This is calculated by the expression
considering the total weight wt.
wt l 2
Slant sag, S =
8T
4. The conductor adjusts itself in a plane which is at an angle  with respect
to vertical; the angle is given by,
ww
tan  =
(w  wi )
5. As slant sag S is the direction of an angle  with respect to vertical, the
vertical sag is cosine component of slant sag S,
Vertical sag = S cos 
Que 3.5. Explain sag template and its use.
Answer
1. Sag template is a convenient device used in the design of a transmission
line to determine the location and height of tower.
2. For locating the tower positions, for normal spans and for standard
towers, the sag and the nature of conductor curve are calculated under
expected load condition and plotted on a thin stiff plastic sheet such a
graph is called sag template.
Hot curve
Ground clearance
line
Support foot Profile
curve Tower
Tower
Fig. 3.5.1. Sag template.

3. The curves which are marked on it are :
i. Location of support (tower) or Hot curve : These curves are obtained
by plotting sags at maximum temperature against span lengths. It gives
us the location of supports to maintain proper ground clearance.
ii. Ground clearance curve : This curve is below hot curve. It is drawn
parallel to the hot curve and at a vertical distance equal to ground
clearance as prescribed by the regulations for the given line.
iii. Support foot curve or tower curve : It is drawn to locate the position
of support for tower lines. It shows height from the base of standard
support to the point of attachment of the lowest conductor.
iv. Uplift curve or cold curve : These are obtained by plotting the sags at
minimum temperature without ice or wind loading against span length.
These are drawn to check whether uplift of conductors occurs at any
support.
4. Use of sag template :
i. For correct design and economy.
ii. It is used to allocate the position and height of the support correctly on
the profile.
Que 3.6. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ?

How are they damped ? Explain effect of wind and ice loading on the
mechanical design of a line. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Vibrations :
1. The conductors are supported on the string insulators at each tower.
2. Under widely varying atmospheric conditions like strong wind velocities,

the conductor can start vibrating mechanically in the vertical plane.
Such vibrations can have different frequencies amplitudes & modes.
Types of vibrations in the vertical plane :
a. Aeoline vibrations :
1. The Aeoline vibrations have the frequency range of 5 to 50 Hz with
amplitudes varying between 2 and 5 cm.
2. Thus these vibrations are high frequency low amplitude vibrations.
3. The wind velocities of about 2 to 40 kmph can generate such type of
vibrations.
Minimization of aeoline vibration : The effect of aeoline vibration
can be minimized by,
1. Use of bundle conductor
2. Proper design and location of spacers
3. Use of damper
4. Use of clamps.
b. Galloping of conductor/dancing of conductor :
1. The galloping means dancing of conductors at the low frequency and
high amplitude.
2. These are the oscillations of complete span of conductors.
3. The frequencies of galloping are about 0.5 to 2 Hz with the amplitude of
about 6 m.
Minimization of galloping of conductor :
There are no method by which galloping can be restricted but in icing
conditions height of the conductors can be designed properly considering
the amplitude of possible of possible galloping.
B. Vibration dampers : Vibration damper are the devices used to minimize
the vibrations in the conductors. The following two devices are used to
prevent vibration in conductors :
a. Armour rods :
Fig. 3.6.1. Armour rod.

1. Armour rods are spiral layers of small round rods and are tapered at
each end.
2. They are much larger in diameter than the actual conductor, so they
provide resistance to bending at suspension point thus reducing
amplitude of vibration by distributing stresses at support point.
3. They also provide excellent protection against flashover.
b. Stockbridge damper :
1. It is a device which absorbs vibrational energy. It consists of two hollow
weights joined by a flexible steel wire and a clamp in the middle point to
attach it to conductors.
2. Two dampers are required at each point of suspension of conductors,
one on either side. Each span of conductor contains two dampers but for
longer span the number of dampers may increase.
Fig. 3.6.2. Stockbridge damper.

C. Effect of wind and ice loading : Refer Q. 3.4, Page 3–8B, Unit-3.
Que 3.7. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level

supports. The line conductor has a cross sectional area of 1.25 cm2
and it weights 120 kg per 100 m. If the breaking stress of the copper
conductor is 4220 kg/cm2, calculate the maximum sag for a safety
factor of 4. Assume maximum wind pressure of 90 kg/m2 of projected
surface. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Given : L = 150 m, a = 1.25 cm2, k = 4, Weight = 120 kg/100 m

= 1.2 kg/m, Breaking stress = 4220 kg/cm2
To Find : Maximum sag.
Breaking stress  a 4220  1.25

1. Tension, T=  = 1319 kg
k 4
1.25  4
2. Diameter, d= = 1.26 cm

3. WW = Wind pressure × d = 90 × 1.26 × 10 – 2 = 1.134 kg/m
4. Wr = 1.22  1.134 2 = 1.65 kg/m
Wr L2 1.65  1502
5. Maximum sag =  = 3.52 m
8T 8  1319
Que 3.8. A transmission line conductor has an effective diameter

of 19.5 mm and weights 1.0 kg/m. If the maximum permissible sag
with a horizontal wind pressure of 39 kg/m2 of projected area and
12.7 mm radial ice coating is 6.3 m. Calculate the permissible span
between two supports at the same level allowing a safety factor of 2.
Ultimate strength of the conductor is 8,000 kg and weight of ice is
910 kg/m3.
Answer
Given : Diameter of the conductor is, d = 19.5 cm, Weight of

conductor, wc = 1.0 kg/m, Wind pressure, P = 39 kg/m2, Radial ice
coating, t = 12.7 mm, Maximum permissible sag, D = 6.3 m, Safety
factor = 2, Ultimate strength = 8000 kg, Weight of ice, wi = 910 kg/m3
To Find : Permissible span between two supports at the same level (L)
Ultimate strength 8000

1. Maximum allowable tension, T =  = 4000 kg
Safety factor 2
2. Are of ice-section = t(d + t)
=  × 12.7(19.5 + 12.7)
= 1284.723 mm2
= 1284 × 10– 6 m2
3. Weight of ice, wi = 910 × 1284 × 10– 6
= 1.1691 kg/m
4. Wind pressure, ww = 39(d + 2t)
= 39(19.5 + 2 × 12.7) × 10– 3
= 1.751 kg/m
5. Resultant weight, wr = ww2  (wc  wi )2  1.7512  (1.0  1.1691)2

= 2.7876 kg/m
wr L2
6.  Sag, D=
8T
2.7876 L2
6.3 =
8  4000
6.3  8  4000
L2 =
2.7876
7.  Length of span, L = 269 m
Que 3.9. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ?

How are they damped ?
A 132 kV transmission line has the following data :
Weight of conductor = 680 kg/km; Length of span = 260 m
Ultimate strength = 3100 kg; Safety factor = 2
Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should
be supported. Ground clearance required is 10 m.
Answer
A. Generation of vibration : Refer Q. 3.6, Page 3–11B, Unit-3.

B. Numerical :
Given : l = 260 m, w = 680 kg/km, Ultimate strength = 3100 kg,
SF = 2, Ground clearance = 10 m
To Find : Height of conductor above ground.
1. Maximum working tension,
Ultimate tensile strength 3100
H= =
Safety factor 2
= 1550 kg
wl2 680  (260)2
2. Sag, S= =
8H 8  1550
= 3.70 m
3. Height above ground = S + Ground clearance
= 3.70 + 10 = 13.70 m
PART-3
Overhead Line Insulators : Types of Insulators
and their Applications.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.10. Discuss the different types of Insulator.

OR
Describe pin type, suspension type and strain type insulators with
net sketch. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Pin type insulator :
1. Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric
power at voltage upto 33 kV.
Groove for conductor
Metal pin
Fig. 3.10.1. Pin type insulators.

2. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV the pin type insulator become bulky
and hence uneconomical.
3. On the upper end, there is a groove for housing the conductor. The pin
insulators are very firmly secured to the cross arm on the transmission
pole with the help of steel bolts.
4. The conductor passes through the groove on the upper end and is bound
by the binding wire of soft copper or soft aluminum i.e., of the same
material as that of conductor.
Advantage : It is cheaper for upto operating voltage of 33 kV.
Disadvantage : This type of insulator becomes very bulky and cost also
increase rapidly for higher operating voltage.
B. Suspension insulator :
1. These insulator used for high transmission lines. These insulators have
number of porcelain disc units. These units are connected to one another
in series with the help of metal links.
2. This forms a string of porcelain discs. The topmost insulators unit is
connected to the cross arm of the tower while the lowest insulator is
made to hold the conductor along the conductor shoe.
3. Each unit is designed for the low voltage for say 11 kV but a string of
such units give us the proper insulation against high level voltage.
4. The overall string of suspension type insulator is shown in the
Fig. 3.10.2.
Tower
Cross arm
Disc
Last unit
(line unit)
Line conductor
Fig. 3.10.2. String suspension insulator with 3 units.
Advantages :
1. In case of failure any of the unit, the replacement work can be done
very easily and entire string need not be replaced.
2. This type of insulator provides greater flexibility to the line.
Disadvantage : Suspension type insulators require large spacing
between the conductors of string.
C. Strain insulators :
1. These insulators are used when there is dead end of the line is at a sharp
curve or the line is crossing the river etc.
2. These insulators reduce the excessive tension on the line under such
abnormal condition. For high voltage strain insulators are used.
3. The discs of the strain insulators are in a vertical plane.
4. In case of condition like crossing of river, there is excessive tension on
the line. In such a case two or more strings of the insulators are used in
parallel.
Advantage : It is economical for high operating voltage.
Strain insulator Guy Strain
wire insulator
Pole
Guy wire Line
Jumper conductor
Pole Jumper
Line
conductor
( a) ( b)
Fig. 3.10.3. Use of strain insulator.
D. Shackle insulator :
1. This is also called spool insulators. These are primarily used for low
voltage distribution lines.
2. These insulators can be used in horizontal position or in vertical position.
These are used at the dead end of the aerial wire of service connection
to a house or a factory where there is excessive mechanical stress on
the line.
Bolt
Pole
Shackle
insulator
D shaped iron plate
Fig. 3.10.4. Shackle insulator.
E. Stay insulators :
1. The stay insulators are also called egg insulators. In case of low voltage
lines, it is necessary that the stays are to be insulated at a height of not
less than 3 meters from ground.
2. The stay insulators are used on stay wire to create insulation between
pole and stay clamp.
3. It is usually made of porcelain. It has two holes for the stay wires and the
design is such that in case the insulator breaks then the stay wires will
not fall on the ground.
11.2 cm 75 cm
75
mm
( a) (b )
Fig. 3.10.5. Stay insulator.
PART-4
Potential Distribution Over a String of Insulators,
Methods of Equalizing the Potential, String Efficiency.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.11. Explain how the potential is distributed over a string of

suspension insulators ? Also write about string efficiency.
Answer
A. Voltage distributed over a string :
1. Let C = Self capacitance
V = Voltage across string
v1, v2, v3 ... vn = Voltage drop across string from 1, 2, ... n
V1, V2, V3 ... Vn = Voltage between conductors
Capacitance to earth
k=
Self capacitance
Capacitance to earth = k × self capacitance = kC
C 1 v1 V1 Cross arm
kC I1 i1 V2
i2
v
C 2 2
Support kC Vp
i3
kC
Vp+1
C vp Vn = V
kC
IP ip
Ip P ip+1 vp+1
kC C i
p+1
C n
in
Line conductor
Fig. 3.11.1. Voltage distribution across the units of a string.
2. Applying KCL at node P,

ip+1 = ip + Ip
vp+1 (jC) = vp(jC) + Vp (jkC)
vp+1 = vp + kVp ...(3.11.1)
v1 + v2 + v3 ....... vn = V ...(3.11.2)
We can find voltage across any string using eq. (3.11.1) and (3.11.2).
3. Let us find voltage across each insulator of each string i.e., to calculate
v2, v3, v4, …….. vn in terms of v1.
4. Top most insulator or first insulator :
Voltage across insulator = v1
5. Second insulator :
Using eq. (3.11.1),
v2 = v1 + kV1
But V1 = v1
v2 = (1 + k) v1 ...(3.11.3)
6. Third insulator :
v3 = v2 + kV2
But V2 = v1 + v2
v3 = v2 + k(v1 + v2)
v3 = kv1 + (1 + k) v2 ...(3.11.4)
7. Fourth insulator :
v4 = v3 + kV3
But V3 = v1 + v2 + v3
v4 = v3 + k(v1 + v2 + v3)
v4 = k(v1 + v2) + (1 + k)v3 ...(3.11.5)
Similarly, we can calculate for all insulators.
8. It is clear that
v1 < v2 < v3 < v4 ………… < vn
Since mutual capacity of each disc is same and the current through the
top most unit is minimum, the voltage drop across that unit will be
minimum. Going towards power conductor the current goes on
increasing, and will be maximum in the lowest unit. So the voltage drop
is maximum there.
B. String Efficiency : String efficiency is measure of the utilization of
material in the string and is defined as :
Voltage across the string
=
n  Voltage across the insulator nearest to line conductor
where n is number of disc or insulator.
Que 3.12. Explain the methods of equalizing the potential across
the string insulator. And define string efficiency.
Answer
A. Methods of equalizing potential :
a. By using longer cross-arms :
1. The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K is ratio of
shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance.
2. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and more
uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K can be decreased by
reducing the shunt capacitance.
3. In order to reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor from
tower must be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be used.
4. However, limitations of cost and strength of tower do not allow the use
of very long cross-arm.
Tower
Cross arm
Shunt
capacitor
Line
Fig. 3.12.1.
b. By using a guard ring :
1. A guard ring is simply a metal ring which is electrically connected to the
conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator.
2. The potential across unit in a string can be equalized by using a guard
ring which is metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and
surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. 3.13.2.
C
C1 i1
i1
C2
C
C1 i2 i2 C
3
I
C
guard
ring
Fig. 3.12.2.
3. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the
line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way that shunt
capacitance currents i1, i2 etc., are equal to metal fittings line capacitance
currents i1, i2 etc.
4. The result is that same charging current I flows through each unit of
string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across
the unit.
c. By grading the insulators :
1. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that
each has a different capacitance.
2. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e., they are assembled in the
string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum capacitance,
increasing progressively as the bottom unit is reached.
3. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance. This method tends
to equalise the potential distribution across the units in the string.
B. String efficiency : Refer Q. 3.11, Page 3–19B, Unit-3.
Que 3.13. Explain why the voltage does not divide equally across
the units of a string insulator.
Find the voltage distribution and string efficiency of a three unit
suspension insulator string if the capacitance of the link pins to
earth and to the line are respectively 20 % and 10 % of the self
capacitance of each unit. If a guard ring increases the capacitance
to the line of lower link pin to 35 % of the self capacitance of each
unit, find the redistribution of voltage and string efficiency.
Answer
A. Reason : The voltage does not divide equally across the various units of
a string insulator. The capacitance between the metal parts of the
insulators and the tower structure is the main reason for this.
B. Numerical :
0.2C C 0.1C V1
i1 P i1
i2
C V2
0.2C 0.1C
i2 i3 i2
C
V3
Fig. 3.13.1.

I2 + i1 = I1 + i1
V2C + (V2 + V3) 0.1 C = V1 C + 0.2 V1 C
1.2 V1 – 1.1 V2 – 0.1 V3 = 0 ...(3.13.1)
2. Similarly at Q,
I3 + i2 = I2 + i2
V3C + 0.1 V3C = V2 C + 0.2 (V1 + V2) C
0.2 V1 – 1.2 V2 – 1.1 V3 = 0 ...(3.13.2)
3. From eq. (3.13.1) and (3.13.2), we get
V2 = 0.78 V3 and V1 = 0.80 V3
4. V = V1 + V2 + V3
= 0.80 V3 + 0.78 V3 + V3 = 2.58 V3
V3 = 38.76 % V
V2 = 30.23 % V
V1 = 31 % V
V 2.58 V3
5. String efficiency =  100   100  86 %
3V3 3 V3
With guard ring : Pin to line capacitance is increased from 0.1C to
0.35C.
1. 1.2 V1 – 1.1 V2 – 0.1 V3 = 0 ...(3.13.3)
0.2 V1 + 1.2 V2 – 1.35 V3 = 0 ...(3.13.4)
2. From eq. (3.13.3) and (3.13.4),
V2 = 0.96 V3 and V1 = 0.97 V3
3. V = V1 + V2 + V3
= 0.97 V3 + 0.96 V3 + V3 = 2.93 V3
V3 = 34.13 % V
V2 = 32.76 % V
V1 = 33.1 % V
V 2.93 V3
4. String efficiency =   97.67 %
3  V3 3  V3
Que 3.14. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of

3 identical insulators of self-capacitance C farad. The shunt
capacitance of connecting metal work of each insulator is 0.2 C to
earth and 0.1 C to line. Calculate the string efficiency of the system
if a guard ring increases the capacitance to the line of metal work of
the lowest insulator to 0.3 C. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
Given : Conductor to earth capacitance = 0.2C

Conductor to line capacitance = 0.01C
To Find : String efficiency if the guard ring increases the capacitance
to the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to 0.3C
1. Let E1, E2 and E3 be the voltage drops across the discs as shown in
Fig. 3.14.1. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node A, we have
I1
Ia 0.2C C 0.1C
A I2 Ix
0.2C C 0.1C
Ib
B I3 Iy
C
Fig. 3.14.1.
I2 + Ix = I1 + Ia
E2C + (E2 + E3)0.1C – E1C – 0.2E1C = 0
E2 + (E2 + E3) 0.1 – E1 – 0.2E1 = 0
1.1E2 + 0.1E3 – 1.2E1 = 0
1.2E1 – 1.1E2 – 0.1E3 = 0 ...(3.14.1)
2. Again writing equation at node B
I3 + Iy – I2 – Ib = 0
E3C + E30.1C – E2C – (E1 + E2) 0.2C = 0
E3 + 0.1E3 – 1.2E2 – 0.2E1 = 0
0.2E1 + 1.2E2 – 1.1E3 = 0 ...(3.14.2)
3. There are three unknowns with two equations. We divide both of
them by E3 and rewrite them as
12x – 11y = 1 ...(3.14.3)
2x + 12y = 11 ...(3.14.4)
E1 E
where, x = and y = 2
E3 E3
0.2E1 + 1.2E2 – 1.3E3 = 0
2x + 12y = 13
12x – 11y = 1
12x + 72y = 78
12x – 11y = 1
————————
83y = 77
Now, y = 0.9277
2x = 13 – 12 × 0.9277
x = 0.9337
E1 E2
4.  = 0.9337 and = 0.9277
E3 E3
E1 =0.9337E3 and E2 = 0.9277E3
E= E1 + E2 + E3 = 0.9337E3 + 0.9277E3 + E3
E3 =0.3494E or 34.94 %
E2 =0.9277 × 34.94 % = 32.42 %
E1 =0.9337 × 34.94 = 32.62 %
1
5. % String efficiency = × 100 = 95.4 %
3  0.3494
Que 3.15. A string of n suspension insulators is to be fitted with a

guard ring. If the pin to earth capacitance are all equal to C, derive
the general expression for the line to pin capacitor in terms of n, C
and p (number of pins), so as to give uniform voltage distributions
over the string. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. Since voltage across each unit is same, current flowing in each unit, i.e.,
I1, I2.....I6, I7 etc., will be equal.
2. Applying KCL at junction P,
I1 + Ia = IA + I2
But I1 = I2
 Ia = IA
i.e., EC = (n – 1)EA
C
A=
n1
3. Similarly, by applying KCL at Q,
I2 + Ib = IB + I3
But I2 = I3
 Ib = IB
2EC = (n – 2) EB
2C
B=
n4
4. Similarly,
3C 4C 5C
C= ,D= ,E=
n3 n4 n5
6C 7C
F= and G =
n6 n7
5. In general the capacitance from the shield to the pth link from the top is
pC
given by Cp =
n p
mC E
C I1 A
Ia IA (n – 1)E
P
mC E
C I2 B
Ib IB (n – 2)E
Q
mC E
C I3 C
Ic IC (n – 3)E
mC E
C I4 D
Id ID (n – 4)E
mC E
C I5 E
Ie IE (n – 5)E
mC E
C I6 F
If IF (n – 6)E
mC E
C I7 G
Ig IG
(n – 7)E
E
Conductor I8
location
Fig. 3.15.1.
Que 3.16. Explain the methods of equalizing the potential across

the string insulator. A string of 8 suspension insulators is to be
fitted with a grading ring. If the pin to earth capacitance is equal to
C, find the values of line of pin capacitances that would give a uniform
voltage distribution over the string. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
i. Methods of equalizing the potential : Refer Q. 3.12,
ii. Numerical :
1. The capacitance of the pth link from the top is given by,
pC g
Cp =
n p
2. Here n = 8, Cg = C. Hence the line to pin capacitance from the top are
given by,
1c 1 2c 1
c1 =  c, c2   c
81 7 82 3
3c 3 4c 4
c3 =  c, c4   c=c
83 5 84 4
5c 5c 6c
c5 =  , c6  3c
85 3 86
7c
c7 = =7c
87

Q. 1. Explain sag. Also derive expression for sag of a conductor

in overhead transmission line when supported at equal
levels and at two different levels.
Q. 2. Explain catenary method for the calculation of sag and

An overhead line has a span of 200 metres, the line conductor
weights 0.7 kg per meter. Calculate the maximum sag if
allowable tension in the line is 1,400 kg. Prove formula used.
Q. 3. Discuss the effect of atmospheric condition on transmission

line.
Q. 4. Explain sag template and its use.

Q. 5. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level

supports. The line conductor has a cross sectional area of
1.25 cm2 and it weights 120 kg per 100 m. If the breaking
stress of the copper conductor is 4220 kg/cm2, calculate the
maximum sag for a safety factor of 4. Assume maximum
wind pressure of 90 kg/m2 of projected surface.
Q. 6. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ? How

are they damped ?
A 132 kV transmission line has the following data :
Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor
should be supported. Ground clearance required is 10 m.
Q. 7. Discuss the different types of Insulator.

Q. 8. Explain the methods of equalizing the potential across the

string insulator. And define string efficiency.

4 Transmission Line
Parameters
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Inductance and Capacitance .................. 4–2B to 4–27B
Calculations of Transmission
Lines : Line Conductors,
Inductance and Capacitance
of Single Phase and three Phase
Lines with Symmetrical and
Unsymmetrical Spacing
Part-2 : Composite ................................................. 4–28B to 4–32B

Conductors-Transposition,
Bundled Conductors, and
Effect of Earth on Capacitance
Transmission Line Parameters 4–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
PART-1
Inductance and Capacitance Calculations of Transmission
Lines : Line Conductors, Inductance and Capacitance of
Single Phase and three Phase Lines with Symmetrical and
Unsymmetrical Spacing.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. What do you understand by line conductor ? Also explain

the different types of line conductors in power system.
Answer
A. Line conductors : It is a material or element which allows free
movement of electrons and therefore allows easy flow of electricity.
B. Types : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2–18B, Unit-2.
Que 4.2. Explain the factors, which are considered during

designing a transmission line. Also explain how ground wire
selection is done ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. Choice for transmission voltage : The line voltage affects the
performance of line and its cost. For getting the optimum operation
transmission voltage, we may use following empirical formula
0.5
 D P 
V = 5.5   
1.6 100 
Here V = Operating line voltage in kV
D = Distance of transmission in km
P = Power handled in kW
A standard voltage nearer to that obtained with above formula is selected
for the given line. The formula gives the basic estimate. By considering
various technical and economic aspects, it is possible to obtain the most
economical voltage.
2. Conductor size selection : The size of conductors should be properly
selected during the design as about 30 to 45 % of total cost of line is
involved in cost of conductor. The size of conductor decides cost of towers
and foundations. The losses in line are also dependent on size of conductor
selected. Normally ACSR conductors are used which are available in
variety of sizes.
3. Choice of span and conductor configuration : If line span is long
then less number of towers will be required but the towers will be taller
and expensive. The longer line span is used for higher operating voltage
so that high cost of insulators is reduced.
4. Number of circuits : A transmission line may consist of single circuit
or double circuit. With double circuit line high power can be transferred
and reliability is more than that of single circuit line.
5. Ground wire selection : The phase conductors are protected from
lightning strokes using ground wire. The ground wire is placed above
the phase conductors. It is grounded at every or alternate tower due to
which lightning current are diverted to ground.
The ground wire should be designed to carry the maximum expected
lightning current without heating. It must have enough mechanical
strength so as to avoid excessive heating of ground wire due to maximum
lightning current. The size of ground wire is based on the mechanical
strength and normally material used for ground wire is galvanized steel.
6. Insulation design : The performance of line is greatly affected by
insulation design. It should take care of switching temporary and
atmospheric overvoltage.
Que 4.3. Describe the various conductor configurations and

choice of number of circuits for EHV transmission lines.
OR
Describe the various conductor configurations and choice of voltage,
number of circuits for EHV transmission lines. Make economic
comparison of EHV-AC & HVDC system.
Answer
A. Conductor configuration for EHV transmission line : For high
voltagelines above 400 kV, bundled conductors are used.
Bundled conductor : Refer Q. 2.9, Page 2–19B, Unit-2.
B. Number of circuit of lines :
1. Single circuit : In this configuration three conductors run parallel to
each other carrying three phase of current.
a b a
b
c
c
Fig. 4.3.1. Single circuit.
2. Single circuit transposed line : In this configuration 3 parallel

conductors are so placed that after particular span each conductor takes
the position of other conductor.
a a b c
c a b
c
b c a
b
Fig. 4.3.2. Transposition of conductors.
3. Double circuit : In this configuration two sets of three conductors run

parallel to each other.
a b
b e
c f
Fig. 4.3.3. Double circuit.
4. Double circuit transposed : In this configuration two set of three
parallel conductors are so placed such that each conductor takes the
position of other conductor after a fixed span of length.
h
a c c b b a
f
b b a a c c
c a b c a b
1 2 3
Fig. 4.3.4. Transposed double circuit line.
C. Choice of Voltage : Refer Q. 4.2, Page 4–2B, Unit-4.

D. Comparison :
S. No. HVDC EHV-AC
1. Line construction is simpler. Line construction is complex.
2. No skin effect. Skin effect is prominent.
3. Le ss corona and radio More corona and radio
interference. interference.
4. Expensive converters are Converters required are less
required. expensive.
5. Voltage level transformation Voltage level transformation can
is not easier. be easily done using
transformers.
Que 4.4. Derive the expression for inductance of a conductor due

to :
i. Internal flux.
ii. External flux.
Answer
i. Inductance due to internal flux :
1. Consider a long, cylindrical conductor.
2. Let us assume that I is the current flowing through it and conductor
through which current is returning is so far away that magnetic field
due to returning conductor is not affecting the flux lines due to conductor
under consideration. Lines of flux are concentric with conductor.
ds
dx
x
r
Flux
Fig. 4.4.1. Cross-section of a cylindrical conductor.
3. By Ampere’s Law,  H ds = Ix
x ...(4.4.1)
where, Hx = Magnetic field intensity at distance x from centre
s = Distance along path

Ix = Current enclosed
4. Integration of ds along closed circular path = 2x, eq. (4.4.1) becomes
2xHx = Ix ...(4.4.2)
5. Assuming uniform current density inside conductor.
x 2
Ix = I ...(4.4.3)
r 2
6. Solving eq. (4.4.2) and (4.4.3), we get
x2
Hx = I
r 2 2x
x
= I AT/m ...(4.4.4)
2r 2
7. If  = o r , permeability of conductor
Flux density at distance x from centre of conductor,
xI
Bx = H x  Wb/m2 ...(4.4.5)
2r 2
8. Flux enclosed in element of thickness dx per metre axial length of
conductor,
xI
d = dx ...(4.4.6)
2r 2
This flux links with current Ix.
9. Flux linkage per metre length of conductor is given by,
x 2  x3
d= 2
 d  I dx Wb-T ...(4.4.7)
r 2r 4
10. Integrating eq. (4.4.7) from centre to surface for total flux linkage inside
conductor.
r
x 3 I
int =  2 r 4
Idx  Wb- T/ m ...(4.4.8)
o
8
11. For relative permeability, r = 1
 = 4 × 10–7 H/m (o = 4 × 10–7 H/m)
I
int =× 10–7 Wb-T/m ...(4.4.9)
2
Inductance per unit length
 int 1
Lint =   10 7 H/m ...(4.4.10)
I 2
ii. Inductance due to external flux :

1. Flux linkage of an isolated conductor due to only that portion of the
external flux lies between two points P1 and P2 at distance D1 and D2
respectively from the centre of conductor.
2. Conductor carries I ampere current. Flux lines are concentric circles.
P1
D1 dx
D2
P2
Fig. 4.4.2. A conductor at external points P1 and P2.

3. Taking element dx at distance x from centre of conductor, field intensity
is Hx.
mmf around element
 H dx
x = Ix = I
Hx2x = I
I
Hx = AT/m ...(4.4.11)
2x
I
4. Flux density in element, Bx = Hx = Wb/m2 ...(4.4.12)
2x
I
5. Flux in the element dx, d= dx Wb/m ...(4.4.13)
2x
6. Flux linkages dper meter are equal to the flux dsince external flux
links all the current in the conductor.
I
d = dx Wb–T/m ...(4.4.14)
2x
7. Total flux linkages between point P1 and P2 are obtained by integrating
dfrom x = D1 to x = D2
D2
I I D2
12 =  2x dx  2 ln D
D1 1
8. For relative permeability r = 1, and  = 0 r

D2
12 = 2  10 7 I ln Wb-T/m
D1
Inductance due to flux between P1 and P2

12 D 
L12 =  2  10 7 ln  2 
I  D1 
Que 4.5. Deduce an expression for the total inductance of a single

phase line.
Answer
1. First conductor carries current. Second conductor is return circuit of
other. Both conductors are solid round conductor having radii r1 and r2.
Conductor 1 Conductor 2
r1 r2
Fig. 4.5.1. Single phase two wire line.
1
2. For internal flux : L1(int) =  10 7
2
7 D
For external flux : L1(ext) = 2  10 ln
r1
1 D
3. Total Inductance, L1 = 2  10 7   ln 
 4 r1 
 D
= 2  10 7  ln e1/ 4  ln 
 r1 
D
= 2  10 7 ln
e1/ 4 r1
7 D
= 2  10 ln [e– 1/4 = 0.778]
0.7788r1
7 D
= 2  10 ln H/m
r1
where, r1 = Geometric mean radius (GMR) of conductor.
4. Similarly, inductance due to current in second conductor
D
L2 = 2  10 7 ln H/m
r2
5. If r1 = r2 = r
Total inductance of single-phase circuit is given by
7 D
L = 4  10 ln H/m
r
Que 4.6. Derive the expression for the inductance of three phase
line with conductors untransposed (unsymmetrical spacing). What
is the significance of imaginary term in the expression for
inductance ?
Answer
1. Consider a single circuit 3 system as shown in Fig. 4.6.1. The three

conductors are unsymmetrically placed i.e., D12  D23  D31 and each
conductor has a radius of r meters.
2. The flux linkage of conductor a due to Ia, Ib and Ic
Ia
D31 D12
Ic Ib
D23
Fig. 4.6.1.
 1 1 1 
a = 2 × 10–7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln  ...(4.6.1)
 r  D12 D 31 
 1 1 1 
3. Similarly, b = 2×10–7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln  ...(4.6.2)
 D 12 r  D 23 
 1 1 1
c = 2 × 10–7  I a ln  I b ln  I c ln  ...(4.6.3)
 D31 D23 r 
4. Now taking Ia as a reference phasor of unbalanced three phase system
Ib = k2Ic a and Ic = kIa
where, k = – 0.5 + j0.866
k2 = – 0.5 – j0.866
5. Substituting the values of Ib and Ic in the eq. (4.6.1), we get
 1
a = 2 × 10–7  I a ln  I a (0.5  j0.866)
 r
1 1 
ln  I a (0.5  j0.866) ln 
D12 D31 
a  1 1 3 D31 
 La = I = 2 × 10–7  ln  ln j ln 
a  r  D31 D12 2 D12 
6. Similarly
 1 1 3 D12 
Lb = 2 × 10–7  ln r   ln j
2
ln 
D23 
 D D
23 12
 1 1 3 D23 
Lc = 2 × 10–7  ln r   ln j
2
ln 
D31 
 D23 D31
7. Significance of imaginary term in expression of inductance :
Individual phase inductance o f an untranspo se d line with
unsymmetrical spacing is a complex number. The imaginary part of
flux-linkage or inductance represents exchange of energy between
phases.
8. For transposed line, average value of inductance
L  Lb  Lc
L= a
3
1  7
 1 1 3 
= 3  2  10  3ln r   ln D D D  j 2 ln1 
  23 31 12  
3 D D D
= 2 × 10–7 ln 23 31 12
r
Deq
= 2 × 10– 7 ln H/m
r
Que 4.7. Deduce en expression for inductance of a three phase
transmission line.
OR
Derive the inductance per phase for a three phase transposed
transmission line. Also calculate the inductance for horizontal and
equilateral triangular configuration. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Three phase line : Three phase line can be of two types :
i. Inductance of a three phase transmission with unsymmetrical
spacing : Refer Q. 4.6, Page 4–9B, Unit-4.
ii. Symmetrical three phase line :
1. As shown in Fig. 4.7.1, in such arrangement conductors are situated at
the corners of an equilateral triangle.
D D
c D b
Fig. 4.7.1. Symmetrical 3  line.
D = Spacing between conductors.
r = Radius of each conductor.
2. Flux linkage of conductor a
 1 1 1 
a = 2  10 7  I a ln  I b ln  Ic ln 
 Daa Dab Dac 
Dab = Dac = D
Daa = r = re–1/4
7  1 1 1
a = 2  10  Ia ln  I b ln  Ic ln 
 r D D
7  1 1
= 2  10  I a ln  (Ib  I c )ln 
 r D
3. For three wire system algebraic sum of current in conductor is zero
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Ib + Ic = –Ia
 1 1 7  1 1
a = 2  10 7  I a ln  I a ln  = 2  10  I a  ln r  ln D 
 r  D    
D
= 2  10 7  Ia ln Wb-T/m
r
4. Inductance of conductors a is
a D
 2  10 7 ln H/m
La =
Ia r
5. The inductance of conductors b and c will also be the same as that of a,
because of symmetry
D
Lb = Lc = 2 × 10–7 ln
H/m
r
iii. Unsymmetrical spacing but transposed :
a
c b
D12 a
D31 Position 1
b a c
Position 2
c b a
b c Position 3
D23
Fig. 4.7.2. Transposition cycle of unequally

spaced three phase line conductors.
1. Flux linkage of conductor a; when a is in the position 1, b in position 2

and c in position 3
 1 1 1 
a1 = 2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln 
 r  D 12 D 31 
2. When conductor a is in position 2, b in position 3 and c in position 1
 1 1 1 
a2 = 2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln 
 r  D 23 D 12 
 1 1 1 
a3 = 2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln 
 r  D 31 D 23 
4. Average value of flux linkages of a is
1
a =    a1   a 2   a3 
3
1 
7  1 1 1 
=  2  10  I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln
3  r D12 D31 
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
  Ia ln  Ib ln  I c ln  I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln 
 r D23 D12   r D31 D23  
2  1 1 1 
=  107  3 I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln 
3   r  D D D
12 23 31 D D D
12 23 31 
2 
7  1 1 
= 3  10  3 I a ln r    Ib  I c  ln D D D 
 12 23 31
5. For balanced condition Ia + Ib + Ic = 0

Ib + Ic = – Ia
 1 1 1 
a = 2  10 7  Ia ln  I a ln 
 r 3 D12 D23 D31 
7 ( D12 D23 D31 )1/ 3

= 2  10  I a ln
r
6. Average inductance of phase a
a ( D D D )1/ 3
La =  2  10 7 ln 12 23 31 H/ m
Ia r
( D12 D23 D31 )1/3

7. Similarly, Lb = Lc = 2  10 7 ln H/ m
r
Que 4.8. Discuss the concept of self GMD and mutual GMD with
the help of suitable example.
Answer
A. Self-GMD (Ds) :
1. It is also called geometrical mean radius (GMR).
2. Inductance per conductor per meter length is given by,
1 D
L = 2 × 10–7   ln 
4 r
 1  D
L =  2  10 7     2  10 7 ln 
 4  r
D
L = 2 × 10 – 7 ln
Ds
where, Ds = Self-GMD or GMR = 0.7788r
Sometimes GMR is denoted by r.
3. Self-GMD of a conductor depends upon the size and shape of the
conductor and is independent of the spacing between the conductors.
B. Mutual-GMD (Dm) :
1. The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distance from one
conductor to the other. It simply represents the equivalent geometrical
spacing.
Example :
1. The conductor arrangement of the double circuit is shown in Fig. 4.8.1.
Let the radius of each conductor be r.
a c
b b
c a
Fig. 4.8.1.
2. Self-GMD of conductor = 0.7788r
3. Self-GMD of combination aa,
Ds1 = (Daa × Daa × Daa × Daa)1/4
4. Self-GMD of combination bb,
Ds2 = (Dbb Dbb Dbb Dcc)1/4
5. Self-GMD of combination cc′,

Ds3 = (Dcc Dcc Dcc Dcc)1/4
6. Equivalent self-GMD of one phase,
Ds = (Ds1 × Ds2 × Ds3)1/3
7. Since each conductor has the same radius, therefore the value of Ds is
same for the all phases.
8. Mutual-GMD between phases A and B,
DAB = (Dab × Dab × Dab × Dab)1/4
Mutual-GMD Between phases B and C,
DBC = (Dbc × Dbc × Dbc × Dbc)1/4
DCA = (Dca × Dca × Dca × Dca)1/4
9. Equivalent mutual-GMD, Dm = (DAB × DBC × DCA)1/3
10. Mutual-GMD is independent of exact size, shape and orientation of the
conductor and depends only upon the spacing.
Que 4.9. Find the inductance per phase of symmetrically spaced
double circuit 3-phase line. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Double circuit three phase lines with transposition :
Dc'a
Dab Dbc' Dab' Db'c'
b Dca Dc'a'
Dbc Da'b Db'c Da'b'
c Dca'
a b
A B
a' b'
c
B b C
b' c'
c a
C A
c' a'
Fig. 4.9.1.
1. Formula for inductance of a 3 unsymmetrical line

 Mutual GMD 
L = 2  10 7 ln   ...(4.9.1)
 Self GMD 
2. For double circuit line
DAB = Mutual GMD between phase A & B i.e., between
a, a and b, b
= (Dab Dab Dab Dab)1/4
DBC = Mutual GMD between phases B and C i.e.,
between b, b and c, c
= (Dbc Dbc Dbc Dbc)1/4
DCA = Mutual GMD between phases C and A i.e.,
between c, c and a, a
= (Dca Dca Dca Dca)1/4
3. Mutual GMD of line
Dm = (DAB DBC DCA)1/3
= (Dab Dbc Dca Dab Dbc Dca Dab Dbc Dca Dab
Dbc Dca)1/12
DSA = Self GMD of phase A i.e., a, a
= (Daa Daa Daa Daa)1/4
1/ 4 1/ 2
 2
= r ' r ' Daa '    r ' Daa ' 
DSB = Self GMD of phase B i.e., b, b'
= (Dbb Db'b' Dbb' Db'b)1/4
1/ 4 1/ 2
 2
= r ' r ' Dbb '    r ' Daa ' 
DSC = Self GMD of phase C i.e., c, c
= (Dcc Dcc Dcc Dcc)1/4
1/ 4 1/ 2
 2
= r ' r ' Dbb '    r ' Daa ' 
4. Equivalent self GMD,

Ds = (DSA DSB DSC)1/3
= (r Daa . r Dbb . r Dcc)1/6

= (r3 Daa Dbb Dcc)1/6
5. Inductance of double circuit line per phase
Dm
L = 2  107 ln
Ds
1
( D D D D D D D D D D D D )2
7
= 2  10 ln ab bc ca ab ' bc3' ca ' a ' b b' c 1/c '6a a ' b ' b ' c' c' a '
(r ' Daa ' Dbb' Dcc ' )
Case I :
Inductance of 3 double circuit line with hexagonal spacing as shown in
Fig. 4.9.2.
a D c'
D D
b 3D 2D b'
D
D
c D a'
Fig. 4.9.2. Double circuit three phase line with hexagonal spacing.
1. Dab = Dbc = Dca = Dca = Dab = Dbc = D
Dca = Dab = Dbc = Dab = Dbc = Dca = 3D
Daa = Dbb = Dcc = 2D
2. Inductance per phase
[ D6 ( 3D)6 ]1/12
L = 2  10 7 ln
[2r '(2D)3 ]1/ 6
( 3 D2 )1/ 2
= 2  10 7 ln
[ r ' 2 D ]1/ 2
 3D
= 10 7 ln   H/m
 2r ' 
Case II :
a p c'
s q
b b'
r
s
c a'
Fig. 4.9.3. Double circuit three phase line with flat vertical spacing.
1. Conductors are placed flat and vertically spaced.

Dab = Dbc = Dab = Dbc = Dca = s
Dac = Dac = 2s
Dac = Dbb = Dca = p

Dab = Dba = Dbc = Dcb = q
Daa = Dcc = r
2. Inductance per phase using eq. (4.9.1)
1
(s . s .2s . q. q . p . q. q. p. s . s .2s)12
L = 2  10 7 ln
(r '3 . r . p. r .)1/ 6
7
 1/ 6  s  1/ 2  q  1/ 3 
= 2  10 ln  2      H/ m
 r'  r  
 
Que 4.10. Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit
3-phase line system shown in Fig. 4.10.1. The conductors are
transposed and are of radius 0.75 cm each. The phase sequence is
abc.
4m
a c'
3m
5.5 m
b 0.75 m 0.75 m b
3m
4m
c a'
Fig. 4.10.1.
Answer
Given : Radius = 0.75 cm

To Find : Inductance per phase per km.
1. GMR of conductor
r = 0.7788 × 0.75 × 10–2
= 0.5841 × 10–2 m
= 5.841 mm
2. Dab = Db'c' = Dbc = Da'b' = 32  0.752 = 3.09 m
3. Dab' = Dbc' = Db'c = Da'b = (5.5  0.75)2  32

= 6.93 m
Dca = Dac' = 3 + 3 = 6 m
Daa' = Dcc' = (5.5)2  62 = 8.14 m

4. Daa = Da'a' = Dbb = Db'b' = Dcc = Dc'c'
= r = 5.841 mm
5. From symmetry, the self GMD of conductors of phase A and phase C
must be equal.
 DSA = DSC = 4 Daa Daa ' Da' a ' Da ' a
= 4
5.841  103  8.14  5.841  103  8.14
= 0.2180 m
DSC = 4 Dbb Dbb ' Db ' b ' Db' b
= 4
r ' 7  r ' 7 = r ' 7 = 0.2022 m
6. Now, net self GMD of the circuit
DS = 3 DSA DSB DSC
= 3
0.2180  0.2020  0.2180
= 0.2126 m
7. Again from symmetry, the mutual GMD between phase A and B must
be equal to the GMD between B and C.
 DAB = DBC = 4 Dab Dab' Da ' b Da ' b'
= 4
3.09  6.93  6.93  3.09
= 4.6274 m
Mutual GMD between phase A and C
DCA = 4 Dca Dca ' Dc' a Dc ' a'
= 4
6446
= 4.8990 m
8. Net mutual GMD, Dm
= 3 DAB DBC DCA
= 3
4.6274  4.8990  4.6274
= 4.7162 m
9. Inductance per phase per km
Dm
= 2× 10–4 ln H/km/phase
DS
4.7162
= 2× 10–4 ln
0.2126
= 0.6199 mH/km/phase
Que 4.11. A three phase 50 Hz transmission line consists of three

equal conductors of radii , placed in a horizontal plane, with a
spacing of 6 m between the middle and each outer conductor.
Determine the inductive reactance per phase per km of the
transposed line if the radius of each conductor is 12.5 mm.
Answer
Given : f = 50 Hz, r = 12.5 mm

To Find : Inductive reactance per phase per km.
6m 6m
Fig. 4.11.1.
1. Deq = (D.D.2D)1/3
= (6 × 6 × 12)1/3 = 7.558
2. Inductance/phase/m
 D 
L =  0.5  2 ln eq   10 –7
 r 
  7.558  103   –7
=  0.5  2 ln     10
  12.5 
= 13.31 × 10–7 H/m
= 13.31 × 10–7 × 1000 H/km
= 13.31 × 10–4 H/km
Que 4.12. A single circuit 3-phase line operated at 50 Hz is arranged

as follows. The conductor diameter is 0.6 cm. Determine the
inductance per km.
1.5 m 1.5 m
3m
Fig. 4.12.1.

Answer
(Ans. L = 13.39 × 10– 4 H/km)
Que 4.13. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a single

phase overhead transmission line. What do you mean by self G.M.D.
and mutual G.M.D. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Expression for potential difference :
1. From Gauss’s law, electric field density (D) at a point distance x metres
from a conductor having charge q is,
q
D= C/m2 ...(4.13.1)
2xl
(Taking length of conductor = 1 m)
2. Electric field intensity at distance x,
D q
E=  V/m
 2x
3. Voltage between P1 and P2,
D2 D2
q
V12 =  E dx  
D1 D1
2x
dx
q D
= ln 2 V ...(4.13.2)
2 D1
P1
Path of integration
D1 dx
n
+q
D2 P2
Equipotential
surfaces
Fig. 4.13.1. Cylindrical conductor having uniformly

distributed positive charge.
B. Capacitance of single phase line :

1. Potential due to qa using eq. (4.13.2)
qa D
Vab = ln ...(4.13.3)
2 ra
ra qa rb qb
a
b
D
Fig. 4.13.2. Single phase line.
2. Potential due to qb using eq. (4.13.2)
qb r
Vab = ln b ...(4.13.4)
2 D
3. Net potential from a to b,
1  D r 
Vab = Vab + Vab =  qa ln  qb ln b  ...(4.13.5)
2  ra D 
4. Since b is return conductor,
qa = – qb
5. On putting qa = – qb, eq. (4.13.5) becomes
1  D2 
Vab = qa ln  
2  ra rb 
1 D
= qa ln ...(4.13.6)
 ra rb
6. Now capacitance of line,
qa 
Cab =  F/m ...(4.13.7)
Vab ln ( D / ra rb )
7. If ra = rb = r then eq. (4.13.7) becomes

Cab = F/m ...(4.13.8)
ln ( D / r )
8. The potential difference between each conductor and neutral is half the
potential difference between the two conductors. This means capacitance
of one of the conductor with respect to the neutral point will be two
times the capacitance of single phase line.
2
Can = Cbn = 2 Cab = F/m
D
ln
r
Can = Capacitance of conductor with respect to neutral
point N.
a b a N b
Cab Can Cbn

Fig. 4.13.3.
C. Self GMD and mutual GMD : Refer Q. 4.8, Page 4–12B, Unit-4.
Que 4.14. Derive expression for capacitance of three phase line.

OR
Derive the expression for capacitance of unsymmetrically and
symmetrically spaced three phase lines. Compare the results.
OR
Give the concept of self GMD. Starting from first principles, derive
the expression for capacitance of a 3-phase symmetrical spaced
transmission line. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A. 3  line symmetrically spaced or equilateral spacing :
1. Taking conductor a
Voltage between conductor a and b
1  D r
Vab =  qa ln  qb ln  ...(4.14.1)
2  r D
2. Voltage between conductor a and c
1  D r
Vac =  qa ln  qc ln  ...(4.14.2)
2  r D
3. Adding eq. (4.14.1) and (4.14.2)
1  D r
Vab + Vac = 2qa ln  (qb  qc ) ln  ...(4.14.3)
2  r D
4. Also, qa + qb + qc= 0
qb + qc = – qa
5. Substituting value of qb + qc in eq. (4.14.3)
1  D r
Vab + Vac = 2qa ln  qa ln 
2  r D
1  D D
= 2 qa ln  qa ln 
2  r r
3qa D
Vab + Vac = ln ...(4.14.4)
2 r
a Vcn
Vca
Vab
Cn Cn ND 130°
DN
Van
Cn Cn
Cn Cn
b N c Vbn Vbc
D
(a) Three phase line (b) Phasor diagram of voltages.
with equilateral spacing.
Fig. 4.14.1.
6. Vab = 3 Van 30

Vac = –V ca
= 3 Van   30
Vab + Vac = 3V an ...(4.14.5)
7. From eq. (4.14.4) and (4.14.5)
3qa D
3Van = ln
2 r
qa D
Van = ln ...(4.14.6)
2 r
8. Line to neutral capacitance,
qa 2
Cn =  F/m ...(4.14.7)
Van ln D / r
For air, r = 1
Since  = or
20
Cn =
F/ m ...(4.14.8)
ln D / r
B. 3 line unsymmetrically spaced but transposed :
1. When phase a is in position 1, b in position 2 and c in position 3.
1  D12 r 
Vab =  qa ln  qb ln  ...(4.14.9)
2  r D12 
2. When a in position 2, b in position 3 and c in position 1
1  D23 r 
Vab =  qa ln  qb ln  ...(4.14.10)
2  r D 23 

3. When a in position 3, b in position 1 and c in position 2

1  D31 r 
Vab =  qa ln  qb ln  ...(4.14.11)
2  r D31 
a
a c b
Position 1
D12 D31 b a c
Position 2
c b a
b c Position 3
D23
Fig. 4.14.2. Transposition cycle of

unequally spaced three phase line conductors.
4. Average voltage between conductor a and b :
1 1  D12 D23 D31 r3 
Vab =   qa ln 3
 qb ln  ...(4.14.12)
3 2  r D12 D23 D31 
3 3
1  D   r  
Vab =   qa ln  m   qb ln   
6   r   Dm  

1  D r 
Vab =   qa ln m  qb ln  ...(4.14.13)
2  r Dm 
where Dm = (D12D23D31)1/3
is mutual geometric mean distance between phase
5. Similarly, average voltage between conductor a and c
1  Dm r 
Vac =  qa ln  qc ln  ...(4.14.14)
2  r Dm 
6. Similarly, average voltage between conductor b and c
1  Dm r 
Vbc =  qb ln  qc ln  ...(4.14.15)
2  r Dm 
7. Let line to neutral voltage of conductor a is Van
3Van = Vab + Vac
1  Dm r r 
= 2 qa ln  qb ln  qc ln 
2  r Dm Dm 
...(4.14.16)
8. Here, qa + qb + qc = 0
qb + qc = – qa
Eq. (4.14.16) becomes
3 D 
3Van = qa ln  m  ...(4.14.17)
2  r 
9. Capacitance of line a to neutral
qa 2
Can =  F/m ...(4.14.18)
Van ln ( Dm / r)
Comparison : In unsymmetrically spaced 3 line, capacitance to each

phase to neutral not same while in symmetrically spaced 3 line,
capacitance to each phase to neutral is same.
C. Self GMD : Refer Q. 4.8, Page 4–12B, Unit-4.
Que 4.15. Derive expression of capacitance of three phase

untransposed line.
Answer
1. A three-phase single circuit untransposed line is shown in Fig. 4.15.1.
a
D12 D31
b c
D23
Fig. 4.15.1. Three-phase single-circuit untransposed line.
2. The potential difference between a and b is given by
1  D r D 
Vab =  qa ln 12  qb ln  qc ln 23 
2 0  r D12 D31 
3. The potential difference between a and c is given by
1  D D r 
Vac = q ln 31  qb ln 23  qc ln
2 0  a r D12 D31 
4. But Vab + Vac = 3 Van

Therefore,
1   D12 D 
3Van = q  ln  ln 31 
2 0  a  r r 
 r D   D r 
 qb  ln  ln 23   qc  ln 23  ln 
 D12 D31   D31 D31  
5. Since for a three-phase three-wire circuit
qa + qb + qc = 0
qc = – qa – qb
1   D12 D31 
 3Van =
2 0  qa  ln r  ln r 

 r D  D r rD 
 qb  ln  ln 23   qa ln 232  ln 223 
 D12 D31  D31 D31 
1  D D D2 rD D2 
=  qa ln 122 31 31  qb ln 2 23 31 
2 0  r r D23 D12 r D23 
 1 3
6. But qb = qa  – 120° = qa    j 
 2 2 
1  D D3 1 D2 3 D2 
 3Van =  qa ln 312 31  qa ln 31
2
j qa ln 31
2 
2 0  r D23 2 D12 2 D12 
3
1  D12 D31 D12 D12 
= 2 qa  ln r 3 D D  j 3 ln D 
0  23 31 31 
1   D  3 D12 2
D 
= qa  ln  31   j 3 ln 12 
2 0   r  D23 D31 D31 
q 2 0
Can = a 
Van 1   D  3  D2  D 
 ln  31   12
  j 3 ln 12 
3  r  D23 D31  D31 
2 0
= 3
1   D31   D D12 
2
12 D 
 ln    j 3 ln 12 
3   r   D12 D23 D31  D31 
20
= 3
1   D31  D12 3
D 
 ln    j 3 ln 12 
3 r Dm3 D31 
2 0
 Can = F/m
 D31 D12 1 D12 
 ln  j ln
r Dm 3 D31 
7. Similarly,
20
Cab =
 D12 D23 1 D23 
 ln r D  j 3 ln D 
m 12
2 0
Ccn = F/m
 D31 D23 1 D31 
 ln  j ln
r Dm 3 D23 
It is found that the phase capacitances are complex numbers.
Que 4.16. A two conductor, single phase line operates at 60 Hz.

The diameter of each conductor is 5 cm and is spaced 3 m apart :
calculate (i) the capacitance of each conductor to neutral per km (ii)
line to line capacitance (iii) capacitive susceptance to neutral per
km. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : D = 3 m, r = 0.025, f = 60 Hz
To Find : Cn, Cl, and bc.
1. The capacitance of each conductor to neutral
2 0 1
Cn =  = 1.16 × 10– 11 F/m
D 9 3
ln 18  10 ln
r 0.025
= 1.16 × 10– 8 F/km.
2. Line to line capacitance
1
Cl = C = 0.58 × 10– 8 F/km
2 n
3. Capacitive susceptance to neutral
1
bc = = 2fCn = 2 × 60 × 1.16 × 10– 8
Xc
= 4.37 × 10– 6 S/km.
Que 4.17. A 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line has flat horizontal

configuration with 3.5 m between adjacent conductors. The
conductors are hard drawn 7 strand copper wire (outside conductor
diameter = 1.05 cm). The voltage of the line is 110 kV. Find the
capacitance to neutral and charging current per km.
Answer
1. Deq = (3.5 × 3.5 × 7)1/3
= 4.4 m
0.0242 0.0242
2. Cn = 
log ( Deq / r ) log (440 / 0.525)
= 0.00826 F/km
1 106
3. Xn = 
Cn 314  0.00826
= 0.384 × 106 /km to neutral
4. Charging current
Vn (110 / 3)  1000
= 
Xn 0.384  106
= 0.17 A/km
PART-2
Composite Conductors-Transposition, Bundled Conductors, and
Effort of Earth on Capacitance.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.18. Calculate inductance of a single-phase system (with

composite conductors).
Answer
1. Consider a single-phase system consisting of two composite conductors
A and B, each having m and n number of strands, respectively as shown
in Fig. 4.18.1.
1 1
m n
2 2
3 4 3 4
Conductor A Conductor B
Fig. 4.18.1.
2. The current is assumed to be equally divided amongst all the strands of
I
‘A’ conductor and is equal to (acts as “go” conductor for the single-
m
I
phase line) and current in all the strands of ‘B’ conductor is (acts as
n
“return” conductor for the single-phase line).
 1 1 1 
3. Using eq. ψ1 = 2 × 10 – 7  I1 ln  I2 ln  ...  In ln Wb-T/m
 D11 D12 D1n 
the flux linkages of strand 1 due to currents in all conductors is given by,
I  1 1 1 
1 = 2  10 7  ln D  ln D  ...  ln D 
m 11 12 1m
I  1 1 1 
 2  10 7 ln  ln  ...  ln
n  D11 D12 D1n 
(4.18.1)
I  1  I  1 
1 = 2  107 ln  2  10 7  ln
m  D11 D12 ... D1m  n D11 D12 ... D1 n 
1 1
1 = 2  10 7 I  ln  ln

 m D11 D12 ... D1m n D11 D12 ... D1 n 
 n D11 D12 ... D1 n 

= 2  107 I  ln  ...(4.18.2)
m D D ... D
 11 12 1m 
4. Inductance of strand 1 of conductor A is
1 n D11 D12 . D13 ... D1 n

L1 =  2m  10 7 ln H/m ...(4.18.3)
I/m m D11 D12 . D13 ... D1 m
5. Inductance of strand 2 of conductor A is
2  n D21 D22 . D23 ... D2n 

L2 =  2m  10 7  ln H/m ...(4.18.4)
I/m 
m D21 D22 . D23 ... D2m 
6. Similarly, the inductance of strand m of conductor A is
m  nDm1 Dm2 . Dm3 ... Dmn 

 Lm =  2m  10 7  ln  H / m ...(4.18.5)
I/m  m D .D
m1 m 2 . Dm 3 ... Dmm 

7. The average inductance of each strand in conductor A is

L1  L2  ...  Lm
Lav = ...(4.18.6)
m
8. Since conductor A is composed of m subconductors electrically in parallel.
Thus the inductance of conductor A is
Lavg
L  L2  ...  Ln
 1
LA = ...(4.18.7)
m m2
9. Substituting the logarithmic expression for inductance of each strand in
eq. (4.18.7) and combining terms, we get
 mn ( D D ... D1n ) ( D21 D22 ... D2 n ) ... ( Dn1 Dn 2 ... Dnn ) 
LA = 2 × 10 – 7 ln  2 11 12 
 m ( D11 D12 ... D1m ) ( D21 D22 ... D2m ) ... ( Dm1 Dm 2 ... Dmn ) 
...(4.18.8)
10. In eq. (4.18.8), the numerator is known as Geometric Mean Distance
(GMD or mutual GMD) and is denoted as Dm and is equal to
Dm = mn ( D11 D12 ... D1 n ) ( D21 D22 ... D2 n ) ... ( Dn1 Dn 2 ... Dnn )
...(4.18.9)
11. It is the mnth root of the product of the mn distances between m strands
of conductor A and n strands of conductor B.
12. The denominator is known as GMR or self GMD, denoted as Ds and is

equal to
Ds = m2 ( D11 D12 ... D1m ) ( D21 D22 ... D2m ) ... ( Dm1 Dm2 ... Dmn )
13. It is the m2 root of the product of m2 distances within the conductor A.
13. Now eq. (4.18.8) can be written as,
Dm
LA = 2 × 10 – 7 ln H/m ...(4.18.10)
DsA
14. Similarly, the inductance of composite conductor B is
Dm
LB = 2 × 10 – 7 ln ...(4.18.11)
DsB
15. Therefore, the total inductance of a single-phase system of composite
conductor is
L = LA + LB ...(4.18.12)
16. If conductors A and B are identical i.e., DsA = DsB = Ds, then the inductance
is
Dm
 L = 4 × 10 – 7 ln H/m
Ds
Dm
or L = 0.4 ln mH/km ...(4.18.13)
Ds
Que 4.19. What are bundled conductors ? How to calculate self

GMR of bundled conductor ?
Answer
A. Bundle Conductors : Refer Q. 2.9, Page 2–19B, Unit-2.
B. Calculation of GMR :
1. Let r be the radius of each subconductor in a bundle and r is GMR, of
any one of the subconductor.
r = 0.7788 r
2. Consider the bundle of two subconductors.
r
Conductor 1 D Conductor 2
Fig. 4.19.1.
3. Let D be the spacing between two conductors in a bundle.

DS = Self GMR of bundled conductor
DS = x2 ( Daa Dab ..... Dax ) ( Dba Dbb ..... Dbx ) ...( Dxa Dxb .... Dxx )
Here x is number of subconductors in each bundle.

4. In case of two conductor bundle x = 2
 DS = 22 Daa Dab Dbb Dba = 4 D11 D12 D22 D21

1/ 2
= rdr.D = 4
r2 D2 = (r  D)2 
 DS = rD  0.7788r.d.
Que 4.20. What is the effect of earth on line capacitance ? Explain

the method of images to calculate the capacitance of two wire single
phase line.
Answer
1. Fig. 4.20.1(a) shows a two-wire single-phase line having conductors a
and b. The spacing between the conductors is D. a and b are images of
a and b respectively. The charges on a and b are + q and – q respectively.
b
D a b
a D
h
H1 H 21 H2
2h h
H 12
a D a b
b
(a) ( b)
Fig. 4.20.1. Single-phase single-circuit line.
2. The potential difference between a and b can be written as
1  D D D D 
Vab = qa ln ab  qb ln bb  qa ln ab  qb ln b b  ...(4.20.1)
2 0  Daa Dba Daa Dba 
3. But qa = q, qb = – qa = – q
qa = – q, qb = q
Daa = Dbb = r
Dab = Dab = D, Daa = H1, Dbb = H2
Dab = H12, Dba = H21
4. Substituting these values in eq. (4.20.1), we get
1  D r H H 
Vab = q ln  q ln  q ln 21  q ln 2 
2 0  r D H1 H12 
1  D H H 
= q ln  q ln 12 21 
2 0  r H1 H2 
2q  D 1 H12 H21 
= ln  ln
2 0  r 2 H1 H2 
q  D ( H H )1/ 2 
=  ln  ln 12 21 1/ 2 
0  r ( H1 H2 ) 
5. Mean distances
Hs = (H1 H2)1/2, Hm = (H12 H21)1/2
Then the expression for Vab can be written as
q  D H 
Vab = ln  ln m 
 0  r Hs 
6. The line-to-line capacitance
q 0
Cab =  F/m ...(4.20.2)
Vab D H
ln  ln m
r Hs
7. Line-to-neutral capacitance
q q 2 0
Cn = = =
Van 1 D H
V ln  ln m
2 ab r Hs
1
= F/m ...(4.20.3)
 D
9 H 
18  10  ln  ln m 
 r Hs 
Special Case :
i. When the conductors a and b are at the same height h from the ground
as shown in Fig. 4.20.1(b).
H1 = H2 = 2h, H12 = H21 = (D2 + 4h2)1/2
Hs = (H1 H2)1/2 = 2h, Hm = (H12 H21)1/2 = (D2 + 4h2)1/2
Eq. (4.20.3) shows that there is a slight increase in capacitance of the
line due to presence of earth.
ii. The effect diminishes as the height of the conductor above the earth is
increased. It is not possible to calculate the capacitance accurately.

Q. 1. Explain the factors, which are considered during designing

a transmission line. Also explain how ground wire selection
is done ?
Q. 2. Describe the various conductor configurations and choice

of voltage, number of circuits for EHV transmission lines.
Make economic comparison of EHV-AC & HVDC system.
Q. 3. Derive the expression for inductance of a conductor due

to :
i. Internal flux.
ii. External flux.
Q. 4. Deduce an expression for the total inductance of a single

phase line.
Q. 5. Derive the expression for the inductance of three phase

line with conductors untrans posed (unsymmetrical
spacing). What is the significance of imaginary term in the
expression for inductance ?
Q. 6. Derive the inductance per phase for a three phase

transposed transmission line. Also calculate the inductance
for horizontal and equilateral triangular configuration.
Q. 7. Find the inductance per phase of symmetrically spaced

double circuit 3-phase line.
Q. 8. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a single phase

overhead transmission line. What do you mean by self G.M.D.
and mutual G.M.D.
Q. 9. Derive expression for capacitance of three phase line.


5 Insulated Cables
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Insulated Cables : ........................................ 5–2B to 5–7B
Introduction, Insulation,
Insulating Materials, Extra High
Voltage Cables, Grading of Cables
Part-2 : Insulation Resistance of a ....................... 5–7B to 5–18B

Cable, Capacitance of a Single
Core and Three Core Cables
Part-3 : Overhead Lines Versus ......................... 5–19B to 5–23B

Underground Cables,
Types of Cables
Insulated Cables 5–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
PART-1
Insulated Cables : Introduction, Insulation, Insulating Materials,
Extra High Voltage Cables, Grading of Cables.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Explain the basic introduction of insulated cable.
Answer
1. The transmission and distribution of an electrical power can be done
with the help of overhead transmission lines or by underground cables
(insulated cables).
2. It is well known fact that in thickly populated area like town and cities,
the use of overhead lines is not practicable.
3. In such cases electrical energy is transmitted and distributed with the
help of underground cables.
4. In its basic form, an underground cable is a conductor provide with
proper insulation. As the voltage level increases, the cost of insulation
increases rapidly and thus the used of underground cables is restricted
to low and medium voltage distribution.
Que 5.2. What s hould be the desirable characteristics of

insulating materials us ed in cables ? Also discuss general
construction of cable.
Answer
A. Characteristics of insulating materials :
1. To prevent leakage current, its insulation resistance must be very high.
2. To avoid electrical breakdown, its dielectric strength must be very high.
3. It should be flexible.
4. To withstand the mechanical injuries, it must be mechanically very
strong.
5. It should be non-inflammable.
6. It should be non-hygroscopic so that it will not absorb the moisture from
the surrounding.
7. It should be unaffected by acid and alkalis.
8. It should be capable of withstanding high breakdown voltage.
9. It should have high temperature withstanding capability.
B. The main insulating materials which are in use are :

1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
2. Paper
3. Cross linked polythene
4. Vulcanised India Rubber (VIR)
C. General construction of cable :
The Fig. 5.2.1 shows the general construction of a cable. Its various
parts are :
Serving
Armouring
Bedding
Led sheath
Insulation
Conductor
Fig. 5.2.1. General construction of a cable.

1. Conductor or core :
i. This section consists of single conductor or more than one conductor.
The conductors are also called cores.
ii. The conductors used are aluminium or annealed copper. The conductors
are stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
2. Insulation : Each conductor or core is covered by insulation of proper
thickness. The commonly used insulating materials are varnished
cambric, vulcanized bitumen and impregnated paper.
3. Metallic sheath : The insulated conductors are covered by lead sheath
or aluminium sheath. This provides the mechanical protection but mainly
restricts moisture and other gases to reach to the insulation.
4. Bedding :
i. The metallic sheath is covered by another layer called bedding. The
bedding consists of paper tape compounded with a fibrous material like
jute strands or hessian tape.
ii. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath from corrosion
and from mechanical injury resulting due to armouring.
5. Armouring : This layer consists of the layers of galvanized steel which
provide protection to the cable from the mechanical injury.
6. Serving : The last layer above the armouring is serving. It is a layer of
fibrous material like jute cloth which protects the armouring from the
atmospheric conductions.
Que 5.3. Discuss extra high voltage cables.
Answer
1. The operating voltage of extra high voltage cables are 66 kV.
2. These cables are also known as solid cable and there is no extra facility
used to increase the dielectric strength and to avoid the possibility of
formation of voids.
3. Thus the solid cables above 66 kV are unsound and owing to development
of modern technique it would be impossible to avoid the formation of
voids.
4. When these voids are subjected to electrostatic stresses, ionisation takes
place and sometimes acts as a primary cause of breakdown of cables.
5. In above mentioned cables voids have been eliminated by increasing the
pressure of compound and that is why such cables are also called as
pressure cables.
Que 5.4. What is grading of cable ? Why is it necessary ? Explain

capacitance grading with suitable circuit diagram.
Answer
A. Grading of cables : The process of obtaining uniform distribution of
stress in insulation of cables is called grading of cables.
B. Necessity : Grading of cables is done because the unequal distribution
has following two unwanted effects :
i. Greater insulation thickness is required, which increases the cost and
size.
ii. It may lead to the breakdown of insulation.
C. Capacitance grading or dielectric grading :
1. The grading done by using the layers of dielectric having different
permittivities between core and sheath is called capacitive grading.
2. Let r = Radius of conductor
r1, r2, R = Radius of dielectrics
1, 2, 3 = Permittivity of dielectrics
1 > 2 > 3
r2
R
Sheath
r1
r
1
2
3
Fig. 5.4.1. Dielectric grading.

3. Dielectric stress is given by,
q
gx =
2  0  1 x
4. Potential difference across inner layer,

r1 r1
q q r
V1 = g x dx   dx = ln 1
r r
2  0 1 x 2  0  1 r
q r r
=  r ln 1  gmax1 r ln 1
2  0  1 r r r
r2
5. Similarly, the potential difference between r1 and r2, V2 = gmax 2 r1 ln
r1
R
6. Potential difference between r2 and R, V3 = gmax 3 r2 ln
r2
7. Total potential difference between core and earthed sheath
V = V1 + V2 + V3
r1 r2 R
= gmax1 r ln r  gmax 2 r2 ln r  gmax 3 r2 ln r
1 2
q
8. Capacitance of cable, C =
V
q
=
 q 1 r1 1 r2 1 R 

2     ln r   ln r   ln r  
 0 1 2 1 3 2 
2  0
=
1 r1 1 r 1 R
ln  ln 2  ln
1 r  2 r1  3 r2
9. Maximum stresses,
q
gmax1 =
2  0  1 r
q
gmax2 =
2  0  2 r1
q
gmax3 =
2  0  3 R
10. If maximum stress is same in each layer,
gmax1 = gmax2 = gmax3 = gmax (say)
 1r = 2r1 = 3R
11. Total voltage applied across the cable,
 
V = gmax r ln r1  r1 ln r2  r2 ln R
 r r1 r2 
Que 5.5. Explain Intersheath grading.

OR
Discuss different methods of grading.
Answer
Methods of grading :
A. Capacitive grading : Refer Q. 5.4, Page 5–4B, Unit-5.
B. Intersheath grading :
1. In intersheath grading, a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it is divided
into various layers by placing metallic intersheaths between the core
and lead sheath. The intersheaths are held at suitable potentials, which
are in between the core potential and earth potential.
2. Consider a cable of core radius r and outer lead sheath of radius R.
Suppose that two intersheaths of radius r1 and r2 are inserted into the
homogeneous dielectric and maintained at some fixed potentials. V1, V2
and V3 respectively be the voltage between core and intersheath 1,
between intersheath 1 and 2 and between intersheath 2 and outer
sheath.
3. Since there is a definite potential difference between the inner and
outer layers of each intersheath, therefore, each sheath can be treated
as a homogeneous single core cable.
4. Maximum stress between core and the intersheath 1 is,
V1
g1max =
r
r log e 1
r
V2
5. Similarly, g2max =
r
r2 log e 2
r
V3
g3max =
R
R log e
r
Lead
Sheath
Intersheath 1
Intersheath 2 r
r1
r2
R
gmax
g
x
Fig. 5.5.1.
6. The dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress in each layer is the

same i.e., g1max = g2max = g3max
V1 V2 V3
= = R
r1 r2
r log e r2 log e R log e
r r r
7. As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, therefore, all the
potentials are in phase i.e., voltage between conductor and earthed lead
sheath is
V = V1 + V2 + V3
PART-2
Insulation Resistance of a Cable, Capacitance of a Single
Core and Three Core Cables.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.6. Derive expression for dielectric stress in a single core

cable.
Answer
1. Let r = Radius o f co nducto r or inner radius of
insulation.
R = Internal radius of sheath or outer radius of
insulation.
o = Permittivity of free space.
r = Relative permittivity of the dielectric.
q = Charge on the conductor per unit length
V = Operating phase-to-neutral voltage
q
2. The electric flux density at a distance x from the center is, Dx =
2x
and the electric stress is given by,
Dx q
gx =  ...(5.6.1)
 o  r (2 o  r ) x
3. The potential difference between the conductor and the sheath is equal
to the work done to move a unit charge from the conductor to sheath.
R R
q
Thus, V=  g x dx   dx
r r
(2  o  r ) x
q R
= ln ...(5.6.2)
2  o  r r
r x
dx
Fig. 5.6.1. Single-core cable.

4. Combining eq. (5.6.1) and (5.6.2), we get
V
gx =
 R
x ln  
 r
V
5. The maximum stress will occur at x = r, gmax = ...(5.6.3)
 R
r ln  
 r
V
6. The minimum stress occurs at x = R, gmin =
 R
R ln  
 r
7. Ratio of maximum and minimum stress is,
gmax V / r ln ( R / r) R D Outer diameter
=   
gmin V / R ln ( R / r) r d Inner diameter
Economical core diameter :
gmax
1. The value of gmax will be minimum when =0
d
d D
2. Putting r= and R  in eq. (5.6.3), we get
2 2
2V
gmax =
D
d ln  
d
D     D 
d ln   (2V )  2V d ln   
gmax  d  d d   d
= 2
d   D 
 d ln  d  
 
   D 
0  2V d ln   
d   d
= 2
  D 
 d ln  d  
 
 2V   D 1   D 
= ln    d  
2
  d   D   d2  
  D 
 d ln  d     d  
 
gmax 2V   D 
 = 2 
ln    1  ...(5.6.4)
d  D    d 
 
 d ln  d  
 
gmax
3. Now the value of must be zero to get minimum gmax.
d
 D
ln   –1 = 0
 d
 D
ln   = 1
 d
D
= e1 = 2.718
d
D
 d=
2.718
4. Hence, the core diameter must be 1 / 2.718 times the sheath diameter D
so as to give the minimum value of gmax.
5. The value of minimum gmax is,
2V
Minimum gmax =
d
V
 Minimum gmax =
r
Que 5.7. Derive the expression for insulation resistance and
capacitance of a single core cable.
OR
What are the main requirements of the insulating materials used
for cables ? Derive an expression for the insulation resistance of a
single core metal sheathed cable. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
OR
Derive the expression for insulation resistance of single core cable.
Answer
A. Requirements of insulating materials : Refer Q. 5.2, Page 5–2B,
Unit-5.
B. Insulation resistance of single core cable :
1. The resistance offered by cable to path of the leakage current is called
an insulation resistance.
Elementary
ring
Direction
Core of leakage
current
Layer of
insulation x
r
R dx
Fig. 5.7.1. Single cable. Fig. 5.7.2. Elementary Ring.
2. Load current flows through the core of cable while some leakage current
flows radially from the conductor to the sheath through the dielectric
material.
3. Resistance of any material is given by,
l
R= 
A
where,  = Specific resistance of material.
l = Length of material.
A = Area of cross-section of material.
4. Resistance of elemental circular ring at distance x,
dx
dR =  (unit length of cable)
2x
dR = Differential leakage resistance,
R
 dx
R=
2 
r
x
 R
= ln ohms/metre
2 r
5. If length of cable is l units.
 R
Leakage resistance, R = ln ohms
2l r
C. Insulation capacitance :
1. Let, d = Conductor diameter
D = Total diameter with sheath
Q = Charger per meter length of conductor in
coulombs
 = Permittivity of a material between core and
sheath
0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10–12 F/m
r = Relative permittivity of the medium
2. Consider an elementary cylinder with radius x and axial length of 1m.
The thickness of the cylinder is dx.
Q Q
3. Flux density Dx = 
Surface area 2x
The electric field intensity at any point P on the elementary cylinder is
D Q Q
gx = x =  V/m
 2x 2x 0  r
4. Hence the work done is moving a unit charge a distance dx in the
direction of an electric field is gxdx.
D
d
P
Conductor d
r=
2
Sheath
D
R=
r 2
x
dx
(a) (b )
Fig. 5.7.3. Capacitance of a single-core-cable.
5. The work done in moving a unit charge from the conductor to sheath is
the potential difference between the conductor and the sheath given by,
D/2 D/2
Q
V=  g x dx   dx
d/2 d/2
2x 0  r
D/2
Q dx Q
=   [log x ]Dd//22
2  0  r d/2
x 2x 0  r
Q  D d
= log  log 
2  0  r  2 2
Q  D Q  R
 V= log    log  
2  0  r  d  2 0  r r
6. The capacitance of a cable is given by,
Q Q
C= 
V  Q  R 
 2  log  r  
 0 r 
2 0  r 2 0  r
C=  F/ m
 R D
log e   log e  
r d
Que 5.8. Derive the formula for insulation resistance of a cable.

Calculate insulation resistance for 5 km length of single core cable
whose insulation resistance is 5 × 1014 -cm, insulation thickness is
1cm and radius of conductor is 1.25 cm. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Insulation resistance of a cable : Refer Q. 5.7, Page 5–9B, Unit-5.
Given : Specific resistance of insulation = 5 × 1014 -cm = 5 × 1012 -m,
Length of cable, l = 5 km = 5000 m, Core radius, r1 = 1.25 cm
To Find : Insulation resistance.
1. Internal sheath radius, r2 = r1 + Insulation thickness = 1.25 + 1 = 2.25 cm
r2 2.25  10 2
log e = log e  0.5878
r1 1.25  102
2. Insulation resistance of cable
 r 5  1012
= log e 2  × 0.5878 = 93.55 M
2l r1 2  5,000
Que 5.9. Derive expression of capacitance for single core and

3-core cable.
Answer
A. Capacitance of single core cable : Refer Q. 5.7, Page 5–9B, Unit-5.
B. Capacitance of three core cable :
1. In a 3-core cable, sheath is at earth potential and 3 conductors at supply
potentials.
2. There are six capacitance formed, three capacitance between sheathed
conductors and other three capacitance between conductors.
3. The capacitances are shown in the Fig. 5.9.1. The core to core
capacitances are denoted as Cc while core to sheath capacitances are
denoted as Cs.
Cs
Cc
Cc
Cs
Cs Cc
Fig. 5.9.1.
4. The core to core capacitances Cc are in delta and can be presented in the
equivalent star as shown in the Fig. 5.9.2.
1
1
C1
Cc Cc S
C1 C1
3 2 3 2
Cc
Fig. 5.9.2.
5. The impedance between core 1 and the star point Z1 can be obtained as,
Z12 Z13
Z1 = [from delta-star conversion]
Z12  Z13  Z23
1
Now Z12 = Z13  Z23 
Cc
1 1

Cc Cc 1 1
 Z1 = 
3 3 Cc
Cc
1
And Z1 =
 C1
1 1 1
= ·
C1 3 Cc
 C1 = 3Cc
6. If star point is assumed to be at earth potential and if sheath is also
earthed then the capacitance of each conductor to neutral is,
CN = Cs + C1 = Cs + 3Cc
7. If Vph is phase voltage then charging current per phase is,
Vph Vph Vph
I= = 
Capacitance reactance/ phase X CN 1
CN
I = CNVph A
Measurement of Cs and Cc :
1. Measurement involves two cases.
Case I :
i. The core 2 and core 3 connected to sheath. Thus the Cc between cores 2
and 3 and Cs between cores 2, 3 and sheath get eliminated as shown in
the Fig. 5.9.3.
ii. All the three capacitances are now in parallel across core 1 and the
sheath.
iii. The capacitance of core1 with sheath is measured practically and denoted
by Ca.
Ca = Cs + 2Cc ...(5.9.1)
Cs
1 1
Cc
Cc Cs Cc Cc
3 2
Sheath
(a) (b )
Fig. 5.9.3.
Case II :
i. All the three cores are bundled together. This eliminates all the core-
core capacitances. This is shown in the Fig. 5.9.4.
ii. The capacitances Cs are in parallel between the common core and sheath.
This capacitance is practically measured and denoted by Cb.
 Cb = 3Cs ...(5.9.2)
Cs
1
2
3
Cs Cs
Fig. 5.9.4.
2. Solving eq. (5.9.1) and (5.9.2),
Cb
Ca =  2Cc
3
Ca Cb C
Cc =  and Cs  b
2 6 3
3. Thus both the capacitances can be determined
 CN = Cs + 3Cc
Cb C C 
= 3 a  b
3  2 6 
3Ca Cb
CN =  ...(5.9.3)
2 6
4. Capacitance can also be calculated by empirical formula given by Simon.
The formula is given as
0.0299  r
CN =  F/ km
 T t  t t 2 
log 1  3.84  1.7  0.52 2 
 d  T T 
where, r = Relative permittivity of the dielectric
d= Conductor diameter
t= Belt insulation thickness
T= Conductor insulation thickness.
Que 5.10. A 33 kV, 3-phase, 50 Hz underground line, 3.4 km long,
uses three single core cables. Each cable has a core diameter of
2.5 cm and the radial thickness of insulation is 0.6 cm. The relative
permittivity of the dielectric is 3.1. Find (i) maximum stress and (ii)
total charging kVAr.
Answer
Given : d = 2.5 cm, thickness = 0.6 cm, r = 3.1

To Find : Maximum stress and total kVAr.
1. Internal diameter of sheath, D = 2.5 + 2 × 0.6 = 3.7 cm
0.024  r
2. Capacitance of cable, C = × length of cable F
D
log10
d
0.024  3.1
=  3.4  1,000
3.7
log 10
2.5
= 1486 × 10 – 6 F/phase
3. Charging current, IC = 2fCV
33  103
= 2 × 50 × 1486 × 10 – 6 × A/phase
3
IC = 8.895 A/Phase
4. Total charging in kVAr = 3 × VP × IC × 10 – 3
33,000
= 3  8.895  10 3
3
= 508.4 kVAr
5. Maximum stress in the cable
V 33,000 / 3
Emax = 
d D 2.5 3.7
log e log e
2 d 2 2.5
Emax = 38.88 kV/cm
Que 5.11. Explain the phenomena of heating and different losses

in cables.
OR
Show that the most economical size of conductor in a single core
cable is obtained when radius of cable sheath (R) equals e.r. where e
is the base of radius of conductor. Explain dielectric loss and heating
of a cable. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
1. The temperature rise of the body depends upon the rate of generation
and dissipation of heat by the body. The temperature goes on rising until
the rate of heat generation becomes equal to that of heat dissipation.
2. The heat is produced within the underground cables due to following
losses :
A. Copper loss in Cables :
1. The copper loss is determined by the expression I2R. The resistance of
the conductor changes at the temperature changes. The resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
2. To find copper value of resistance is necessary. The resistance at any
temperature t2 is given by
R = R1 (1 + 1t)
where, R1 = Resistance at t1
1 = Resistance temperature coefficient of material at t1
B. Dielectric loss :
1. There exists a capacitance between a conductor and sheath, with a
dielectric medium in between the two. This is represented as C. The
leakage resistance is denoted as R.
2. The equivalent circuit of the cable is a parallel combination of R and C.
So there are two currents one perpendicular to voltage V which is
leading capacitive current Ic while other is in phase with voltage V
which is resistive current Id representing dielectric loss.
I
Ic
Id Ic I
V
C R

d
0 V
I Id
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Phasor diagram
Fig. 5.11.1.
3. The dielectric loss is loss due to leakage resistance given by
V2
W=
R
Id V/R
4. Now, tan  = 
I c V / XC
V V
= tan  = VC tan 
R XC
W = V2 C tan 
where  = Dielectric loss angle in radians
5. Generally  is very small and hence tan    for low voltage cables
dielectric loss can be neglected as it is small but for high voltage cables it
must be considered.
C. Sheath loss :
1. In AC transmission, alternating currents flowing through the cable
produce pulsating magnetic field. This electromagnetic pulsating field
links with the lead sheath and induces current in it.
2. The value of this current depends on the frequency of pulsating field,
sheath resistance arrangement of cables and sheath conditions whether
it is bounded or unbounded.
3. The approximate formula to calculate sheath losses due to sheath eddy
currents is given as,
 3 2  rm  2 
18 
Sheath loss = I 2     10  W/ cm/ phase
 Rs d 
where, I = Current per conductor
rm = Mean radius of sheath
Rs = Sheath resistance
d = Spacing between conductor
These losses are practically very small and hence generally neglected.
D. Most economical size of conductor : Refer Q. 5.6, Page 5–7B,
Unit-5.
Que 5.12. Derive the condition for most economical size of cable
using voltage gradient method. The test results for 1 km of a three-
phase metal sheathed belted cable gave a measured capacitance of
0.7 F between one conductor and the other two conductors
bunched together with the earth sheath and 1.2 F measured
between the three bunched conductors and the sheath. Find :
i. the capacitance between any pair of conductors, the sheath
being isolated and
ii. the charging current when the cable is connected to 11 kV,
50 Hz supply.
Answer
A. Most economical size of conductor : Refer Q. 5.6, Page 5–7B,
Unit-5.
B. Numerical :
Given : Cx = 1.2 F, Cy = 0.7 F, V = 11 kV, f = 50 Hz
To Find : C, IC.
C1 Cx C1 Cy
C2 C2 C2
C2
C1 C2 C1
C1 C1
C2
( a) (b)
Fig. 5.12.1.
1. From Fig. 5.12.1(a) and (b)
Cx = 3C1 = 1.2 ...(5.12.1)
Cy = C1 + 2C2 = 0.7 ...(5.12.2)
From eq. (5.12.1) and (5.12.2)
C1 = 0.4 F
C2 = 0.15 F
2. Since capacitance per phase
C0 = C1 + 3C2
and C0 = 0.85 F
3. The equivalent circuit for measuring capacitance between two bunched
conductors and third conductor will be as in Fig. 5.12.2.
4. The equivalent capacitance C will be
2
C1
C = 2C2 +
3
Substituting the values for C1 and C2
C = 0.56 F
5. The charging current per phase, IC
V 10
= C0 × 103 amps = × 314 × 0.85 × 10 – 6 × 103
3 3
= 1.54 A
C1
C2 C
C1
Fig. 5.12.2.
PART-3
Overhead Lines Versus Underground Cables, Types of Cables.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.13. Give a comparis on of an overhead line with

underground cable as a medium of power transmission.
Answer
1. Public safety : The underground system is safer than overhead system due
to the wiring placed underground and therefore little chances of any hazard.
2. Initial cost : The initial cost of an underground system may be five to
ten times than that of overhead system due to high cost of trenching,
conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipments.
3. Flexibility : The overhead system is much more flexible than the
underground system because in an overhead system poles, wires,
transformers etc. can be easily shifted to meet the change in the load conditions.
4. Faults : The chances of faults in the underground system are very
rare as the cables are laid underground.
5. Fault location and repairs : Basically, there are little chances of
faults in an underground system. However, if a fault occurs, it is difficult
to locate and repair an underground system.
6. Current carrying capacity and voltage drop : An overhead system
has considerably higher current carrying capacity than an underground
cable conductor of the same material and cross-section. Also there is
low voltage drop in overhead system.
7. Useful life : The useful life of an underground system is much longer
than that of an overhead system.
8. Maintenance cost : The maintenance cost of underground system is
very low as compared to the overhead system due to less chance of
faults and service interruptions from wind, ice, lighting etc.
Que 5.14. Discuss in brief about the different types of cables.
Answer
The type of a cable basically decided based on the voltage level for which
it is manufactured and the material used for the insulation such as
paper cotton, rubber etc.
Types of cable :
A. Low tension cable (L. T. cable) :
1. These are used for the voltage levels upto 6.6 kV.
2. The paper is used as insulation in these cables. Some time resin is also
used which increases the viscosity and helps to prevent drainage.
3. The Fig. 5.14.1 shows the cross-section of a single core L.T. cable. It
consists of a circular core of stranded copper or aluminium.
Brass or steel
Serving
armouring
Lead Conductor
sheath
Impregnated
paper
Fig. 5.14.1.
4.12.1. Single core L.T. cable.
4. The conductor is insulated by impregnated paper over the paper
insulation, the lead sheath is provided then a layer of compounded
fibrous material is provided. Then armouring is provided and finally
covered again with a layer of fibrous compounded material.
B. Medium and high tension cables :
1. The three phase medium and H.T. cables are three core cable. For
voltage upto 66 kV the three core cable i.e., multicore cable are used.
2. These cables are classified as :
a. Belted cables :
1. These are used for the voltage level upto 11 kV. The construction of
belted cable is shown in Fig. 5.14.2.
Jute Lead sheath

at the
top Conductor
Paper
insulation
Jute filling
Paper belt
Fig. 5.14.2. Belted 3-core cable.
2. The cores are not circular in shape. The cores are insulated from each
other by use of impregnated paper.
3. The three cores are grouped together and belted with the help of a
paper belt.
4. The gaps are filled with fibrous material like jute. This gives circular
cross-sectional shape to the cable.
5. The belt is covered with lead sheath which protects cable from moisture
and also gives mechanical strength.
6. The lead sheath is finally covered by jute like fibrous compounded
material.
b. Screened type cables : These cables are used for the voltage levels of
22 kV and 33 kV. The two types of screened cables are :
i. H-type cable :
1. There is no paper belt is this type of cable. Each conductor in this cable
is insulated with a paper, covered with a metallic screen which is generally
an aluminium foil. The construction is shown in Fig. 5.14.3.
Serving
Conductor
Paper
insulation
Armouring
Conducting
belt
Lead
sheath
Metallic screen
Fig. 5.14.3. H-type cable.
ii. S.L type cable (Separate lead screened cable) :
1. In this cable each core is insulated with an impregnated paper and each
one is then covered by separate lead sheath.
2. Then there is a cotton tape covering the three cores together using a
proper filter material.
Serving
Conductor
Paper
insulation
Separate
lead sheath
Armouring
Cotton tape
Fig. 5.14.4. S.L. type cable.
C. Super tension (S.T.) cables :

1. The S.T. cables are used for 132 kV to 275 kV voltage level.
2. Such cables using oil or gas under pressure are called pressure cables
and are of two types :
a. Oil filled cables :
1. In case of oil filled cables, the channels or ducts are provided within or
adjacent to the cores, through which oil under pressure is circulated.
Bedding
Lead
sheath
Conductor
Oil
channel
Serving
Paper insulation
Fig. 5.14.5. Conductor channel single core oil filled cable.

2. Fig. 5.14.5 shows the construction of single core oil filled cable. It consists
of concentric stranded conductor but built around a hollow cylindrical
steel spiral core.
3. This hollow core acts as a channel for the oil. The oil channel is filled in
a factory and the pressure is maintained in the oil by connecting the oil
channel to the tanks which are placed at the suitable distances along the
path of the cable.
b. Gas pressure cables :
1. In case of gas pressure cables an inert gas like nitrogen at high pressure
is introduced. The pressure is about 12 to 15 atmospheres.
2. Due to such a high pressure there is a radial compression due to which
the ionization is totally eliminated. The working power factor of such
cables is also high.
Triangular
shape
Conductor
Fig. 5.14.6. Gas pressure cable.

3. The Fig. 5.14.6 shows the section of a gas pressure cable. The cable is
triangular in shape and installed in the steel pipe.
4. The pipe is filled with the nitrogen at 12 to 15 atmospheric pressure.
There is no bedding and serving.
Que 5.15. What are the commonly used insulating materials for
underground cables ? Describe with a neat sketch, the construction
of a 3-core belted-type cable.
Calculate the kVA taken by a 10 km long, 3-phase 3-core cable, if the
capacitance measured between any two cores is 0.3 F/km when it is
connected to 10 kV, 50 Hz busbar. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15
Answer
A. Commonly used insulating material for underground cable :
B. Construction of 3-core belted-type cable : Refer Q. 5.14,
C. Numerical :
Given : CL =0.3 × 10 –6 F, VL = 10 kV, CL = 0.3 µF/km, f = 50
To Find : Total charging in kVA
1. If CL be measured capacitance between any two core,
C0
CL =
2
C0 = 2CL = 2 × 0.3 × 10 – 6 = 0.6 F
2. Line charging current, IC = VpC0
VL
=   2CL
3
3. Total charging in kVA = 3VL IC  10  3
VL
= 3  VL   2CL  10  3
3
= 2VL2CL  10  3
= (10000)2 × 2 × 50 × 0.6 × 10 – 6 × 10 – 3
= 0.188 kVA

Q. 1. What should be the desirable characteristics of insulating

materials used in cables ? Also discuss general construction
of cable.
Q. 2. What is grading of cable ? Why is it necessary ? Explain

Q. 3. What are the main requirements of the insulating materials

used for cables ? Derive an expression for the insulation
resistance of a single core metal sheathed cable.
Q. 4. Derive expression of capacitance for single core and

3-core cable.
Q. 5. Show that the most economical size of conductor in a single

core cable is obtained when radius of cable sheath (R) equals
e.r. where e is the base of radius of conductor. Explain
dielectric loss and heating of a cable.
Q. 6. Give a comparison of an overhead line with underground

cable as a medium of power transmission.
Q. 7. Discuss in brief about the different types of cables.


Power System-I SQ–1 B (EN-Sem-5)
1 Power Generation
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. What are the functions of dam ?

Ans.
1. The function of dam in hydro electric project is to create an artificial
head and storage.
2. It diverts the flow of water so that the same could be used for
generation of power.
3. It is the most expensive and important part of a hydro project.
4. The selection of type of dam, for a particular location, depends on
topography of the site, geological and sub-soil conditions etc.
1.2. Draw the functional block diagram representation of steam

power plants.
Ans.
Mechanical energy Electrical energy
Steam
Turbine Grid system
Generator
Boiler Waste gases
Water
Fuel
Fig. 1.
1.3. What are the problems associated in development of

hydropower ?
Ans.
1. Huge financial requirements.
2. Land acquisition.
3. Technical problems.
4. Skilled manpower and labour problems.
1.4. Name the main parts of a nuclear reactor.

2 Marks Questions SQ–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
Ans.
1. Fuel 2. Reactor core
3. Moderator 4. Shielding
5. Control rods 6. Reflector
7. Coolant 8. Reactor vessel
1.5. What is load duration curve ?

Ans.
1. A load duration curve represents re-arrangements of all the load
elements of chronological load curve in order of descending
magnitude. This curve is derived from the chronological load curve.
2. Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of generating power
economically. Proper selection of base load power plants and peak
load power plants become easier.
1.6. What do you understand by demand factor ?

Ans. The demand factor is the ratio of the actual maximum demand
of the system to the total connected load of the system.
 Maximum demand
DF 
Total connected load
1.7. Define load factor.

Ans. Load factor of a system is the ratio of the average load over a
given period of the time to the maximum demand (peak load)
occurring in that period.
 Average load
Load factor 
Peak load
1.8. Explain base load.

Ans.
1. The base load is the load below which the demand never falls and is
supplied 100 % of the time.
2. The base load plants are heavily loaded because continuous
operation of base load plants at high load factor improves the capacity
factor of these plants and this makes the operation of costly plant
an economic preposition.
3. A high capital cost is permissible if low operating costs can be
maintained.
1.9. Define diversity factor.

Ans. Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual
maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system
to the maximum demand of the whole system.
Diversity factor
Sum of individual maximum demands

(FD) 
Coincident maximum demand of the whole system
1.10. What do you understand by economizer ?

Ans. An economizer is a device in which the waste heat of the flue gases
is utilized for heating the feed water.
1.11. Write the advantages of hydro electric power plant.

Ans.
1. No fuel charges.
2. Highly reliable.
3. Low maintenance and operation charges.
4. Low running cost.
5. No standby losses.
1.12. Give the advantages and disadvantages of a nuclear power

plant.
Ans.
A. Advantages :
1. A nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to other
conventional power plant of equal size.
2. Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large power demands.
They give better performance at high load factors (80 to 90 %).
B. Disadvantages :
1. The capital cost of a nuclear power station is always high.
2. Working conditions in nuclear power station are always detrimental
to the health of the workers.

Transmission and
2 Distribution of
Electric Power-I
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. What is single line diagram of power system ?

Ans. The single line diagram is the simplified representation of power
system components where each component is represented by its
symbol.
2.2. Draw single line diagram of a typical power system.

Ans.
T1 T2
j60 
G M

Motor : 30 MVA, 11 kV, X  = 30 %
Fig. 1. Single line representation of a typical power system.
2.3. Draw the symbols of various components of a power system

which are used in single-line diagram representation.
Ans.
S. No. Component Symbols
6. Delta connection
7. Wye connection, ungrounded
8. Wye connection, grounded
2.4. Explain the following components of distribution power

system :
i. Feeder
ii. Service mains. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
i. Feeder : A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-stations to
the area where power is to be distributed.
ii. Service mains : A service mains is a small cable which connects
the distributor to the consumer terminals.
2.5. How does isolator differ from circuit breaker ?

Ans.

2.6. Draw and explain 3-wire DC system.

Ans. In a 3-wire DC system, there are two outers and a middle or neutral
wire which is earthed at the generator end as shown in Fig. 2. If the
load is balanced, the current in the neutral wire is zero.
I
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I
Fig. 2.
2.7. Define skin effect. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02

OR
What is meant by skin effect ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. The tendency of alternating current to concentrate near the surface
of a conductor is known as skin effect.
2. Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the
conductor through which current flows is reduced. Consequently,
the resistance of the conductor is slightly increased when carrying
an alternating current.
2.8. What is proximity effect ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. The distribution of current in a conductor is affected by the presence
of other conductor in its vicinity due to inductance is known as
proximity effect.
2.9. What is the need for stranding the conductors ?

Ans.
1. The stranded conductor is having sufficient flexibility, which makes
stranded conductor suitable to be coiled easily to transport it over
long distance.
2. For a stranded conductor of same cross-sectional area the flexibility
of conductor increases with increase in number of strands in
conductor.
2.10. What are the components of transmission line ?
Ans.
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Supports / towers.
2.11. Define term corona. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of
ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
2.12. Define critical disruptive voltage and visual critical voltage.

Ans. Critical disruptive voltage : It is defined as the minimum phase
to neutral voltage at which corona occurs. It is denoted by Vc or Vdo.
Visual critical voltage : It is the minimum phase to neutral
voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line. It is denoted
by Vvo.
2.13. What is the Ferranti effect ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans. The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the receiving end of the
open-circuited or lightly loaded line is called the Ferranti effect.
2.14. Which factors affect corona ?

Ans.
1. Conductor surface gradient.
2. Condition of conductor surface.
3. Atmospheric conditions.
4. Air density factor.
2.15. How a circuit breaker is specifically different from a switch ?

Ans.
S. No. Circuit breaker Switch
1. A circuit breake r is an A switch is a device which is used

equipment which can open or to open or close electrical circuit
close a circuit unde r all in a convenient way.
conditions i.e., no load, full
load and fault conditions.
2. It is so designed that it can be It can be used under full-load or
operated manually under no-load conditions but it cannot
no rmal conditions and interrupt the fault currents.
automatically under fault
conditions.
2.16. State the empirical formula for determining the system

voltage of transmission line. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. An empirical formula is use to determine the optimum voltage for

lines more than 30 km long.
The empirical formula is,
L load in kVA
V = 5.5 
1.6 150
where, V = Transmission voltage (kV)
L = Distance of transmission line in km
2.17. What are ACSR conductor stands ?

Ans. ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) : It has a
steel core forming the central layer of the stranded conductor around
which a layer of aluminium strands presents. Fig. 3 shows cross-
section of an ACSR conductor.
Steel
Aluminium
Fig. 3. ACSR conductor.
2.18. What are the various factors affecting choice of

transmission voltage level ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Power to be transmitted
2. Distance of transmission line.
2.19. State Kelvin’s law for size of conductor for transmission.

Ans. The most economical area of conductor is that for which the total
cost of transmission line is minimum. This is known as Kelvin’s
law.
2.20. What is dielectric strength of air ?

Ans. The dielectric strength of air is approximately 3 kV/mm. Its exact
value varies with the shape and size of the electrodes and increases
with the pressure of the air.
2.21. Draw single line diagram of power system network from

generation to distribution showing all the voltage levels at
various intermediate stages. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
Step-up
Transformer
Transmission level
(132, 220, 400 kV)
Very large The lines to
Step down
Transformer
(66 kV)
Large Large
consumers consumers
Step down
Transformer
Medium Medium
Primary distribution
consumers (33,11 kV) consumers
Secondary
distribution (400 V)
Small Consumers
(400/230 V)
Fig. 4.
2.22. Why receiving end voltage appears high compared to

sending end voltage in case of lightly loaded transmission
lines ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Receiving end voltage is more than sending end voltage at light
load condition because of charging current in line and this current
produces voltage drop which is in phase opposition to receiving end.

Transmission and
3 Distribution of Electric
Power-II
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. Define sag in transmission line. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. The difference in levels between point of support and lowest point
on the conductor is called sag.
l
A B
S
Conductor
Fig. 1.
3.2. Describe the vibrations of power conductor and explain

the method used to damp out these vibrations.
Ans. Vibration of power conductor :
A. Aeoline vibrations : The Aeoline vibrations have the frequency
range of 5 to 50 Hz with amplitudes varying between 2 to 5 cm.
Thus these vibrations are high frequency low amplitude vibrations.
The wind velocities of about 2 to 40 kmph can generate such type of
vibrations.
a. Minimization of aeoline vibration :
i. Use of bundle conductor
ii. Proper design and location of spacers
iii. Use of damper
iv. Use of clamps.
B. Galloping of conductors/dancing of conductors : The
galloping means dancing of conductors at the low frequency and
high amplitude. These are the oscillations of complete span of
conductors.
b. Minimization of galloping of conductors :
There are no method by which galloping can be restricted. But in
icing conditions, height of the conductors can be designed properly
considering the amplitude of possible galloping.
3.3. What are the factors affecting the sag in a transmission

line ?
Ans.
1. Weight of conductor
2. Span length (distance between the poles)
3. Working tensile strength
4. Ice coating
5. Wind pressure and temperature.
3.4. What is the effect of wind and ice on sag ?

Ans. Due to weight of ice deposits on the line, and the wind pressure, the
mechanical stress increases in the conductor and, therefore, the
line must be designed to withstand these stresses and tensions.
3.5. Why is it disadvantageous to provide either too high sag or

too low sag ?
Ans.
1. In case the sag is too high, more conductor material is required,
more weight on the supports is to be supported, higher supports
are necessary and there is a chance of greater swing-amplitude
due to wind load.
2. In the case of too low sag, there is more tension in the conductor
and thus the conductor is liable to break if any additional stress is to
be taken, such as due to vibration of line or due to fall in temperature.
3.6. What are the methods used for equalizing the potential
across the insulator string in transmission lines ?
Ans.
1. Use of long cross arms.
2. Capacitance grading or grading of units.
3. Use of guard rings.
3.7. What is failure of insulator ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. The insulators provide necessary insulation between line
conductors and supports and thus prevent any leakage current
from conductor to earth. When insulator fails to do so, then it is said
failure of insulator.
3.8. How are the causes of failure of insulators ?

Ans.
1. Cracking of porcelain
2. Porosity
3. Puncture
4. Mechanical stresses
5. Flash-over.
3.9. What is string efficiency ?

Ans. String efficiency is the ratio of voltage across the whole string and
the product of the number of units and voltage across the unit
nearest to the line conductor.
Voltage across string
String efficiency =
n × Voltage across the lowermost unit
where, n = Number of units.
3.10. What is the significance of string efficiency ?
Ans. More the string efficiency more the uniform voltage distribution on
suspension insulator.
3.11. What are the types of insulators used in transmission and

distribution ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Pin type
2. Suspension type
3. Strain insulator
4. Shackle insulator
5. Stay insulator.
3.12. How are voltage distribution and the string efficiency

affected by rain ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. In the rainy season, insulators are wet and the mutual capacitance
value increases. Thus the ratio of shunt to mutual capacitance i.e.,
k decreases. This increases the uniformity of the voltage distribution.
Hence in rainy season, string efficiency is higher.

4 Transmission Line
Parameters
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. What is transposition of transmission line ?

Ans.
1. Transposition of line conductors means changing the position of
the three phases on the line supports twice over the total length of
the line.
2. The line conductors in practice are so transposed that each of the
three possible arrangements of conductors exists for one-third of
the total length of the line.
4.2. What is the need of transposition of transmission lines ?

Ans.
1. It reduces the electrostatic unbalance among the three phases. It is
also used to stabilize voltage unbalance.
2. Transposition arrangement of line helps to reduce the system power
loss.
4.3. Why is leakage conductance negligible in overhead lines ?
Ans. The leakage conductance is due to leakage currents flowing across

insulators and air. As leakage current is considerably small compared
to nominal current, it is usually neglected, and therefore, leakage
conductance is negligible in overhead lines.
4.4. For determination of inductance of a circuit, determination

of flux linkages is essential. Why ?
Ans.
1. A current carrying conductor is surrounded by concentric circles of
magnetic lines. In case of AC system this field set up around the
conductor is not constant but changing and links with the same
conductor as well as with other conductors.
2. Due to these flux linkages the line possesses inductance, defined as

the flux linkages per unit current. Thus for determination of
inductance of a circuit, determination of flux linkages is essential.
4.5. Why the effect of ground on the line capacitance can be

neglected ?
Ans. The effect of ground on the line capacitance is very-very small
because the height of conductors is large as compared to the distance
between them.
4.6. For what purpose bundle conductor are us ed in

transmission line. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
OR
Write advantages of bundled conductor.
Ans.
1. Reduced corona loss.
2. Reduced radio interference.
3. Lower surge impedance.
4.7. What are the factors which govern the performance of a

transmission line ?
Ans. Series resistance R, inductance L, shunt capacitance C and
conductance G.
4.8. What is the effect of ground on the capacitance of a

transmission line ?
Ans. The presence of ground increases the capacitance of a transmission
line by a small amount.
4.9. An ACSR conductor having a diameter of 1 cm has an

internal inductance equal to 0.05 mH/km. If it is replaced
by another ACSR having a diameter of 2 cm, then calculate
its internal inductance. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
Given : L = 0.05 mH/km, d1 = 1 cm = D1, d2 = 2 cm = D2
To Find : Internal inductance.
D1
1. L1 = 0.4 ln (  1 cm = 10–5 km)
r
1
0.05 = 0.4 ln
r
0.05 1  105
= ln
0.4 r
0.125 = ln 10 – 5 – ln r
0.125 = – 5 ln 10 – ln r
0.125 = – 5 × 2.302 – ln r
0.125 + 11.512 = – ln r
–11.637 = ln r
8.833×10–6 = r
1  105
2. L2 = ln (  1 cm = 10–5 km)
r
2  10 5
L2 = 0.4 ln
8.833  10 6
L2 = 0.4[ln (2 × 10 – 5) – ln (8.833 × 10 – 6)]
L2 = 0.4[ln 2 + (– 5) ln (10) – ln [8.833 + (– 6)] ln 10
L2 = 0.4[0.693 – 11.512] – [2.178 – 13.812]
L2 = 0.4[– 10.817] – [– 11.634]
L2 = 0.4[– 10.817 + 11.634]
L2 = 0.4 × 0.817
L2 = 0.3268 mH/km
4.10. What do you understand by mutual-GMD ?

Ans. The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distance from
one conductor to the other. It simply represents the equivalent
geometrical spacing.
4.11. Discuss the effect of change in temperature on length of

overhead transmission line. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
1. The length of conductor will change due to changes in temperature.
2. The effect of this should be considered while stringing the line at
the time of erection.
3. If  is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and if the
temperature changes from t1 to t2, the length l2 at temperature t2
is given by
l2 = l1{1 + (t2 – t1)}
4. The value of  should be that at t1.
5. If the temperature is increased, the length of the conductor is
increased.

5 Insulated Cables
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. What is general construction of cable ?

Ans.
Serving
Armouring
Bedding
Led sheath
Insulation
Conductor
Fig. 1. General construction of a cable.
5.2. Give classification of underground cables.

Ans.
1. Low voltage (LT) cables.
2. High voltage (HT) cables.
3. Super-tension (ST) cables.
4. Extra high tension (EHT) cables.
5. Extra super-voltage cables.
5.3. Write the expression of insulation resistance of a single-

core cable.
Ans. Insulation resistance of a single-core cable is given by
 r
Rins = log e 2
2 l r1
where,  = Resistivity of the insulating material
l = Length of cables
r1, r2 = Radii of cable conductor and internal sheath
respectively.
5.4. On what factors does the insulation resistance of a cable

depend ?
Ans. The insulation resistance of a cable depends upon core radius,
insulation thickness, length of cable and resistivity of insulating
material.
5.5. What is grading of cable ? Why is it necessary ?

Ans.
A. Grading of cables : The process of obtaining uniform distribution
of stress in insulation of cables is called grading of cables.
B. Necessity : Grading of cables is done because the unequal
distribution has following two unwanted effects :
i. Greater insulation thickness is required, which increases the cost
and size.
5.6. Write the limitations of grading.

Ans.
1. In capacitance grading, the permittivities of the layers may not
remain constant during the service perio d of the cable.
Consequently, the stress distribution may change and may even
cause insulation breakdown at the normal operating voltage.
2. The intersheaths, being very thin are liable to be damaged during
transportation or installation. The thin intersheaths are not able to
carry the charging current of long cable lines and thus the current
carrying capacity is reduced.
5.7. What is the mechanism of breakdown of an underground

cable ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. There are two way in which breakdown of cables usually occurs :
1. One way is by a progressing coring and tracking which always
starts from the core or sheath and ultimately bridges the electrons.
2. Another way is by thermal instability which occurs due to rapid
increase in power factor with rise in temperature.
5.8. What are the main reasons of power loss that occurs in the
dielectric of a cable ?
Ans.
1. Conductivity of insulation.
2. Dielectric hysteresis or dielectric absorption.
3. Ionization or corona.
5.9. Name the sources of heat generation in cables.

Ans.
1. I2R losses in the conductor.
2. Dielectric losses in the cable insulation.
3. Losses in the metallic sheath and armourings.
5.10. Mention important factors to be considered while selecting

a cable.
Ans. The factors to be considered in selection of a cable are continuous
current rating, voltage grade, permissible voltage drop and short-
circuit rating (in case of HT cables only) and operating cost.
5.11. Write any two characteristics of insulating material.

Ans.
1. To prevent leakage current, its insulation resistance must be very
high.
2. To avoid electrical breakdown, its dielectric strength must be very
high.
5.12. What is the range of surge impedance in case of underground

cable ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Range of surge impedance is 40 to 60 .

Power System-I SP–1 B (EN-Sem-5)
B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Note : Attempt all questions.
SECTION – A
1. Attempt all parts. All part carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Discuss the effect of change in temperature on length of
overhead transmission line.
b. An ACSR conductor having a diameter of 1 cm has an

its internal inductance.
c. Define skin effect.
d. Draw single line diagram of a typical power system.
e. What are the methods used for equalizing the potential

f. Define critical disruptive voltage and visual critical voltage.
g. What is the need of transposition of transmission lines ?
h. What is the need of grounding the neutral in power system ?
i. Calculate the reactance of a coil suitable for a 33 kV, 3

transmission system of which the capacitance to earth of
each conductor is 4.5 µF.
j. Describe the vibrations of power conductors and explain

the methods used to damp out these vibrations.
SECTION – B
Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–2 B (EN-Sem-5)
2. The daily-load cycle of a three-phase, 33 kV, 10 km

transmission line is as follows : 2500 kVA for 8 hours,
2000 kVA for 9 hours and 1500 kVA for 7 hours. Determine
the most economical cross section if the cost of line
including erection is Rs. (7500) + 6000a) per km where a is
the area of each conductor in sq. cm. The rate of interest
and depreciation is 8 percent and cost of energy is
15 paise per unit. The line is in use for 250 working days a
year. The resistance per km and per sq. cm. is 0.173 ohm.
3. a. What are ACSR conductors ? Explain the advantages of

ACSR conductors.
b. A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load of 5 MVA,

33 kV at 0.8 power factor lagging. The efficiency of
transmission is 90%. Calculate the volume of conductor
aluminium required for the line when
4. Derive the inductance per phase for a three phase

5. Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal  model of a

medium line and draw its phasor diagram.
6. Determine the corona characteristics of a three phase

160 km long line having conductor diameter 1.036 cm,
2.44 m delta spacing, air temperature 26.67 degree having
an appropriate barometric pressure of 73.15 cm, operating
voltage 110 kV at 50 Hz. Surface irregularity factor is 0.85.
Assume a value of mv = 0.72, dielectric strength of air
= 21.1 kV/cm (rms). Disruptive voltage under foul weather
= 0.8 times fair weather value.
7. Derive expression for sag and tension in power conductor

string between two supports at equal heights taking into
account wind and ice loading.
8. What is neutral grounding ? Describe different methods of

neutral grounding. List their advantages and
disadvantages.
9. What are the advantages ass ociated with D.C.

transmission ? Explain different types of D.C. links used
for HVDC transmission.
SECTION – C
Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)

10. a. Explain the term surge impedance loading (SIL).
b. The A, B, C, D constants of a 3 transmission line are

A = D = 0.936 + j0.016, B = 33.5 + j138 
and C = (– 0.9280 + j901.223) × 10–6 mho.
The load at receiving end is 40 MW, 200 kV at power factor of
0.86 lagging. Find the magnitude of the sending end voltage,
current, power and voltage regulation. Assume that the
magnitude of sending end voltage remains constant.
11. a. What are the main requirements of the insulating materials

b. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3

identical insulators of self-capacitance C farad. The shunt
capacitance of connecting metal work of each insulator is
0.2 C to earth and 0.1 C to line. Calculate the string efficiency
of the system if a guard ring increases the capacitance to
the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to 0.3 C.
12. a. Give a comparison of an overhead line with underground

b. What are various FACTS controllers ? Explain the

operating principle of any one of them.
c. What is a bundle conductor and how does the use of


SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)
Note : Attempt all questions.
SECTION – A
1. Attempt all parts. All part carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Discuss the effect of change in temperature on length of
overhead transmission line.
Ans.
1. The length of conductor will change due to changes in temperature.
2. The effect of this should be considered while stringing the line at
the time of erection.
3. If  is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and if the
temperature changes from t1 to t2, the length l2 at temperature t2
is given by
l2 = l1{1 + (t2 – t1)}
4. The value of  should be that at t1.
5. If the temperature is increased, the length of the conductor is
increased.
b. An ACSR conductor having a diameter of 1 cm has an

its internal inductance.
Ans.
Given : L = 0.05 mH/km, d1 = 1 cm = D1, d2 = 2 cm = D2
To Find : Internal inductance.
D1
1. L1 = 0.4 ln (  1 cm = 10–5 km)
r
1
0.05 = 0.4 ln
r
0.05 1  105
= ln
0.4 r
0.125 = ln 10 – 5 – ln r
0.125 = – 5 ln 10 – ln r
0.125 = – 5 × 2.302 – ln r
0.125 + 11.512 = – ln r
–11.637 = ln r
8.833×10–6 = r
1  105
2. L2 = ln (  1 cm = 10–5 km)
r
2  10 5
L2 = 0.4 ln
8.833  10 6
L2 = 0.4[ln (2 × 10 – 5) – ln (8.833 × 10 – 6)]
L2 = 0.4[ln 2 + (– 5) ln (10) – ln [8.833 + (– 6)] ln 10
L2 = 0.4[0.693 – 11.512] – [2.178 – 13.812]
L2 = 0.4[– 10.817] – [– 11.634]
L2 = 0.4[– 10.817 + 11.634]
L2 = 0.4 × 0.817
L2 = 0.3268 mH/km
c. Define skin effect.

Ans.
d. Draw single line diagram of a typical power system.

Ans.
T1 T2
j60 
G M

Motor : 30 MVA, 11 kV, X  = 30 %
Fig. 1. Single line representation of a typical power system.
e. What are the methods used for equalizing the potential

Ans.
1. Use of long cross arms.
2. Capacitance grading or grading of units.
3. Use of guard rings.
f. Define critical disruptive voltage and visual critical voltage.

Ans. Critical disruptive voltage : It is defined as the minimum phase
to neutral voltage at which corona occurs. It is denoted by Vc or Vdo.
Visual critical voltage : It is the minimum phase to neutral

voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line. It is denoted
by Vvo.
g. What is the need of transposition of transmission lines ?

Ans.
1. It reduces the electrostatic unbalance among the three phases. It is
also used to stabilize voltage unbalance.
2. Transposition arrangement of line helps to reduce the system power
loss.
h. What is the need of grounding the neutral in power system ?

Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session (2020-2021).
i. Calculate the reactance of a coil suitable for a 33 kV, 3

transmission system of which the capacitance to earth of
each conductor is 4.5 µF.
j. Describe the vibrations of power conductors and explain

the methods used to damp out these vibrations.
Ans. Vibration of power conductor :
A. Aeoline vibrations : The Aeoline vibrations have the frequency
range of 5 to 50 Hz with amplitudes varying between 2 to 5 cm.
Thus these vibrations are high frequency low amplitude vibrations.
The wind velocities of about 2 to 40 kmph can generate such type of
vibrations.
Minimization of aeoline vibration :
i. Use of bundle conductor
ii. Proper design and location of spacers
iii. Use of damper
iv. Use of clamps.
B. Galloping of conductors/dancing of conductors : The
galloping means dancing of conductors at the low frequency and
high amplitude. These are the oscillations of complete span of
conductors.
Minimization of galloping of conductors :
There are no method by which galloping can be restricted. But in
icing conditions, height of the conductors can be designed properly
considering the amplitude of possible galloping.
SECTION – B

2. The daily-load cycle of a three-phase, 33 kV, 10 km
transmission line is as follows : 2500 kVA for 8 hours,
2000 kVA for 9 hours and 1500 kVA for 7 hours. Determine
the most economical cross section if the cost of line
including erection is Rs. (7500) + 6000a) per km where a is
the area of each conductor in sq. cm. The rate of interest
and depreciation is 8 percent and cost of energy is
15 paise per unit. The line is in use for 250 working days a
year. The resistance per km and per sq. cm. is 0.173 ohm.
Ans.
Given : Cost of line = Rs. (7500 + 6000a) × 10; VL = 33 kV
l = 10 km; kVA = 2500 kVA for 8 hour, 2000 kVA for 9 hour,
1500 kVA for 7 hour ; rate of interest and depreciation = 8 %;
Cost of energy = 15 paise per unit; working days in a year = 250,
Resistance per km and per sq. cm. = 0.173 ohm
To Find : Most economical cross section.
1. Cost of line = Rs. (7500 + 6000a) × 10
2. Annual interest and depreciation on capital cost
= Rs. (7500 + 6000a) × 10 × 8/100
= Rs. (6000 + 4800a)
3. Resistance of each conductor,
0.173  10 1.73
R= 
a a
3VL I L
= kVA
1000
4. The load current at various loads are calculated by the above
formula as follows :
2500  1000
I1 = = 43.8 A
3  33  1000
2000  1000
I2 = = 35 A
3  33  1000
1500  1000
I3 = = 26.2 A
3  33  1000
5. Daily energy loss
8 9 7
= 3I12R ×  3 I22 R   3 I32 R 
1000 1000 1000
3R
= (8I12 + 9I22 + 7I32)
1000
1.73
= 3× × 10 – 3 [8(43.8)2 + 9(35)2 + 7(26.2)2]
a
79.8 57.2 24.9 161.9

=    kWh
a a a a
161.9
6. Annual energy loss = × 250 kWh
a
7. Cost of energy loss per annum
161.9 15 6071
= Rs.  250   Rs.
a 100 a
8.  By Kelvin’s law,
6071
= 4800a
a
6071
a= = 1.124
4800
9.  The most economical cross-section
= 1.124 cm2 = 112.4 mm2
3. a. What are ACSR conductors ? Explain the advantages of

ACSR conductors.
Ans. Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) :
1. ACSR is used for high voltage lines having large span and heavy
weight is to be supported.
2. Aluminium alone cannot be used for construction of long span
transmission line due to low mechanical strength. So to make it
strong we use steel wire in the core aluminium conductors.
Advantages :
1. High mechanical strength.
2. Low corona loss.
3. Less skin effect.
4. Less expensive than copper conductor.
5. Longer span possible.
6. Breakdown possibility is low.
b. A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load of 5 MVA,

33 kV at 0.8 power factor lagging. The efficiency of
transmission is 90%. Calculate the volume of conductor
aluminium required for the line when
Ans.
Given : l = 50 km; Apparent power = 5 MVA; V = 33 kV;
cos  = 0.8 (lagging),  = 90 %,  = 2.85 × 10 – 8 -m
To Find : Volume of aluminium conductor required.
i. 1, 2-wire system :

1. Power transmitted = MVA × cos  = 5 × 0.8 = 4 MW = 4 × 106 W
2. Line loss, W = (100 % – %) of power transmitted.
= 10 % of power transmitted = (10/100) × 4 × 106
= 4 × 105 W
3. For single phase, 2-wire system :
Apparent power = VI1
Apparent power 5  106
 I1 =  = 151.5 A
V 33  103
4. Suppose a1 is the area of cross-section of aluminium conductor.
 l 
Line loss, W = 2I12R1 = 2I12   
 a1 
2I1 2l 2  (151.5)2  (2.85  10 8 )  50  103
 a1 = =
W 4  105
= 1.635 × 10 – 4 m2
5. Volume of conductor required = 2a1l = 2 × (1.635 × 10–4) × 50 × 103
= 16.35 m3
ii. 3, 3-wire system :
1. MVA = 3 VLIL × 10 – 6
5= 3 × 33 × 103 × IL × 10 – 6
5  10 6
Line current, IL = = 87.5 A
3  33  103
2. Let the area of each phase conductor be A2.
l
Total line loss, pL = 3IL2R2 = 3IL2
A2
3 I L 2l 3  (87.5)2  2.85  10  8  50  103
A2 = 
pL 4  105
= 0.818 × 10 m– 4 2
3. Volume of aluminium required,

= 3lA 2 = 3 × 50 × 103 × 0.818 × 10 – 4 = 12.27 m3
4. Derive the inductance per phase for a three phase

Ans. Three phase line : Three phase line can be of two types :
i. Inductance of a three phas e transmis sion with

unsymmetrical spacing :
1. Consider a single circuit 3 system as shown in Fig. 2. The three
conductors are unsymmetrically placed i.e., D12  D23  D31 and
each conductor has a radius of r meters.
2. The flux linkage of conductor a due to Ia, Ib and Ic
Ia
D31 D12
Ic Ib
D23
Fig. 2.
 1 1 1 
a = 2 × 10–7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln  ...(1)
 r D12 D31 
 1 1 1 
3. Similarly, b = 2×10–7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln  ...(2)
 D 12 r  D 23 
 1 1 1
c = 2 × 10–7  I a ln  I b ln  I c ln  ...(3)
 D 31 D 23 r 
4. Now taking Ia as a reference phasor of unbalanced three phase
system
Ib = k2Ic a and Ic = kIa
where, k = – 0.5 + j0.866
k2 = – 0.5 – j0.866
5. Substituting the values of Ib and Ic in the eq. (1), we get
 1
a = 2 × 10–7  I a ln  I a (0.5  j0.866)
 r 
1 1 
ln  I a (0.5  j0.866) ln 
D12 D31 
a  1 1 3 D31 
 La = = 2 × 10–7  ln  ln j ln 
Ia  r  D31 D12 2 D12 
6. Similarly
 1 1 3 D12 
Lb = 2 × 10–7  ln  ln j ln 
 r  D23 D12 2 D23 
 1 1 3 D23 
Lc = 2 × 10–7  ln  ln j ln 
 r  D23 D31 2 D31 
7. Significance of imaginary term in expression of inductance :

Individual phase inductance of an untransposed line with
unsymmetrical spacing is a complex number. The imaginary part
of flux-linkage or inductance represents exchange of energy
between phases.
8. For transposed line, average value of inductance
L  Lb  Lc
L= a
3
1  1 1 3 
=  2  107  3ln  ln j ln1 
3   r D23 D31 D12 2  
3 D D D
= 2 × 10–7 ln 23 31 12
r
D eq
= 2 × 10– 7 ln H/m
r
ii. Symmetrical three phase line :
1. As shown in Fig. 3, in such arrangement conductors are situated at
the corners of an equilateral triangle.
a
D D
c D b
Fig. 3. Symmetrical 3 line.
D = Spacing between conductors.
r = Radius of each conductor.
2. Flux linkage of conductor a
 1 1 1 
a = 2  10 7  I a ln  I b ln  Ic ln 
 D aa D ab D ac 
Dab = Dac = D
Daa = r = re–1/4
7  1 1 1
a = 2  10  Ia ln  I b ln  Ic ln 
 r D D
7  1 1
= 2  10  I a ln  (Ib  I c )ln 
 r  D 
3. For three wire system algebraic sum of current in conductor is zero
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Ib + Ic = – Ia
 1 1 7  1 1
a = 2  10 7  I a ln  I a ln  = 2  10  I a  ln r  ln D 
 r D   
D
= 2  10 7  Ia ln Wb-T/m
r
4. Inductance of conductors a is
a D
La = 2  107 ln H/m
Ia r
5. The inductance of conductors b and c will also be the same as that
of a, because of symmetry
D
Lb = Lc = 2 × 10–7 ln
H/m
r
iii. Unsymmetrical spacing but transposed :
a
c b
D12 a
D31 Position 1
b a c
Position 2
c b a
b c Position 3
D23
Fig. 4. Transposition cycle of unequally
spaced three phase line conductors.
1. Flux linkage of conductor a; when a is in the position 1, b in position
2 and c in position 3
 1 1 1 
a1 = 2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln 
 r  D 12 D 31 
 1 1 1 
a2 = 2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln 
 r  D 23 D 12 

 1 1 1 
a3 = 2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  I c ln 
 r  D 31 D 23 
4. Average value of flux linkages of a is
1
a =    a1   a 2   a3 
3
1  1 1 1 
=  2  10 7  I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln
3  r D12 D31 
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
  Ia ln  Ib ln  I c ln  I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln 
 r D23 D12   r D31 D23  
2  1 1 1 
=  107  3 I a ln  Ib ln  Ic ln 
3   r  D D D
12 23 31 D D D
12 23 31 
2  1 1 
=  107  3 I a ln   Ib  I c  ln 
3  r  D D D
12 23 31 
5. For balanced condition Ia + Ib + Ic = 0

Ib + Ic = – Ia
 1 1 1 
a = 2  10 7  Ia ln  I a ln 
 r 3 D12 D23 D31 
7 ( D12 D23 D31 )1/ 3

= 2  10  I a ln
r
6. Average inductance of phase a
a ( D D D )1/ 3
La =  2  10 7 ln 12 23 31 H/ m
Ia r
( D12 D23 D31 )1/3

7. Similarly, Lb = Lc = 2  10 7 ln H/ m
r
5. Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal  model of a

medium line and draw its phasor diagram.
Ans.
1. The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are
expressed in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end.
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(1)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2)
Is I Ir
R jX
Ic2 Ic1
Y Z Y
Vs Vr
2 2
Fig. 5. -equivalent circuit of medium transmission line.

2. From Fig. 5,
Vc1 = V r
Y Y
Ic1 = Vc1 = Vr
2 2
I = Ir + Ic1
Y
Vr
= Ir + ...(3)
2
Vc2 = Vc1 + IZ
 Y 
= Vr +  Ir  Vr  Z
 2 
 YZ 
Vc2 =  1   Vr  ZIr
 2 
G E
Ic2 Ic1 Vs
C
 A
O IX
s r Vr
Is
IR
Ic2
F
Ir Ic1
D
Fig. 6. Phasor diagram.
 YZ 
 Vs =  1   Vr  ZIr ...(4)
 2 
3. The charging current,
Y
Ic2 = Vs
2
The sending-end current,
Is = I + Ic2
Y  YZ  Y
= Ir  Vr   1   Vr  ZI r 
2   2 2
 Y Y Y 2Z  YZ 
=     Vr   1   Ir
2 2 4  2 
 YZ   YZ 
= Y 1   Vr   1   Ir ...(5)
 4  2 
4. For general network constants, comparing the eq.(4) and eq. (5)
with general transmission circuit constants of eq. (1) and eq. (2)
YZ
A = D = 1 ; B=Z
2
 YZ 
C = Y 1  
 4 
 YZ 
 1 2 Z 
  YZ  YZ 
Y
  1   1 
4  2 
6. Determine the corona characteristics of a three phase

160 km long line having conductor diameter 1.036 cm,
2.44 m delta spacing, air temperature 26.67 degree having
an appropriate barometric pressure of 73.15 cm, operating
voltage 110 kV at 50 Hz. Surface irregularity factor is 0.85.
Assume a value of mv = 0.72, dielectric strength of air

= 21.1 kV/cm (rms). Disruptive voltage under foul weather
= 0.8 times fair weather value.
Ans.
Given : Diameter = 1.036 cm, d = 2.44 m, t = 26.67°,
mv = 0.72, b = 73.15 cm, f = 50 Hz
To Find : Corona characteristics.
1.036
1. Radius of conductor =  0.518cm
2
d 2.44
The ratio =  100  471
r 0.518
r 1
 = 0.046075
d 471
3.92b 3.92  73.15
2. = =  0.957
273  t 273  26.67
3. Assuming a surface irregularity factor 0.85, the critical disruptive
voltage
d
Vd = 21.1  0.85r ln
r
= 21.1 × 0.85 × 0.957 × 0.518 ln 471
 0.3  d
4. Visual critical voltage Vv = 21.1mv r  1   ln
 r  r
0.3
Vv = 21.1  0.72  0.957  0.518 1  
 ln 471 = 66 kV
 0.518  0.957 
f  25 r
5. Power loss = 244  10  5 (V  Vd )2 kW/phase/km
 d
75 2
= 244  10  5   0.046075  63.5  54.72 
0.957
= 0.679 kW/phase/km
= 108.64 kW/phase = 325.92 kW for three phase
6. Corona loss under foul weather condition will be when the
disruptive voltage is taken as 0.8 × fair weather value, i.e.,
Vd = 0.8 × 54.72 = 43.77 kV
7. Loss per phase/km will be
75
244  10  5 0.046075(63.5 – 43.77)2 = 3.3664 kW/km/phase
0.975
= 537.6 kW/phase
8. Total loss = 1612.8 kW for all the three phases.
7. Derive expression for sag and tension in power conductor

string between two supports at equal heights taking into
account wind and ice loading.
Ans.
A. Expression for sag and tension for supports at equal
heights :
T = Tension in the conductor
S = Sag
A l/2 l/2 B
x/2 P S
y
T
O wx
x
Fig. 7. Supports at equal level.
2. Consider a point P on the conductor. Its coordinates are x and y,
taking O as the origin.
3. If the curvature is considered so small that curved length is equal to
its horizontal projection, i.e., OP = x, then the forces acting on the
portion OP are :
T × y = wx × x / 2
wx 2
y=
2T
The maximum sag (dip) is represented by the value of y at either of
the supports A and B.
x = l/2 and y = S
w(l / 2) 2 wl2
 Sag, S = 
2T 8T
B. Effect of ice and wind :
downward
horizontal and vertical forces as shown in Fig. 8.
o ww
(w + wi) wt
Fig. 8.
= (w  wi )2  (ww )2
wt l 2
Slant sag, S =
8T
4. The conductor adjusts itself in a plane which is at an angle  with
respect to vertical; the angle is given by,
ww
tan  =
(w  wi )
5. As slant sag S is the direction of an angle  with respect to vertical,
the vertical sag is cosine component of slant sag S,
8. What is neutral grounding ? Describe different methods of

neutral grounding. List their advantages and
disadvantages.
9. What are the advantages ass ociated with D.C.

transmission ? Explain different types of D.C. links used
for HVDC transmission.
SECTION – C

10. a. Explain the term surge impedance loading (SIL).
Ans.
1. The surge impedance loading (SIL) of a transmission line is the
power (MW) loading of a transmission line when the line is lossless.
transmission line capacitive reactance (Xc) and the voltage (kV) at
which the line is energized.
(kV )2
MVAr =
Xc
where, I is in kA.
which the line MVAr usage is equal to the line MVAr production.
Hence, SIL occurs when :
(kV )2
I2XL =
Xc
2
XLXc = (kV2 ) ...(1)
I
And the eq. (1), can be rewritten as
V2 2fL
I2 2fC
V L
= = Surge impedance
I C
6. The surge impedance loading SIL is equal to the ratio of voltage
squared (in kV) to surge impedance (in ohms).
VL2 L
 SIL (MW) =
Surge impedance
7. For loading much higher than SIL, shunt capacitor may be needed
for improving the voltage profile along life and for light load
conditions, i.e., load much less than the SIL, shunt inductors may
be needed to reduce the line charging current.
b. The A, B, C, D constants of a 3 transmission line are

A = D = 0.936 + j0.016, B = 33.5 + j138 
and C = (– 0.9280 + j901.223) × 10–6 mho.
The load at receiving end is 40 MW, 200 kV at power factor of
0.86 lagging. Find the magnitude of the sending end voltage,
current, power and voltage regulation. Assume that the

magnitude of sending end voltage remains constant.
Ans.
V = 200 kV, pf = 0.86 (lag).
200  103
Vr = = 115.47 kV
3
40000  103
Ir =
3  200  103
= 115.47 – cos–1 0.86 A
= 115.47 – 30.68 A
= (99.3 – j58.9) A
Vs = AV r + BIr
= (0.936 + j0.016) × 115.47 × 103 + (33.5 + j138)
× 115.47 –30.68
= 120306.07 6.480° V
= 120.30607 6.480° kV
|V sl| = 3 |Vs| = 3 × 120.306 = 208.376 kV

Is = CV r + DIr
= (– 0.9280 + j901.223) × 10–6 × 115.47 0. 103
+ (0.936 + j0.016) × 115.47  – 30.68
= 106.52 28.30A
6. Power factor at sending end = cos s = cos (6.48° – 28.30°)
= 0.92
7. Power at sending end = Ds = 3 Vsl Is cos s
= 3 × 120306.07 × 106.52 × 0.92
= 35369407.11 W = 35.36 MW.
Vs = A Vnl,
Vs 120306.07
So, Vnl =  = 128532.12 V
A 0.936
|Vnl | |Vfl |
VR =  100
|Vfl |
128532.12 – 115.47  103
VR = × 100
115.47  103
= 11.31 %.
11. a. What are the main requirements of the insulating materials

Ans.
A. Requirements of insulating materials :
1. To prevent leakage current, its insulation resistance must be very
high.
2. To avoid electrical breakdown, its dielectric strength must be very
high.
3. It should be flexible.
4. To withstand the mechanical injuries, it must be mechanically very
strong.
5. It should be non-inflammable.
6. It should be non-hygroscopic so that it will not absorb the moisture
from the surrounding.
7. It should be unaffected by acid and alkalis.
8. It should be capable of withstanding high breakdown voltage.
9. It should have high temperature withstanding capability.
B. Insulation resistance of single core cable :
1. The resistance offered by cable to path of the leakage current is
called an insulation resistance.
2. Load current flows through the core of cable while some leakage
current flows radially from the conductor to the sheath through
the dielectric material.
l
R= 
A
Elementary
ring
Direction
Core of leakage
current
Layer of
insulation x
r
R dx
Fig. 9. Single cable Fig. 10. Elementary ring.
dx
2x
R
 dx
R=
2 
r
x
 R
= ln ohms/metre
2 r
 R
2l r
b. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3

identical insulators of self-capacitance C farad. The shunt
capacitance of connecting metal work of each insulator is
0.2 C to earth and 0.1 C to line. Calculate the string efficiency
of the system if a guard ring increases the capacitance to
the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to 0.3 C.
Ans.
Given : Conductor to earth capacitance = 0.2 C
Conductor to line capacitance = 0.01 C
To Find : String efficiency if the guard ring increases the
capacitance to the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to
0.3 C.
1. Let E1, E2 and E3 be the voltage drops across the discs as shown in
Fig. 11. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node A, we have
I2 + Ix = I1 + Ia
E2C + (E2 + E3)0.1C – E1C – 0.2E1C = 0
E2 + (E2 + E3) 0.1 – E1 – 0.2E1 = 0
1.1E2 + 0.1E3 – 1.2E1 = 0

1.2E1 – 1.1E2 – 0.1E3 = 0 ...(1)
I1
Ia 0.2C C 0.1C
A I2 Ix
0.2C C 0.1C
Ib
B I3 Iy
C
Fig. 11.
2. Again writing equation at node B
I3 + Iy – I2 – Ib = 0
E3C + E30.1C – E2C – (E1 + E2) 0.2C = 0
E3 + 0.1E3 – 1.2E2 – 0.2E1 = 0
0.2E1 + 1.2E2 – 1.1E3 = 0 ...(2)
3. There are three unknowns with two equations. We divide both of
them by E3 and rewrite them as
12x – 11y = 1 ...(3)
2x + 12y = 11 ...(4)
E1 E
where, x= and y = 2
E3 E3
0.2E1 + 1.2E2 – 1.3E3 = 0
2x + 12y = 13
12x – 11y = 1
12x + 72y = 78
12x – 11y = 1
————————
83y = 77
Now, y = 0.9277
2x = 13 – 12 × 0.9277
x = 0.9337
E1 E
4.  = 0.9337 and 2 = 0.9277
E3 E3
E1 = 0.9337E3 and E2 = 0.9277E3
E = E1 + E2 + E3 = 0.9337E3 + 0.9277E3 + E3
E3 = 0.3494E or 34.94 %
E2 = 0.9277 × 34.94 % = 32.42 %
E1 = 0.9337 × 34.94 = 32.62 %

1
5. % String efficiency = × 100 = 95.4 %
3  0.3494
12. a. Give a comparison of an overhead line with underground

Ans.
1. Public safety : The underground system is safer than overhead system
due to the wiring placed underground and therefore little chances of
any hazard.
2. Initial cost : The initial cost of an underground system may be
five to ten times than that of overhead system due to high cost of
trenching, conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipments.
3. Flexibility : The overhead system is much more flexible than the
underground system because in an overhead system poles, wires,
transformers etc. can be easily shifted to meet the change in the load
conditions.
4. Faults : The chances of faults in the underground system are
very rare as the cables are laid underground.
5. Fault location and repairs : Basically, there are little chances
of faults in an underground system. However, if a fault occurs, it
is difficult to locate and repair in an underground system.
6. Current carrying capacity and voltage drop : An overhead
system has considerably higher current carrying capacity than an
underground cable conductor of the same material and cross-
section. Also there is low voltage drop in overhead system.
7. Useful life : The useful life of an underground system is much
longer than that of an overhead system.
8. Maintenance cost : The maintenance cost of underground
system is very low as compared to the overhead system due to less
chance of faults and service interruptions from wind, ice, lighting
etc.
b. What are various FACTS controllers ? Explain the

operating principle of any one of them.
c. What is a bundle conductor and how does the use of

Ans.
1. A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more
conductors, called the sub-conductors, per phase in close proximity
compared with the spacing between phases Fig. 12.
2. A bundled conductor is the sub-conductors of a bundled conductor

separated from each other by a constant distance varying from
0.2 m to 0.6 m depending upon designed voltage and surrounding
conditions throughout the length of the line with the help of
spacers.
3. The bundled conductors have filter material or air space inside so
that the overall diameter is increased.
Phase A Phase B Phase C
r s r
d d
Fig. 12.
4. The use of bundled conductors per phase reduces the voltage
gradient in the vicinity of the line and thus, reduces the possibilities
of the corona discharge.
5. Hence the bundled conductors are used on EHV transmission
lines to reduce corona loss and radio interference.

B. Tech.
SECTION – A
1. Attempt all parts. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Draw the symbols of various components of a power system
b. Explain the following components of distribution power

system :
i. Feeder
ii. Service mains
c. Draw and explain 3-wire dc system.
d. Why receiving end voltage appears high compared to

lines ?
e. What is the need for stranding the conductors ?
f. What is proximity effect ?
g. Why is leakage conductance negligible in overhead lines ?
h. What is the mechanism of breakdown of an underground

cable ?
i. Where do we use grounding transformer ?
j. What is meant by skin effect ?
SECTION – B

2. What is the difference between isolator and circuit breaker ?
A single phase ac system supplies load of 200 kW and if this
system is converted to 3-phase, 3-wire ac system by running
a third similar conductor, calculate the 3-phase load that
can now be supplied if the voltage between the conductors
is the same. Assume pf and transmission efficiency to be

same in both cases.
3. Explain the limitations of Kelvin law. A 2-wire feeder carries

a constant current of 250 A throughout the year. The portion
of capital cost which is proportional to the area of cross
section is Rs. 5 per kg of copper conductor. The interest and
depreciation of total 10 % per annum and the cost of energy
is 5 paisa per kWh. Find the most economical area of cross
section of the conductor. Given that the density of copper is
8.93 gm/cm2 and its specific resistance is 1.73 × 10–8 m.
4. Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit

3-phase line system shown in Fig. 1. The conductors are
transposed and are of radius 0.75 cm each. The phase
sequence is abc.
4m
a c'
3m
5.5 m
b 0.75 m 0.75 m b
3m
4m
c a'
Fig. 1.
5. Explain corona loss. How is disruptive critical voltage

loss.
6. A string of n suspension insulators is to be fitted with a

guard ring. If the pin to earth capacitance are all equal to C,
derive the general expression for the line to pin capacitor
in terms of n, C and p (number of pins), so as to give uniform
voltage distributions over the string.
7. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ? How

are they damped ? A 132 kV transmission line has the
following data :
8. With the help of the phasor diagram and mathematical

equations, explain the method and advantages of resonant
grounding.
9. Explain the factors, which are considered during designing

is done ?
SECTION – C

10. What are the commonly used insulating materials for
underground cables ? Describe with a neat sketch, the
construction of a 3-core belted -type cable.
Calculate the kVA taken by a 10 km long, 3-phase 3-core
cable, if the capacitance measured between any two cores
is 0.3 F/km when it is connected to 10 kV, 50 Hz busbar.
11. Describe the various conductor configurations and choice

of number of circuits for EHV transmission lines.
12. Explain surge impedance loading. Determine ABCD

constants for a 3-phase 50 Hz transmission line 200 km
long having the following dis tributed parameters
l = 1.3 × 10– 3 H/km, c = 9 × 10 – 9 F/km, r = 0.20 /km, g = 0.

SECTION – A
1. Attempt all parts. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Draw the symbols of various components of a power system
Ans.
S. No. Component Symbols
6. Delta connection
7. Wye connection, ungrounded
8. Wye connection, grounded
b. Explain the following components of distribution power

system :
i. Feeder
ii. Service mains
Ans.
i. Feeder : A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-stations to
the area where power is to be distributed.
ii. Service mains : A service mains is a small cable which connects
the distributor to the consumer terminals.
c. Draw and explain 3-wire dc system.

Ans. In a 3-wire DC system, there are two outers and a middle or neutral
wire which is earthed at the generator end as shown in Fig. 1. If the
load is balanced, the current in the neutral wire is zero.
I
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I
Fig. 1.
d. Why receiving end voltage appears high compared to

lines ?
Ans. Receiving end voltage is more than sending end voltage at light
load condition because of charging current in line and this current
produces voltage drop which is in phase opposition to receiving end.
e. What is the need for stranding the conductors ?

Ans.
1. The stranded conductor is having sufficient flexibility, which makes
stranded conductor suitable to be coiled easily to transport it over
long distance.
2. For a stranded conductor of same cross-sectional area the flexibility
of conductor increases with increase in number of strands in
conductor.
f. What is proximity effect ?

Ans. The distribution of current in a conductor is affected by the presence
of other conductor in its vicinity due to inductance is known as
proximity effect.
g. Why is leakage conductance negligible in overhead lines ?

Ans. The leakage conductance is due to leakage currents flowing across
insulators and air. As leakage current is considerably small compared
to nominal current, it is usually neglected, and therefore, leakage
conductance is negligible in overhead lines.
h. What is the mechanism of breakdown of an underground

cable ?
Ans. There are two way in which breakdown of cables usually occurs :
1. One way is by a progressing coring and tracking which always
starts from the core or sheath and ultimately bridges the electrons.
2. Another way is by thermal instability which occurs due to rapid
increase in power factor with rise in temperature.
i. Where do we use grounding transformer ?

j. What is meant by skin effect ?

Ans.
SECTION – B

2. What is the difference between isolator and circuit breaker ?
A single phase ac system supplies load of 200 kW and if this
system is converted to 3-phase, 3-wire ac system by running
a third similar conductor, calculate the 3-phase load that
can now be supplied if the voltage between the conductors
is the same. Assume pf and transmission efficiency to be
same in both cases.
Ans.
A. Difference between isolator and circuit breaker :

B. Numerical :
Given : Load, P1 = 200 kW.
To Find : 3 load can be supplied.
I2 V
V
I2
I1 V
V
I2
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.
Suppose V is the voltage between conductors for the two cases.
Power factor is unity. Let R be resistance per conductor in each
case.
i. Single phase ac system :

1. Power supplied, P1 = VI1 = 200 kW
2. Power loss, W1 = 2I12 R
3. Percentage of power loss
2I12 R
= × 100 ...(1)
VI1
ii. 3-phase, 3 wire AC system :
1. Power supplied, P2 = 3 VI2

2. Power loss, W2 = 3 I22 R
3 I22 R
3. Percentage power loss = × 100 ...(2)
3 VI2
4. The transmission efficiency is same in both cases. Hence, percentage
of power loss will become
2I12 R 3 I12 R
× 100 = × 100
VI1 3VI2
2I1 = 3 I2
2
 I2 = I1
3
2
3V I1
P2 3 VI2 3
5. Now, = 
P1 VI1 VI1
P2
=2
P1
 P2 = 2P1 = 2 × 200 = 400 kW
3. Explain the limitations of Kelvin law. A 2-wire feeder carries

a constant current of 250 A throughout the year. The portion
of capital cost which is proportional to the area of cross
section is Rs. 5 per kg of copper conductor. The interest and
depreciation of total 10 % per annum and the cost of energy
is 5 paisa per kWh. Find the most economical area of cross
section of the conductor. Given that the density of copper is
8.93 gm/cm2 and its specific resistance is 1.73 × 10–8 m.
Ans. A.Limitations of Kelvin law :
1. Total amount of energy losses cannot be estimated accurately due
to difference in load, load factors and future load conditions, which
are difficult to predict accurately.
2. Cost of energy loss is difficult to calculate because prices of

conductor material and the rates of interest are continuously
changing.
3. Two systems having same energy demand can have different cost
due to different energy costs.
4. Voltage drop may be beyond the permissible limits in some cases if
5. Most economical size of conductor may not be suitable to carry the
required amount of current due to its thermal rating and
temperature rise limits.
6. Economical section may not have adequate mechanical strength.
7. Problems of corona, leakage currents, skin effect etc. oppose the
use of economical section at extra high voltage.
B. Numerical :
Given : I = 250 A; Capital cost = Rs. 5 per kg
Cost of energy = 5 paise per kWh
To Find : Most economical area of cross section.
1. Let l = Length of each conductor in m
a = Area of cross section in sq m
2. Volume of conductor = la m3
3. Mass of conductor = la × 8.93 × 10 kg
4. Capital cost of conductor
= Rs. 5 × 8.93 × 10 × la
= Rs. 446.5 la
5. Interest and depreciation cost
10
= Rs. 446.5 × la
100
= Rs. 44.65la
6. Copper loss per conductor
= I2 R × 10 – 3 kW
 8 l 3
= (250)2  1.73  10    10
 a
l
= 1.08 × 10 – 6 kW
a
7. Cost of energy loss per year
l 5
= Rs. 1.08 × 10  6  365  24 
a 100
l
= Rs. 4.73 × 10 – 6
a
8. According to Kelvin’s law, interest and depreciation cost and cost of

energy loss must be equal for most economical area of cross-section
of conductor.
l
44.65la = 4.73 × 10 – 6
a
 a = 0.00325 m2 = 3.25 cm2
4. Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit

3-phase line system shown in Fig. 3. The conductors are
transposed and are of radius 0.75 cm each. The phase
sequence is abc.
4m
a c'
3m
5.5 m
b 0.75 m 0.75 m b
3m
4m
c a'
Fig. 3.
Ans.
Given : Radius = 0.75 cm
To Find : Inductance per phase per km.
1. GMR of conductor
r = 0.7788 × 0.75 × 10–2
= 0.5841 × 10–2 m
= 5.841 mm
2. Dab = Db'c' = Dbc = Da'b' = 32  0.752 = 3.09 m
3. Dab' = Dbc' = Db'c = Da'b = (5.5  0.75)2  32
= 6.93 m
Dca = Dac' = 3 + 3 = 6 m
Daa' = Dcc' = (5.5)2  62 = 8.14 m

4. Daa = Da'a' = Dbb = Db'b' = Dcc = Dc'c'
= r = 5.841 mm
5. From symmetry, the self GMD of conductors of phase A and phase

C must be equal.
 DSA = DSC = 4 Daa Daa ' Da' a ' Da ' a
= 4
5.841  103  8.14  5.841  103  8.14
= 0.2180 m
DSC = 4 Dbb Dbb ' Db ' b ' Db' b
=r ' 7  r ' 7 =
4
r ' 7 = 0.2022 m
6. Now, net self GMD of the circuit
DS = 3 DSA DSB DSC
= 3
0.2180  0.2020  0.2180
= 0.2126 m
7. Again from symmetry, the mutual GMD between phase A and B
must be equal to the GMD between B and C.
 DAB = DBC = 4 Dab Dab' Da ' b Da ' b'
= 4
3.09  6.93  6.93  3.09
= 4.6274 m
Mutual GMD between phase A and C
DCA = 4 Dca Dca ' Dc' a Dc ' a'
= 4
6446
= 4.8990 m
8. Net mutual GMD, Dm
= 3 DAB DBC DCA
= 3
4.6274  4.8990  4.6274
= 4.7162 m
9. Inductance per phase per km
Dm
= 2× 10–4 ln H/km/phase
DS
4.7162
= 2× 10–4 ln
0.2126
= 0.6199 mH/km/phase
5. Explain corona loss. How is disruptive critical voltage

loss.
Ans.
A. Corona loss :
1. Power wasted due to corona in lines is known as corona power loss.
2. F.W. Peek’s formula for the corona loss for the single phase and
equilaterally spaced 3 lines under fair weather conditions is given
by,
Peek’s formula :
244 r
Pc = ( f  25) ( En  E0 )2  10 5 kW/km/phase
 D
f= Frequency of supply
= Air density factor
En = Rms phase voltage (line to neutral)
E0 = Disruptive critical voltage per phase
r= Radius of conductor
D= Spacing or equivalent spacing betwe en
conductors
For single phase,
1
2
For three phase,
1
3
3. Peek’s formula is not accurate when losses are low and En/E0 is less
than 1.8. In that condition, we use Peterson’s formula.
Peterson’s Formula :
En2
Pc = 2.1 f F 2
 10 5 kW/km/conductor
 D
 log 10 
r
f= Supply frequency in hertz
En = Voltage per phase (line to neutral) voltage in kV
(rms)
r= Radius of conductor in metres
F= Corona loss function
Deq
E0 = g0max m0 r 2/3 ln
V/phase (rms)
r
D = Spacing
B. Estimation of critical disruptive voltage :
1. Let us consider the two-wire line shown in Fig. 4,
r= Radius of line conductor

d= Distance between their centres
+q= Charge on conductor A
–q= Charge on conductor B
+q A B –q
P
+ +
x d–x
d r
Fig. 4.
2. Consider point P at a distance of x metres from conductor A.
3. Electric field intensity at point P due to charge on conductor
q
A= acting towards B.
20 x
4. Electric field intensity at point P due to induced charge on conductor
q
B= acting towards B.
2 0 (d  x)
5. Resultant electric field intensity at point P,
q q q 1 1 
Ex =     
2 0 x 20 ( d  x) 20  x d  x 
6. Potential difference between conductors A and B,
d r dr
q 1 1 
V=  Ex dx      dx
r r
2 0  x d  x 
q q dr
=
2 0
 log e x  log e (d  x)dr  r   log e r
0
7. Now, since r is very small as compared to d, d – r  d and, therefore,
q d
V= log e ...(1)
 0 r
8. Now gradient at any point x from the centre of the conductor A is
given by
q 1 1  q d
Ex =    ...(2)
2 0  x d  x  2 0 x( d  x)
9. Substituting for q from eq. (1) in eq. (2), we have

 0V 1 d V d
Ex = 
d 2 0 x(d  x) d x( d  x)
log e 2log e
r r
V d
and Ex = ...(3)
d x( d  x)
log e
r
where V is the line to neutral voltage of the system.
10. In case of 3-phase system,
Line- to- Line voltage VL
V = 
3 3
11. The potential gradient is maximum when x = r, and this value is
given by
V d V
gmax = Er = Emax =  ...(4)
d d
r(d  r) log e r log e
r r
where, r = Radius
12. When the disruptive gradient of air is reached at the conductor
surface
Vd0
g0 =
d
r log e
r
Critical disruptive voltage,
d
Vd0 = g0 r log e ...(5)
r
The complete formula becomes
d
Vd0 = g0 m0 r log e ...(6)
r
where  = Air density factor
m0 = Conductor surface condition factor.
13. The value of Vd0 is known as critical disruptive voltage, and is defined
as the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
C. Advantages of corona :
1. Due to corona, the air surrounding the conductor is ionised and
becomes conducting. This increases the virtual diameter of the
conductor.
2. Corona reduces the effect produced by the surges and conductor is
saved from possibility of lighting. It acts as a safety device.
D. Disadvantages of corona :
1. It reduces the transmission efficiency.
2. The third harmonic components produced due to corona makes the
current non-sinusoidal. This increases the corona loss.
3. The ozone gas formed due to corona chemically reacts with the
conductor and can cause corrosion.
6. A string of n suspension insulators is to be fitted with a

guard ring. If the pin to earth capacitance are all equal to C,
derive the general expression for the line to pin capacitor
in terms of n, C and p (number of pins), so as to give uniform
voltage distributions over the string.
Ans.
1. Since voltage across each unit is same, current flowing in each
unit, i.e., I1, I2.....I6, I7 etc., will be equal.
mC E
C I1 A
Ia IA (n – 1)E
P
mC E
C I2 B
Ib IB (n – 2)E
Q
mC E
C I3 C
Ic IC (n – 3)E
mC E
C I4 D
Id ID (n – 4)E
mC E
C I5 E
Ie IE (n – 5)E
mC E
C I6 F
If IF (n – 6)E
mC E
C I7 G
Ig IG
(n – 7)E
E
Conductor I8
location
Fig. 5.
2. Applying KCL at junction P,
I1 + Ia = IA + I2
But I1 = I2
 Ia = IA
i.e., EC = (n – 1)EA
C
A=
n1
3. Similarly, by applying KCL at Q,
I2 + Ib = IB + I3
But I2 = I3
 Ib = IB
2EC = (n – 2) EB
2C
B=
n4
3C 4C 5C
4. Similarly, C= ,D= ,E=
n3 n4 n5
6C 7C
F= and G =
n6 n7
5. In general the capacitance from the shield to the pth link from the
pC
top is given by Cp =
n p
7. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ? How

are they damped ? A 132 kV transmission line has the
following data :
Ans.
A. Generation of vibration :
2. Under widely varying atmospheric conditions like strong wind
velocities, the conductor can start vibrating mechanically in the
vertical plane. Such vibrations can have different frequencies
amplitudes and modes.
B. Vibration dampers : Vibration damper are the devices used to
minimize the vibrations in the conductors. The following two devices
are used to prevent vibration in conductors :
a. Armour rods :
1. Armour rods are spiral layers of small round rods and are tapered
at each end.
2. They are much larger in diameter than the actual conductor, so
they provide resistance to bending at suspension point thus reducing
Fig. 6. Armour rod.

1. It is a device which absorbs vibrational energy. It consists of two
hollow weights joined by a flexible steel wire and a clamp in the
middle point to attach it to conductors.
one on either side. Each span of conductor contains two dampers
but for longer span the number of dampers may increase.
Fig. 7. Stockbridge damper.

C. Numerical :
Given : l = 260 m, w = 680 kg/km, Ultimate strength = 3100 kg,
SF = 2, Ground clearance = 10 m
To Find : Height of conductor above ground.
1. Maximum working tension,
Ultimate tensile strength 3100
H= =
Safety factor 2
= 1550 kg
wl2 680  (260)2
2. Sag, S= = = 3.70 m
8H 8  1550
3. Height above ground = S + Ground clearance
= 3.70 + 10 = 13.70 m
8. With the help of the phasor diagram and mathematical

equations, explain the method and advantages of resonant
grounding.
9. Explain the factors, which are considered during designing

is done ?
Ans.
1. Choice for transmission voltage : The line voltage affects the
performance of line and its cost. For getting the optimum operation
transmission voltage, we may use following empirical formula
0.5
 D P 
V = 5.5   
1.6 100 
A standard voltage nearer to that obtained with above formula is
selected for the given line. The formula gives the basic estimate. By
considering various technical and economic aspects, it is possible to
obtain the most economical voltage.
2. Conductor size selection : The size of conductors should be
properly selected during the design as about 30 to 45 % of total cost
of line is involved in cost of conductor. The size of conductor decides
cost of towers and foundations. The losses in line are also dependent
on size of conductor selected. Normally ACSR conductors are used
which are available in variety of sizes.
3. Choice of span and conductor configuration : If line span is
long then less number of towers will be required but the towers will
be taller and expensive. The longer line span is used for higher
operating voltage so that high cost of insulators is reduced.
4. Number of circuits : A transmission line may consist of single
circuit or double circuit. With double circuit line high power can be
transferred and reliability is more than that of single circuit line.
5. Ground wire selection : The phase conductors are protected
from lightning strokes using ground wire. The ground wire is placed
above the phase conductors. It is grounded at every or alternate
tower due to which lightning current are diverted to ground.
The ground wire should be designed to carry the maximum expected
lightning current without heating. It must have enough mechanical
strength so as to avoid excessive heating of ground wire due to
maximum lightning current. The size of ground wire is based on
the mechanical strength and normally material used for ground
wire is galvanized steel.
6. Insulation design : The performance of line is greatly affected by
insulation design. It should take care of switching temporary and
atmospheric overvoltage.
SECTION – C
10. What are the commonly used insulating materials for

underground cables ? Describe with a neat sketch, the
construction of a 3-core belted -type cable.
Calculate the kVA taken by a 10 km long, 3-phase 3-core
cable, if the capacitance measured between any two cores
is 0.3 F/km when it is connected to 10 kV, 50 Hz busbar.
Ans.
A. The main insulating materials which are in use are :
1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
2. Paper
3. Cross linked polythene
4. Vulcanised India Rubber (VIR)
B. Construction of 3-core belted-type cable :
1. These are used for the voltage level upto 11 kV. The construction of
belted cable is shown in Fig. 8.
Jute Lead sheath

at the
top Conductor
Paper
insulation
Jute filling
Paper belt
Fig. 8. Belted 3-core cable.

2. The cores are not circular in shape. The cores are insulated from
each other by use of impregnated paper.
3. The three cores are grouped together and belted with the help of a
paper belt.
4. The gaps are filled with fibrous material like jute. This gives circular
cross-sectional shape to the cable.
5. The belt is covered with lead sheath which protects cable from
moisture and also gives mechanical strength.
6. The lead sheath is finally covered by jute like fibrous compounded
material.
C. Numerical :
Given : CL = 0.3 × 10 –6 F, VL = 10 kV, CL = 0.3 F/km, f = 50
To Find : Total charging in kVA
1. If CL be measured capacitance between any two core,

C0
CL =
2
C0 = 2CL = 2 × 0.3 × 10 – 6 = 0.6 F
2. Line charging current,
IC = VpC0
VL
=   2CL
3
3. Total charging in
kVA = 3VL IC  10  3
VL
= 3  VL   2CL  10  3
3
= 2VL2CL  10  3
= (10000)2 × 2 × 50 × 0.6 × 10 – 6 × 10 – 3
= 0.188 kVA
11. Describe the various conductor configurations and choice

of number of circuits for EHV transmission lines.
Ans.
A. Conductor configuration for EHV transmission line :
1. There are varieties of conductor configuration available in practice.
2. Symmetrical co nfiguratio n, flat horizontal and ve rtical
configurations are some configurations based on mechanical
considerations.
3. In flat horizontal configuration, tower height is less whereas it is
more in vertical configurations.
4. The vertical configurations are more prone to lightning hazards
due to more height.
5. The spacing between line conductors should be sufficient so that
due to wind when they swing, distance between them should be
greater than the sparking distance.
B. Number of circuits :
1. A transmission line may consist of single circuit or double circuit.
2. With double circuit line, high power can be transferred and reliability
is more than that of single circuit line.
3. Based on 75 % of the line capacity, each circuit in double circuit line
is designed.
4. In India, both types of circuits are present for EHV lines.
5. The number of circuits for a given line are determined from surge
impedance loading.
6. For single circuit line, horizontal or L type configuration is found to

be economical while for double circuit line vertical configuration
proves to be most economical.
12. Explain surge impedance loading. Determine ABCD

constants for a 3-phase 50 Hz transmission line 200 km
long having the following dis tributed parameters
l = 1.3 × 10 – 3 H/km, c = 9 × 10 – 9 F/km, r = 0.20 /km, g = 0.
Ans.
A. Surge impedance loading :
1. The surge impedance loading (SIL) of a transmission line is the
power (MW) loading of a transmission line when the line is lossless.
transmission line capacitive reactance (Xc) and the voltage (kV) at
which the line is energized.
(kV )2
MVAr =
Xc
where, I is in kA.
which the line MVAr usage is equal to the line MVAr production.
Hence, SIL occurs when :
(kV )2
I2XL =
Xc
2
XLXc = (kV2 ) ...(1)
I
And the eq. (1), can be rewritten as
V2 2fL
I2 2fC
V L
= = Surge impedance
I C
6. The surge impedance loading SIL is equal to the ratio of voltage
squared (in kV) to surge impedance (in ohms).
VL2 L
 SIL (MW) =
Surge impedance
7. For loading much higher than SIL, shunt capacitor may be needed
for improving the voltage profile along life and for light load
conditions, i.e., load much less than the SIL, shunt inductors may
be needed to reduce the line charging current.
B. Numerical :
Given : f = 50 Hz, l = 1.3 × 10 – 3 H/km, c = 9 × 10 – 9 F/km
r = 0.20 /km, g = 0
To Find : A, B, C and D constants.
1. z = r + jl
= 0.2 + j × 2 × 50 × 1.3 × 10–3
= 0.2 + j0.408407
= 0.454748  63.9° ohm/km.
2. y = jc
= j × 2 × 50 × 9 × 10–9
= 2827.4334 × 10–9 90° S/km
z 0.45474863.9
3. Zc = =
y 2827.4334  10 9 90
= 401.04 –13.04567° ohm
4. = zy
= 1.1339 × 10–3 76.95°
5. l = 0.22678 76.95°
= 0.051189 + j0.2208
6. cosh l = cosh (0.051189 + j0.2208)
= cosh 0.051189. cos 0.2208
+j sinh 0.51189 sin 0.2208
= 1.001310× 0.9757 + j0.0512113 × 0.2190
= 0.97698 + j0.0112158
= 0.97704 0.65770°
7. sinh l = sinh (0.97698 + j0.00112158)
= sin h 0.97698 cos 0.0112158
+ j cosh 0.97698 sin 0.112158
= 0.05112113 × 09757 + j1.001310 × 0.219
= 0.04995 + j 0.21928 = 0.22489 77.167°
8. A = D = cosh l
= 0.97704 0.65770°
9. B = Zc sinh l
= 401.04 – 13.04657° × 0.22489 77.167°
= 90.18989 64.12133°
1 0.2248977.167
10. C= sinh l =
Zc 401.04   13.04567
= 0.000561 90.21267°

B. Tech.
Note : Attempt all sections. Assume any missing data.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. How does isolator differ from circuit breaker ?
b. What is single line diagram of power system ?
c. What are the components of transmission line ?
d. What is transposition of transmission line ?
e. Write advantages of bundled conductor.
f. Define the term corona.
g. What is the failure of insulator ?
h. Define sag in transmission line.
i. What is general construction of cable ?
j. What are the advantages of neutral grounding ?
Section-B
2. Attempt any three parts of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Find the ratio of volume of copper required to transmit a
b. Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal  model of a

medium transmission line and draw its phasor diagram.
c. Explain the phenomenon of corona formation and factors

d. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ? How

are they damped ? Explain effect of wind and ice loading on
the mechanical design of a line.
e. What are advantages of HVDC transmission ? Discuss

various types of HVDC links.
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one parts of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Derive an explain Kelvin’s law for economic size of
conductor. Discuss limitations. Show how skin effect
increases effective resistance of the conductor.
b. Determine the best current density in amperes/mm2 for a

three phase overhead line. The line is in use for 3600 hours
per year and if the conductor costs Rs. 3.0/kg. It has a specific
resistance of 1.73 × 10–8 -m and weights 6200 kg/m3 cost of
energy is 12 paise/unit. Interest and depreciation is 10 % of
conductor cost.
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a single phase
and mutual G.M.D. ?
b. A two conductor, single phase line operates at 60 Hz. The

diameter of each conductor is 5 cm and are spaced 3 m apart.
Calculate (i) the capacitance of each conductor to neutral
per km (ii) line to line capacitance (iii) capacitive
susceptance to neutral per km.

a. Describe pin type, suspension type and strain type
insulators with net sketch.
b. Explain the methods of equalizing the potential across the


a. Explain catenary method for the calculation of sag and
tension in transmission line. An overhead line has a span
of 200 metres, the line conductor weights 0.7 kg per meter.
Calculate the maximum sag if allowable tension in the line
is 1,400 kg. Prove formula used.
b. What is grading of cable ? Why is it necessary ? Explain


a. What are earthing and neutral grounding ? Discuss
different methods of neutral grounding with neat sketch.
Also give advantages.
b. Describe the various conductor configurations and choice


Note : Attempt all sections. Assume any missing data.
SECTION-A

a. How does isolator differ from circuit breaker ?
Ans.

b. What is single line diagram of power system ?

Ans. The single line diagram is the simplified representation of power
system components where each component is represented by its
symbol.
c. What are the components of transmission line ?

Ans.
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Supports / towers.
d. What is transposition of transmission line ?

Ans.
1. Transposition of line conductors means changing the position of
the three phases on the line supports twice over the total length of
the line.
2. The line conductors in practice are so transposed that each of the
three possible arrangements of conductors exists for one-third of
the total length of the line.
e. Write advantages of bundled conductor.

Ans.
f. Define the term corona.

Ans. The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of
ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
g. What is the failure of insulator ?

Ans. The insulators provide necessary insulation between line
conductors and supports and thus prevent any leakage current
from conductor to earth. When insulator fails to do so, then it is said
failure of insulator.
h. Define sag in transmission line.

Ans. The difference in levels between point of support and lowest point
on the conductor is called sag.
l
A B
S
Conductor
Fig. 1.
i. What is general construction of cable ?

Ans.
Serving
Armouring
Bedding
Led sheath
Insulation
Conductor
Fig. 2. General construction of a cable.
j. What are the advantages of neutral grounding ?

Section-B
2. Attempt any three parts of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Find the ratio of volume of copper required to transmit a
Ans.
1. In overhead system, maximum voltage between each conductor
and earth forms the basis of comparison.
a. DC Systems :
I1
+
Vm
–
I1
Fig. 3.
P
Load current, I1 =
Vm
2
 P  l  l 
2. Line losses, W = 2I12R1 = 2    R1   a1 
 V m  a1
2P 2 l
WVm 2
4P 2 l 2
WVm 2
I2
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I2
Fig. 4.
P
2V m
2
 P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I22R2 = 2    
 2V m  a 2 2 a 2 Vm 2
P 2l
3. a2 =
2WVm 2
P 2l 2
WVm 2
b. AC 3-phase 4-wire system :

Outer
I10
Vm
Neutral
Vm I
10
Vm Outer
I10
Outer
Fig. 5.
1. Assuming balanced load, there will be no current in neutral wire
and copper losses will be same as in 3-phase 3-wire system
2 P 2l
i.e., W=
3Vm cos 2 a10
2
2 P 2l
a10 =
3Vm 2 cos 2 W
7P 2 l 2 0.583
= 3.5a10l =  K
3 cos 2 Vm 2W cos 2 
b. Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal  model of a

medium transmission line and draw its phasor diagram.
Ans.
1. The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are
expressed in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end.
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(1)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2)
Is I Ir
R jX
Ic2 Ic1
Y Z Y
Vs Vr
2 2
Fig. 6. -equivalent circuit of medium transmission line.

G E
Ic2 Ic1 Vs
C
 A
O IX
s r Vr
Is
IR
Ic2
F
Ir Ic1
D
2. From Fig. 7,
Vc1 = V r
Y Y
Ic1 = Vc1 = Vr
2 2
I = Ir + Ic1
Y
= Ir +
Vr ...(3)
2
Vc2 = Vc1 + IZ
 Y 
= Vr +  Ir  Vr  Z
 2 
 YZ 
Vc2 =  1   Vr  ZIr
 2 
 YZ 
 Vs =  1   Vr  ZIr ...(4)
 2 
Y
3. The charging current, Ic2 = Vs
2
The sending-end current, Is = I + Ic2
Y  YZ  Y
= Ir  V  1   V  ZI r 
2 r  2  r 2
2
 Y Y Y Z  YZ 
=     Vr   1   Ir
2 2 4  2 
 YZ   YZ 
= Y 1   Vr   1   Ir ...(5)
 4  2 
4. For general network constants, comparing the eq.(4) and eq. (5)
with general transmission circuit constants of eq. (1) and eq. (2)
YZ
A = D = 1 ; B=Z
2
 YZ 
C = Y 1  
 4 
 YZ 
 1 2 Z 
  YZ  YZ 
Y
  1   1 
4  2 
c. Explain the phenomenon of corona formation and factors

Ans.
A. Phenomenon of corona :
1. When an alternating potential difference is applied across two
conductors, whose spacing is large in comparison with their
diameters, then the atmospheric air surrounding the conductors is
subjected to electrostatic stresses.
2. At low voltage there is no change in the condition of atmospheric
air around the conductors.
3. However, when the potential difference is gradually increased, a
stage arrives when a luminous glow of violet colour appears together
with a hissing noise and production of ozone gas.
4. If the potential difference is raised still further, the glow and the
noise will increase until a spark-over owing to breakdown of air
insulation will take place.
corona loss. For lower line voltage corona may be absent. But for
voltages higher than disruptive voltage, corona starts. Higher the
line voltage, higher is the corona loss.
decide the value of  which affects the disruptive voltage and the
corona loss. Lower the value of , higher is the corona and vice-
versa.
4. Size of the conductor : The corona loss is directly proportional to
square root of radius of conductor. Hence, loss is more if size of conductor
is more.
For rough and uneven surfaces, the value of disruptive voltage is
less and corona effect is dominant. Similarly corona loss is also
more for rough and dirty surfaces.
conductors are used due to which self GMD of the conductor 

increases, which increases the disruptive voltage, reducing corona
loss.
ground also affects the corona loss. The smaller the clearance of
the conductors from the ground, higher is the corona loss.
C. Visual critical voltage :
1. Visual critical voltage is defined as the minimum phase to neutral
voltage at which glow appears all along the line conductors.
2. Thus the visual critical voltage is
 0.3  d
Vv0 = g0mv r  1   log e r kV (rms) to neutral ...(7)
 r 
where mv = Roughness factor, which is unity for smooth conductors.
d. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ? How

are they damped ? Explain effect of wind and ice loading on
the mechanical design of a line.
Ans.
A. Vibrations :
2. Under widely varying atmospheric conditions like strong wind
velocities, the conductor can start vibrating mechanically in the
vertical plane. Such vibrations can have different frequencies
amplitudes and modes.
B. Vibration dampers : Vibration damper are the devices used to
minimize the vibrations in the conductors. The following two devices
are used to prevent vibration in conductors :
a. Armour rods :
Fig. 8. Armour rod.

1. Armour rods are spiral layers of small round rods and are tapered
at each end.
2. They are much larger in diameter than the actual conductor, so

they provide resistance to bending at suspension point thus reducing
1. It is a device which absorbs vibrational energy. It consists of two
hollow weights joined by a flexible steel wire and a clamp in the
middle point to attach it to conductors.
one on either side. Each span of conductor contains two dampers
but for longer span the number of dampers may increase.
Fig. 9. Stockbridge damper.

C. Effect of ice and wind :
downward
o ww
(w + wi) wt
Fig. 10.
= (w  wi )2  (ww )2
wt l 2
Slant sag, S =
8T

ww
tan  =
(w  wi )
e. What are advantages of HVDC transmission ? Discuss

various types of HVDC links.
SECTION-C

a. Derive an explain Kelvin’s law for economic size of
conductor. Discuss limitations. Show how skin effect
increases effective resistance of the conductor.
Ans.
which the total cost of transmission line is minimum. This is known
as Kelvin’s law.
B. Derivation :
1. Total annual cost consists of two parts :
i. The fixed standing charges : The fixed charges consist of the
interest on the capital cost of the conductor, the allowance for
depreciation, and the maintenance cost.
ii. The running charges : The running charges consist of cost of
electrical energy wasted due to losses during operation.
2. But, the capital cost (the interest and depreciation on it) and cost
of electrical energy wasted in the line are governed by the size of
the conductor.
3. The interest and depreciation on the initial investment will be
directly proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor.
4. The cost of energy loss will be inversely proportional to the
conductor cross-section.
5. Mathematically,
i. Annual interest and depreciation cost
C1  a or C1 = K1 a
and annual cost of energy dissipated in the line
K2
C2  1/a or C2 =
a
where K1 and K2 are constants, and a represents the area of cross-

section of conductor. The total annual cost may be given by
K2
C = C1 + C2 = K1a +
a
ii. For an economical design there will be one size of conductor at
which the total cost is minimum.
iii. For the most economical cross-section, the total annual cost is
differentiated with respect to the cross-section and the result is
equated to zero.
dC
=0
da
d  K2 
 K1 a   =0
da  a 
K K
K 1  22 = 0; K1 a = 2
a a
K2
C1 = C2 and a = ...(1)
K1
iv. Hence the most economical cross-sectional area of the conductor
is that which makes the annual cost of energy loss equal to the
annual interest and depreciation on the capital cost of the conductor
material. This is known as Kelvin’s law.
The cost
P C
Annual cost
Cost of energy
loss
n C1 Annual
conductor
C2 cost
Conductor area
Fig. 11. Graphical representation of Kelvin’s law.
C. Limitations :
i. Total amount of energy losses cannot be estimated accurately due
to difference in load, load factors and future load conditions, which
are difficult to predict accurately.
ii. Cost of energy loss is difficult to calculate because prices of
conductor material and the rates of interest are continuously
changing.
iii. Two systems having same energy demand can have different cost
due to different energy costs.
iv. Voltage drop may be beyond the permissible limits in some cases if
v. Most economical size of conductor may not be suitable to carry the
required amount of current due to its thermal rating and
temperature rise limits.
vi. Economical section may not have adequate mechanical strength.
vii. Problems of corona, leakage currents, skin effect etc. oppose the
use of economical section at extra high voltage.
D. Skin effect on resistance of conductor :
1. Due to skin effect, the effective cross-section of conductor, through
which the current flows, is reduced.
1
2. And, resistance  . Hence, skin effect
Area of cross- section
increases effective resistance of conductor.
b. Determine the best current density in amperes/mm2 for a

three phase overhead line. The line is in use for 3600 hours
per year and if the conductor costs Rs. 3.0/kg. It has a specific
resistance of 1.73 × 10–8 -m and weights 6200 kg/m3 cost of
energy is 12 paise/unit. Interest and depreciation is 10 % of
conductor cost.
Ans.
Conductor costs = Rs. 3 per kg; ρ = 1.73 × 10 – 8Ω -m
= 6200 × la kg
= Rs. 3 × la × 6200
= Rs. 18600 × la
= Rs. 186 × la × 10
= Rs. 1860 × la
 l 
= I2R × 10–3 kW = I2   × 10 – 3
 a
 6 l 3
= I2 1.73  10    10
 a
l
= I2 × 1.73 × 10–9
a
l
= 1.73 × 10–9 × I2 kW
a
current density.
l
1860 la = 1.73 × 10–9 × I2
a
I2 1860
= × 109
a2 1.73
I
= 1.03 × 106 A/mm2
a

a. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a single phase
and mutual G.M.D. ?
Ans.
A. Expression for potential difference :
1. From Gauss’s law, electric field density (D) at a point distance x
metres from a conductor having charge q is,
q
D= C/m2 ...(1)
2xl
(Taking length of conductor = 1 m)
2. Electric field intensity at distance x,
D q
E=  V/m
 2x
P1
Path of integration
D1 dx
n
+q
D2 P2
Equipotential
surfaces
Fig. 12. Cylindrical conductor having uniformly

distributed positive charge.
3. Voltage between P1 and P2,

D2 D2
q
V12 =  E dx   dx
D1 D1
2x
q D
= ln 2 V ...(2)
2 D1
B. Capacitance of single phase line :
1. Potential due to qa using eq. (2)
qa D
Vab = ln ...(3)
2 ra
ra qa rb qb
a
b
D
Fig. 13. Single phase line.
2. Potential due to qb using eq. (2)
qb r
Vab = ln b ...(4)
2 D
3. Net potential from a to b,
1  D r 
Vab = Vab + Vab =  qa ln  qb ln b  ...(5)
2  ra D 
4. Since b is return conductor,
qa = – qb
5. On putting qa = – qb, eq. (5) becomes
1  D2 
Vab = qa ln  
2  ra rb 
1 D
= qa ln ...(6)
 ra rb
6. Now capacitance of line,
qa 
Cab =  F/m ...(7)
Vab ln ( D / ra rb )
7. If ra = rb = r then eq. (7) becomes

Cab = F/m ...(8)
ln ( D / r )
8. The potential difference between each conductor and neutral is
half the potential difference between the two conductors. This means
capacitance of one of the conductor with respect to the neutral
point will be two times the capacitance of single phase line.
2
Can = Cbn = 2 Cab = F/m
D
ln
r
Can = Capacitance of conductor with respect to neutral

point N.
a b a N b
Cab Can Cbn

Fig. 14.
C. Self GMD and mutual GMD :
A. Self-GMD (Ds) :
1 D
L = 2 × 10–7   ln 
4 r
 1  D
L =  2  10 7     2  10 7 ln 
 4  r
D
L = 2 × 10 – 7 ln
Ds
conductor and is independent of the spacing between the
conductors.
B. Mutual-GMD (Dm) :
1. The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distance from one
conductor to the other. It simply represents the equivalent
geometrical spacing.
b. A two conductor, single phase line operates at 60 Hz. The

diameter of each conductor is 5 cm and are spaced 3 m apart.
Calculate (i) the capacitance of each conductor to neutral
per km (ii) line to line capacitance (iii) capacitive
susceptance to neutral per km.
Ans.
Given : D = 3 m, r = 0.025, f = 60 Hz
To Find : Cn, Cl, and bc.
1. The capacitance of each conductor to neutral
2 0 1
Cn =  = 1.16 × 10– 11 F/m
D 9 3
ln 18  10 ln
r 0.025
= 1.16 × 10– 8 F/km.
2. Line to line capacitance
1
Cl = C = 0.58 × 10– 8 F/km
2 n
3. Capacitive susceptance to neutral

1
bc = = 2fCn = 2 × 60 × 1.16 × 10– 8
Xc
= 4.37 × 10– 6 S/km.

a. Describe pin type, suspension type and strain type
insulators with net sketch.
Ans.
A. Pin type insulator :
1. Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of
electric power at voltage upto 33 kV.
Groove for conductor
Metal pin
Fig. 15. Pin type insulators.

2. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV the pin type insulator become
bulky and hence uneconomical.
3. On the upper end, there is a groove for housing the conductor. The
pin insulators are very firmly secured to the cross arm on the
transmission pole with the help of steel bolts.
4. The conductor passes through the groove on the upper end and is
bound by the binding wire of soft copper or soft aluminum i.e., of
the same material as that of conductor.
B. Suspension insulator :
1. These insulator used for high transmission lines. These insulators
have number of porcelain disc units. These units are connected to
one another in series with the help of metal links.
2. This forms a string of porcelain discs. The topmost insulators unit is
connected to the cross arm of the tower while the lowest insulator
is made to hold the conductor along the conductor shoe.
3. Each unit is designed for the low voltage for say 11 kV but a string
of such units give us the proper insulation against high level voltage.
4. The overall string of suspension type insulator is shown in the

Fig. 16.
Tower
Cross arm
Disc
Last unit
(line unit)
Line conductor
Fig. 16. String suspension insulator with 3 units.
C. Strain insulators :
1. These insulators are used when there is dead end of the line is at a
sharp curve or the line is crossing the river etc.
2. These insulators reduce the excessive tension on the line under
such abnormal condition. For high voltage strain insulators are
used.
3. The discs of the strain insulators are in a vertical plane.
4. In case of condition like crossing of river, there is excessive tension
on the line. In such a case two or more strings of the insulators are
used in parallel.
Strain insulator
Guy wire
Jumper
Pole
Fig. 17. Strain insulator.

Ans.
A. Methods of equalizing potential :
2. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and
more uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K can be
decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance.
3. In order to reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor
from tower must be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be
used.
4. However, limitations of cost and strength of tower do not allow the
use of very long cross-arm.
Tower
Cross arm
Shunt
capacitor
Line
Fig. 18.
1. A guard ring is simply a metal ring which is electrically connected to
the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator.
2. The potential across unit in a string can be equalized by using a
guard ring which is metal ring electrically connected to the conductor
and surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. 19.
C
C1 i1
i1
C2
C
C1 i2 i2 C
3
I
C
guard
ring
Fig. 19.
3. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and
the line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way that
shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc., are equal to metal fittings line
capacitance currents i1, i2 etc.
4. The result is that same charging current I flows through each unit
of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution
across the unit.
1. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen
that each has a different capacitance.
2. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e., they are assembled in
the string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum
capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom unit is reached.
3. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance. This method
tends to equalise the potential distribution across the units in the
string.
B. String Efficiency : String efficiency is measure of the utilization
of material in the string and is defined as :
Voltage across the string
=
n  Voltage across the insulator nearest to line conductor
where n is number of disc or insulator.

a. Explain catenary method for the calculation of sag and
tension in transmission line. An overhead line has a span
of 200 metres, the line conductor weights 0.7 kg per meter.
Calculate the maximum sag if allowable tension in the line
is 1,400 kg. Prove formula used.
Ans.
A. Catenary method for calculation of sag and tension :
1. When sag is comparable with the span then conductor takes the
form of catenary.
2. Consider a conductor, supported at the points A and B with O as the
lowest point on the conductor, as shown in the Fig. 20.
y
A l B
Ty
T
dc
dy
Tx 
P P dx
c Tangent at
point P
x
H O
Fig. 20.
3. Let w = Weight per unit length

T = Tension at point P.
4. Let P be the point on the conductor such that OP = c. The point O is
origin and the co-ordinates of point P are (x, y). The tension T is
acting tangentially at point P.
5. The various forces acting on the curve portion OP of the wire are
i. Horizontal tension, H acting at O.
ii. Weight of the portion OP which is wc acting vertically downward
through centre of gravity.
iii. Horizontal and vertical components of tension T in the conductor
i.e., Tx and Ty acting at P.
6. In the equilibrium condition, horizontal and vertical components
will balance each other.
 Tx = H
and Ty = wc
Tywc
Now tan  = 
Tx H
7. tan  can also be written as,
dy wc
tan  =  ...(1)
dx H
8. Now (dc) = (dx)2 + (dy)2
2
2 2
 dc   dy 
   = 1   
dx dx
9. Substituting from equation (1) we get,
2
dc  wc 
= 1 
dx  H
dc
 dx =
w 2 c2
1
H2
10. Integrating both sides
 H  wc 
x =   sin h 1  A
 w  H 
where A = Constant of integration
11. Now at x = 0 i.e., at point O, c = 0
hence we get A = 0
 H 1  wc 
x =   sinh   ...(2)
w H
12. Taking hyperbolic sine of both sides,
 wx  wc
sinh 
 H  = H
H  wx 
 c= sinh  ...(3)
w  H 
13. From eq. (1),
dy wc
=
dx H
dy w H  wx  
 = sinh 
dx H  w  H  
 wx 
 dy = sinh  dx
 H 
14. Integrating both sides,
H  wx 
y= cosh  B ...(4)
w  H 
where B = Constant of integration
15. When y = 0, x = 0 at point O
H
0= B
w
H
 B= 
w
H  wx  H
 y= cosh  
w  H  w
H  wx  
 y= cosh   1 ...(5)
w   H  
This is the required equation of the catenary form of conductor.
Calculation of tension T :
1. The tension T at any point P is,
2 2
T2 = Tx  Ty = H2 + w2c2
H2  wx 
= H 2  w2 sinh2 
w2  H 
  wx  
= H 2 1  sinh 2 
  H  
 wx 
T2 = H2 cosh2  
H
 wx 
 T = H cosh  
H
B. Numerical :
Given : l = 200 m, w = 0.7 kg per meter, T = 1400 kg
To Find : Maximum sag, S.
wl2 0.7  200  200

Maximum sag, S = =
8T 8  1400
= 2.5 m
2
wl
Proof of S = :
8T
a. Sag : The difference in levels between point of support and the
lowest point on the conductor is called sag.
The sag is denoted by S as shown in Fig. 21.
A l B
S
O
Conductor
Fig. 21.
b. Supports at equal levels :
A l/2 l/2 B
x/2 P S
y
T
O wx
x
S = Sag
portion OP are :
T × y = wx × x / 2
wx 2
y=
2T
x = l/2 and y = S
w(l / 2) 2 wl2
 Sag, S = 
2T 8T
b. What is grading of cable ? Why is it necessary ? Explain

Ans.
A. Grading of cables : The process of obtaining uniform distribution
of stress in insulation of cables is called grading of cables.
B. Necessity : Grading of cables is done because the unequal
distribution has following two unwanted effects :
i. Greater insulation thickness is required, which increases the cost
and size.
C. Capacitance grading or dielectric grading :
1. The grading done by using the layers of dielectric having different
permittivities between core and sheath is called capacitive grading.
2. Let r = Radius of conductor
r1, r2, R = Radius of dielectrics
1, 2, 3 = Permittivity of dielectrics
1 > 2 > 3
r2
R
Sheath
r1
r
1
2
3
Fig. 23. Dielectric grading.

3. Dielectric stress is given by,
q
gx =
2  0  1 x
4. Potential difference across inner layer,
r1 r1
q q r
V1 = g x dx   dx = ln 1
r r
2  0 1 x 2  0  1 r
q r r
=  r ln 1  gmax1 r ln 1
2  0  1 r r r
5. Similarly, the potential difference between r 1 and r 2 , V 2 =
r2
gmax 2 r1 ln
r1
R
6. Potential difference between r2 and R, V3 = gmax 3 r2 ln r
2
7. Total potential difference between core and earthed sheath
V = V1 + V2 + V3
r1 r2 R
= gmax1 r ln r  gmax 2 r2 ln r  gmax 3 r2 ln r
1 2
q
8. Capacitance of cable, C=
V
q
=
 q 1 r1 1 r2 1 R 

2     ln r   ln r   ln r  
 0 1 2 1 3 2 
2  0
=
1 r1 1 r 1 R
ln  ln 2  ln
1 r  2 r1  3 r2
q
9. Maximum stresses, gmax1 =
2  0  1 r
q
gmax2 =
2  0  2 r1
q
gmax3 =
2  0  3 R
10. If maximum stress is same in each layer,
gmax1 = gmax2 = gmax3 = gmax (say)
 1r = 2r1 = 3R
11. Total voltage applied across the cable,
 
V = gmax r ln r1  r1 ln r2  r2 ln R
 r r1 r2 

a. What are earthing and neutral grounding ? Discuss
different methods of neutral grounding with neat sketch.
Also give advantages.
b. Describe the various conductor configurations and choice

Ans.
A. Conductor configuration for EHV transmission line :
1. There are variety of conductor configuration available in practice.
2. Symmetrical co nfiguratio n, flat horizontal and ve rtical
configurations are some configurations based on mechanical
considerations.
3. In flat horizontal configuration, tower height is less whereas it is
more in vertical configurations.
4. The vertical configurations are more prone to lightning hazards
due to more height.
5. The spacing between line conductors should be sufficient so that
due to wind when they swing, distance between them should be
greater than the sparking distance.
B. Choice of voltage :
The line voltage affects the performance of line and its cost. For
getting the optimum operation transmission voltage, we may use
following empirical formula
0.5
 D P 
V = 5.5   
1.6 100 
A standard voltage nearer to that obtained with above formula is
selected for the given line. The formula gives the basic estimate. By
considering various technical and economic aspects, it is possible to
obtain the most economical voltage.
C. Number of circuits :
1. A transmission line may consist of single circuit or double circuit.
2. With double circuit line, high power can be transferred and reliability
is more than that of single circuit line.
3. Based on 75 % of the line capacity, each circuit in double circuit line
is designed.
4. In India, both types of circuits are present for EHV lines.
5. The number of circuits for a given line are determined from surge
impedance loading.
6. For single circuit line, horizontal or L type configuration is found to
be economical while for double circuit line vertical configuration
proves to be most economical.
D. Comparison :
S. No. HVDC EHV-AC
1. Line construction is simpler. Line construction is complex.
2. No skin effect. Skin effect is prominent.
3. Le ss corona and radio More corona and radio
interference. interference.
4. Expensive converters are Converters required are less
required. expensive.
5. Voltage level transformation Voltage level transformation can
is not easier. be easily done using
transformers.

B. Tech.
POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
Note : Assume any missing data.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (7 × 2 = 14)

a. Draw single line diagram of power system network from
various intermediate stages.
b. State Kelvin’s law for size of conductor for transmission.
c. What are the various factors affecting choice of

transmission voltage level ?
d. What is the Ferranti effect ?
e. What are the types of insulators used in transmission and

distribution ?
f. What is the range of surge impedance in case of underground

cable ?
g. What is the significance of string efficiency ?
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. Compare the relative weight of copper required for a
distribution network on the DC-3 wire, and 3-phase 4-wire
system. Assume in both cases the same voltage at the
consumer’s terminals, the same copper losses, the loads
are balanced, and unity power factor in 3-phase case.
Neglect the losses in neutral.
b. Give the concept of self GMD. Starting from first principles,

derive the express ion for capacitance of a 3-phase
symmetrical spaced transmission line.
c. An 110 kV, 50 Hz, 175 km long, 3-phase transmission line

consists of 1.2 cm diameter stranded copper conductor
spaced in 2 m delta arrangement. Assume that temperature
is 25 °C and barometric pressure is 74 cm. Assume surface
irregularity factor m = 0.85, mv for local corona = 0.72 and mv
for general corona = 0.82. Find :
iv. Power loss due to corona using peek’s formula under fair
weather and wet weather conditions.
d. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level

e. Explain the phenomena of neutral grounding using

Peterson coil.
SECTION-C

a. Explain briefly skin effect and proximity effect in reference
to overhead lines.
b. A 50 Hz, three-phase transmission line has total series

impedance per phase of (40 + j125) ohms and shunt
admittance of 10 – 3 mho. The load is 50 MW at 220 kV, 0.8 pf
lagging.
Using nominal  method, calculate the sending end voltage
current and power factor.

a. A single circuit 3-phase line operated at 50 Hz is arranged
inductance per km.
1.5 m 1.5 m
3m
Fig. 1.
b. In a 3-phase line with 132 kV at the receiving end the

A = D = 0.98  30°, B = 110  750° ,

C = 0.0005  880° S
If load at the receiving end is 50 MVA at 0.8 pf lagging,
determine the value of the sending end voltage.

a. Explain why the voltage does not divide equally across the
units of a string insulator.
Find the voltage distribution and string efficiency of a three
unit suspension insulator string if the capacitance of the
link pins to earth and to the line are respectively 20 % and
10 % of the self capacitance of each unit. If a guard ring
increases the capacitance to the line of lower link pin to
35 % of the self capacitance of each unit, find the
redistribution of voltage and string efficiency.
b. Explain the phenomenon of corona. What are the various

factors affecting it ? How can it be reduced ?

a. Deduce an expression for sag in overhead transmission
lines when
ii. Supports are at unequal levels.
b. Derive the expression for insulation resistance of single

core cable.

a. A 220 kV, 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line of 150 km consists
three conductor equilaterally spaced with 7 m and having
effective diameter of 3 cm. Find the inductance and MVA
rating of the Peterson’s coil in system ?
b. What are the design considerations of distribution system ?

Give the classification of distribution system with diagram.

Note : Assume any missing data.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (7 × 2 = 14)

a. Draw single line diagram of power system network from
various intermediate stages.
Ans.
Step-up
Transformer
Transmission level
(132, 220, 400 kV)
Very large The lines to
Step down
Transformer
(66 kV)
Large Large
consumers consumers
Step down
Transformer
Medium Medium
Primary distribution
consumers (33,11 kV) consumers
Secondary
distribution (400 V)
Small Consumers
(400/230 V)
Fig. 1.
b. State Kelvin’s law for size of conductor for transmission.

Ans. The most economical area of conductor is that for which the total
cost of transmission line is minimum. This is known as Kelvin’s
law.
c. What are the various factors affecting choice of

transmission voltage level ?
Ans.
1. Power to be transmitted
2. Distance of transmission line.
d. What is the Ferranti effect ?

Ans. The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the receiving end of the
open-circuited or lightly loaded line is called the Ferranti effect.
e. What are the types of insulators used in transmission and

distribution ?
Ans.
1. Pin type
2. Suspension type
3. Strain insulator
4. Shackle insulator
5. Stay insulator.
f. What is the range of surge impedance in case of underground

cable ?
Ans. Range of surge impedance is 40 to 60 .
g. What is the significance of string efficiency ?

Ans. More the string efficiency more the uniform voltage distribution on
suspension insulator.
SECTION-B

a. Compare the relative weight of copper required for a
distribution network on the DC-3 wire, and 3-phase 4-wire
system. Assume in both cases the same voltage at the
consumer’s terminals, the same copper losses, the loads
are balanced, and unity power factor in 3-phase case.
Neglect the losses in neutral.
Ans.
A. DC three-wire system :
P/2 P
1. Load current, I3 = 
Vm 2V m
2
 P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I32R3 = 2   
 2V m  a3 2 a3V m 2
P 2l
a3 =
2WVm 2
I3
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I3
Fig. 2.
3. Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire as half of that of any
of the outers.
2.5P 2l 2
= 2.5a3l = = 0.3125 K
2WVm 2
B. AC 3-phase 4-wire system :
Outer
I10
Vm
Neutral
Vm I
10
Vm Outer
I10
Outer
Fig. 3.
1. Assuming balanced load, there will be no current in neutral wire
and copper losses will be same as in 3-phase 3-wire system
2 P 2l
i.e., W=
3Vm cos 2 a10
2
2 P 2l
a10 =
3Vm 2 cos 2 W
7P 2 l 2 0.583
= 3.5a10l =  K
3 cos 2 Vm 2W cos 2 
b. Give the concept of self GMD. Starting from first principles,

derive the express ion for capacitance of a 3-phase
symmetrical spaced transmission line.
Ans.
A. Self-GMD (Ds) :
1 D
L = 2 × 10–7   ln 
4 r
 1  D
L =  2  10 7     2  10 7 ln 
 4  r
D
L = 2 × 10 – 7 ln
Ds
conductor and is independent of the spacing between the
conductors.
B. 3  line symmetrically spaced or equilateral spacing :
1. Taking conductor a
Voltage between conductor a and b
1  D r
Vab =  qa ln  qb ln  ...(1)
2  r D
2. Voltage between conductor a and c
1  D r
Vac =  qa ln  qc ln  ...(2)
2  r D
3. Adding eq. (1) and (2)
1  D r
Vab + Vac = 2qa ln  (qb  qc ) ln  ...(3)
2  r D
4. Also, qa + qb + qc= 0
qb + qc = – qa
5. Substituting value of qb + qc in eq. (3)
1  D r
Vab + Vac = 2qa ln  qa ln 
2  r D
1  D D
= 2 qa ln  qa ln 
2  r r
3qa D
Vab + Vac = ln ...(4)
2 r
a Vcn
Vca
Vab
Cn Cn ND 130°
DN
Van
Cn Cn
Cn Cn
b N c Vbn Vbc
D
(a) Three phase line (b) Phasor diagram of voltages.
with equilateral spacing.
Fig. 4.
6. Vab = 3 Van 30
Vac = –V ca
= 3 Van   30
Vab + Vac = 3V an ...(5)
7. From eq. (4) and (5)
3qa D
3Van =
ln
2 r
q D
Van = a ln ...(6)
2 r
8. Line to neutral capacitance,
qa 2
Cn =  F/m ...(7)
Van ln D / r
For air, r = 1
Since  = or
20
Cn = F/ m ...(8)
ln D / r
c. An 110 kV, 50 Hz, 175 km long, 3-phase transmission line

consists of 1.2 cm diameter stranded copper conductor
spaced in 2 m delta arrangement. Assume that temperature
is 25 °C and barometric pressure is 74 cm. Assume surface
irregularity factor m = 0.85, mv for local corona = 0.72 and mv
for general corona = 0.82. Find :
iv. Power loss due to corona using peek’s formula under fair
weather and wet weather conditions.
Ans.
Given : Diameter = 1.2 cm, d = 2 m, t = 25 °C, mv = 0.82,
b = 74 cm, f = 50 Hz
To Find : i. Disruptive critical voltage.
iv. Power loss due to corona using peek’s formula
under fair weather and wet weather conditions.
1.2
1. Radius of conductor = = 0.6 cm
2
d 2
The ratio, = × 100
r 0.6
= 333.33
r 1
= = 0.054
d 333.33
3.92b 3.92  74
2. =  = 0.973
273  t 273  25
3. Assuming a surface irregularity factor 0.85, the critical disruptive
voltage
d
Vd = 21.1  0.85r ln
r
= 21.1 × 0.85 × 0.973 × 0.6 ln 333.33
4. Visual critical voltage,
 0.3  d
Vs = 21.1mvr  1   ln r
 r 
 0.3 
= 21.1 × 0.82 × 0.973 × 0.6  1  
 0.973  0.6 
× ln 333.33
= 81.71 kV
 f  25  r
5. Power loss = 244 × 105 ×   (V – Vd)2
   d
kW/phase/km
2
75  110 
= 244  10 5   0.054    60.82
0.973  3 
= 0.0729 kW/phase/km
= 12.75 kW/phase = 38.25 kW for 3

6. Corona loss under foul weather condition will be when the
disruptive voltage is taken as 0.8 × Fair weather
Vd = 0.8 × 60.82 = 48.65 kV
7. Loss per phase per km will be
75
244  10  5  × 0.054(63.5 – 48.65)2
0.975
= 2.24 kW/km/phase = 391.94 kW/phase
d. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level

Ans.
Given : L = 150 m, a = 1.25 cm2, k = 4, Weight = 120 kg/100 m
= 1.2 kg/m, Breaking stress = 4220 kg/cm2
To Find : Maximum sag.
Breaking stress  a 4220  1.25

1. Tension, T=  = 1319 kg
k 4
1.25  4
2. Diameter, d= = 1.26 cm

3. WW = Wind pressure × d = 90 × 1.26 × 10 – 2 = 1.134 kg/m
4. Wr = 1.22  1.134 2 = 1.65 kg/m

Wr L2 1.65  1502
5. Maximum sag =  = 3.52 m
8T 8  1319
e. Explain the phenomena of neutral grounding using

Peterson coil.
SECTION-C

a. Explain briefly skin effect and proximity effect in reference
to overhead lines.
Ans.
A. Skin effect :
1. When a direct current flows through a conductor, it is uniformly
distributed in a conductor.
2. But when an alternating current passes through a conductor, it is
non-uniformly distributed in cross section of the conductor.
3. Due to which current density at the surface of conductor is higher
than the current density at the centre of the conductor. This
effect is known as skin effect.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ No current flow
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Current flow over the

surface
Fig. 5.
B. Proximity effect :
1. When two or more conductors are near to each other, their
magnetic field interacts and it results in circulating currents inside
the conductor. This effect is known as proximity effect.
2. Due to proximity effect, the current in each conductor is
redistributed and it flows through that part of conductor which is
farthest from the other conductors. This effect results in apparent
increase in resistance of conductor.
3. Proximity effect can be influenced by following factors :
i. Size of conductor
ii. Frequency of supply
iii. Resistivity of material
iv. Distance between conductors.
b. A 50 Hz, three-phase transmission line has total series

impedance per phase of (40 + j125) ohms and shunt
admittance of 10 – 3 mho. The load is 50 MW at 220 kV, 0.8 pf
lagging.
Using nominal  method, calculate the sending end voltage
current and power factor.
Ans.
Given : Z = 40 + j125 = 131.24 72.20 , Y = 10 – 3 mho,
Vr = 220 kV, cos r = 0.8 lag.
To Find : Vs, Is and cos s.
220
1. Vr =  103 = 127.01 kV/ph
3
P 50  106
2. Ir =  = 164.02 A (lagging)
3 V cos  3  220  103  0.8
Vr Y (127.01  103 0)  (10  3 90)

3. Ic1 =  ( Vc1 = Vr)
2 2
= 63.5 90° A
Is I Ir
Ic2 (40 + j125) 

Ic1 50 MW
0.8 lag
Vs Vr
10 – 3 10 – 3
 
2 2
Fig. 6.
4. I = Ir + Ic1 = 164.02  – cos – 1 0.8 + 63.5 90°
= 164.02  – 36.86 + 63.5 90°
= 135.79  – 14.8 °A
5. Vs = Vc2 = Vc1 + IZ = Vr + IZ
= 127.01 × 103 0° + (135.79  – 14.8) × (131.24 72.2°)
= 137.45  6.26° kV/ph
VsY (137.45  103 6.26)  (10 3 90)

6. Ic2 =  = 137.45  96.26° A
2 2
7. Is = I + Ic2 = 135.79  – 14.8° + 137.45  96.26° = 154.65  41.23° A
8. cos s = cos (96.26° – 41.23°) = 0.57

a. A single circuit 3-phase line operated at 50 Hz is arranged
inductance per km.
1.5 m 1.5 m
3m
Fig. 7.
Ans.
Given : f = 50 Hz, r = 0.3 cm
To Find : Inductive reactance per phase per km.
6m 6m
Fig. 8.
1. Deq = (D.D.2D)1/3
= (1.5 × 1.5 × 3)1/3 = 1.889
2. Inductance/phase/m
 D 
L =  0.5  2 ln eq   10 –7
 r 
  1.889  10 2   –7
=  0.5  2 ln     10
  0.3
= 13.39 × 10–7 H/m
= 13.39 × 10–7 × 1000 H/km
= 13.39 × 10–4 H/km
b. In a 3-phase line with 132 kV at the receiving end the

A = D = 0.98  30°, B = 110  750° ,
C = 0.0005  880° S
If load at the receiving end is 50 MVA at 0.8 pf lagging,
determine the value of the sending end voltage.
Ans.
V = 132 kV, pf = 0.8 (lag).
132  103
Vr = = 76.21 kV
3
50000  103
Ir =
3  132  10 3
= 218.7 – cos–1 0.8
= 218.7 – 36.86
Vs = AV r + BIr
= (0.98  30°) (76.21 × 103)
+ (110 750°) (218.7  – 36.36°)
= 94.96  21.28 kV
|V s1| = 3 |Vs| = 3 × 94.96 = 164.47

Is = CV r + DIr
= (0.0005  880°) (76.21 × 103) + (0.98  30°)
+ (218.7  – 36.86°)
= 177.43  – 4.06 A
6. Power factor at sending end = cos s
= cos (21.28 – (– 4.06)) = 0.90
7. Power at sending end = 3 Vs1 Is cos s
= 3 × 94.96 × 103 × 177.43 × 0.9
= 45.49 MW
Vs = A Vnl
Vs 94.96  103
So, Vnl =  = 113.04 × 103 V
A 0.84
|Vnl | |Vfl |
VR =  100
|Vfl |
113.04  103  76.21  103

= × 100
76.21  10 3
= 0.48
= 48 %

a. Explain why the voltage does not divide equally across the
units of a string insulator.
Find the voltage distribution and string efficiency of a three
unit suspension insulator string if the capacitance of the
link pins to earth and to the line are respectively 20 % and
10 % of the self capacitance of each unit. If a guard ring
increases the capacitance to the line of lower link pin to
35 % of the self capacitance of each unit, find the
redistribution of voltage and string efficiency.
Ans.
A. Reason : The voltage does not divide equally across the various
units of a string insulator. The capacitance between the metal parts
of the insulators and the tower structure is the main reason for
this.
B. Numerical :
0.2C C 0.1C V1
i1 P i1
i2
C V2
0.2C 0.1C
i2 i3 i2
C
V3
Fig. 9.
I2 + i1 = I1 + i1
V2C + (V2 + V3) 0.1 C = V1 C + 0.2 V1 C
1.2 V1 – 1.1 V2 – 0.1 V3 = 0 ...(1)
2. Similarly at Q,
I3 + i2 = I2 + i2
V3C + 0.1 V3C = V2 C + 0.2 (V1 + V2) C
0.2 V1 – 1.2 V2 – 1.1 V3 = 0 ...(2)
3. From eq. (1) and (2), we get
V2 = 0.78 V3 and V1 = 0.80 V3
4. V = V1 + V2 + V3
= 0.80 V3 + 0.78 V3 + V3 = 2.58 V3
V3 = 38.76 % V
V2 = 30.23 % V
V1 = 31 % V
V 2.58 V3
5. String efficiency =  100   100  86 %
3V3 3 V3
With guard ring : Pin to line capacitance is increased from 0.1C to
0.35C.
1. 1.2 V1 – 1.1 V2 – 0.1 V3 = 0 ...(3)
0.2 V1 + 1.2 V2 – 1.35 V3 = 0 ...(4)
2. From eq. (3) and (4),
V2 = 0.96 V3 and V1 = 0.97 V3
3. V = V1 + V2 + V3
= 0.97 V3 + 0.96 V3 + V3 = 2.93 V3
V3 = 34.13 % V
V2 = 32.76 % V
V1 = 33.1 % V
V 2.93 V3
4. String efficiency =   97.67 %
3  V3 3  V3
b. Explain the phenomenon of corona. What are the various

factors affecting it ? How can it be reduced ?
Ans.
A. Phenomenon of corona :
1. When an alternating potential difference is applied across two
conductors, whose spacing is large in comparison with their
diameters, then the atmospheric air surrounding the conductors is
subjected to electrostatic stresses.
2. At low voltage there is no change in the condition of atmospheric
air around the conductors.
3. However, when the potential difference is gradually increased, a
stage arrives when a luminous glow of violet colour appears together
with a hissing noise and production of ozone gas.
4. If the potential difference is raised still further, the glow and the
noise will increase until a spark-over owing to breakdown of air
insulation will take place.
versa.
is more.

loss.
C. Methods of reduced corona :
1. Voltage of the line : There is negligible corona loss below disruptive
critical voltage. So if voltage is below disruptive critical voltage,
there is no corona loss and as the line voltage goes beyond it,
corona losses become large.
2. Spacing between conductors : Spacing between the conductors
increases disruptive critical voltage. But this method increases
overall cost of line as cross arm length got increased. Also there is
an increase in voltage drop due to increase in the inductive reactance.
3. Increasing diameter of conductor : Increasing diameter of
conductor is widely used to reduce corona loss. Diameter of
conductor can be increased either by using Aluminum Conductor
Steel Reinforced conductor (ACSR) or by using hollow conductor.
4. Bundled conductors :
i. Presently bundled conductors are used more often to reduce corona
loss.
ii. It consists of two or more parallel conductors grouped together
having spaces between them. Bundle acts as conductor having
diameter much larger than component conductors.
iii. It reduces the voltage gradient thus reducing corona loss.
a. Deduce an expression for sag in overhead transmission
lines when
ii. Supports are at unequal levels.
Ans.
A. Supports at equal levels :
A l/2 l/2 B
x/2 P S
y
T
O wx
x

S = Sag
portion OP are :
T × y = wx × x / 2
wx 2
y=
2T
x = l/2 and y = S
w(l / 2) 2 wl2
 Sag, S = 
2T 8T
B. Supports at unequal level :
h = Difference in levels between two supports
x1 = Distance of support A from O
x2 = Distance of support B from O
T = Tension
B
h
S2
A
S1
O
x1 x2
l
Fig. 11. Supports at unequal levels.

wx12 wx22
2. Now, S1 = , and S2 =
2T 2T
Also, x1 + x2 = l ...(1)
3.  S2 – S1 = wx22 wx12 w (x 2 – x 2)
  2 1
2T 2T 2T
w
= ( x2  x1 )( x2  x1 )
2T
wl
S2 – S1 = ( x2  x1 )
2T
4. But, S2 – S1 = h
wl
 h= ( x2  x1 )
2T
2Th
(x2 – x1) = ...(2)
wl
5. Adding eq. (1) and (2), we get
2Th
2x2 = l 
wl
l Th
x2 = 
2 wl
 l Th  l Th
6. And, x1 = l     
 2 wl  2 wl
After finding x1 and x2, the values of S1 and S2 can be calculated.
b. Derive the expression for insulation resistance of single

core cable.
Ans. Insulation resistance of single core cable :
Direction
Core of leakage
current
Layer of
insulation
r
R
Fig. 12. Single cable.
Elementary
ring
dx
Fig. 13. Elementary ring.
l
R= 
A
dx
2x
R
 dx  R
R= = ln ohms/metre
2 r x 2 r
 R
2l r

a. A 220 kV, 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line of 150 km consists
three conductor equilaterally spaced with 7 m and having
effective diameter of 3 cm. Find the inductance and MVA
rating of the Peterson’s coil in system ?
b. What are the design considerations of distribution system ?

Give the classification of distribution system with diagram.

B.Tech.
POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
Note : 1. Attempt all Sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A

a. How a circuit breaker is specifically different from a switch ?
b. State the empirical formula for determining the system

voltage of transmission line.
c. What are ACSR conductor stands ?
d. For what purpose bundle conductor are us ed in

transmission line.
e. What is dielectric strength of air ?
f. How are voltage distribution and the string efficiency

affected by rain ?
g. What is the role of earthing transformer in neutral

grounding ?
SECTION-B

a. Derive formula to calculate the ratio of copper volume used
in two phase four-wire system and a two-wire DC system.
b. Draw a phasor diagram of a nominal-T transmission line

and find its A, B, C, D constants.
c. Derive express ions for voltages induced due to (i)

electromagnetic and (ii) electrostatic effects of interference
between power and telephone lines and show how these
results can be used for calculating electromagnetically and

electrostatically induced emf’s on telephone line when the
power line is 3-phase and there are two telephone
conductors.
d. Derive expression for sag and tension in a power conductor

string between two supports at equal heights considering
the wind and ice loading.
e. What is the need of grounding the neutral ? Describe briefly

the various grounding technique.
SECTION-C

a. Draw single line diagram of a three bus system having
generator G1 connected to bus-1 through transformer T1,
three synchronous motors M1 to M3 connected to bus-3
through transformer T3, transmission lines TL1, TL2 and
TL3 connected between bus 1-2, 2-3 and 1-3 respectively.
b. State Kelvin’s law. Determine the best current density in

amp/mm2 for a three phase overhead line. The line is in use
for 2600 hours per year and conductor costs Rs. 3.0 / kg. It
has a specific resistance of 1.73 × 10– 8 -m and weights
6200 kg/m3. Cost of energy is 10 paise/unit. Interest and
depreciation is 12 % of conductor costs.

a. Find the inductance per phase of symmetrically spaced
b. A 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line has flat horizontal

conductors are hard drawn 7 strand copper wire (outside
conductor diameter = 1.05 cm). The voltage of the line is
110 kV. Find the capacitance to neutral and charging
current per km.

a. Explain the situation under which corona phenomenon
starts in high voltage power transmission lines. Identify
the factors with reason that affect corona.

string insulator. A string of 8 suspension insulators is to
be fitted with a grading ring. If the pin to earth capacitance
is equal to C, find the values of line of pin capacitances that
would give a uniform voltage distribution over the string.

a. Show that the most economical size of conductor in a single
b. Derive the formula for insulation resistance of a cable.

Calculate insulation resistance of 5 km length of single
core cable whose insulation resistance is 5 × 1014 -cm,
insulation thickness is 1 cm and radius of conductor is
1.25 cm.

a. Describe layout of distribution system and also explain
primary and secondary distribution.
b. i. Enlist the cause of loses in distribution system.
ii. Explain radial ring interconnected systems and stepped

distribution.

Note : 1. Attempt all Sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
a. How a circuit breaker is specifically different from a switch ?
Ans.
S. No. Circuit breaker Switch
1. A circuit breake r is an A switch is a device which is used

equipment which can open or to open or close electrical circuit
close a circuit under all in a convenient way.
conditions i.e., no load, full
load and fault conditions.
2. It is so designed that it can be It can be used under full-load or
operated manually under no-load conditions but it cannot
no rmal conditions and interrupt the fault currents.
automatically under fault
conditions.
b. State the empirical formula for determining the system

voltage of transmission line.
Ans. An empirical formula is use to determine the optimum voltage for
lines more than 30 km long.
The empirical formula is,
L load in kVA
V = 5.5 
1.6 150
where, V = Transmission voltage (kV)
L = Distance of transmission line in km
c. What are ACSR conductor stands ?
Ans. ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) : It has a
steel core forming the central layer of the stranded conductor around
which a layer of aluminium strands presents. Fig. 1 shows cross-
section of an ACSR conductor.
Steel
Aluminium
Fig. 1. ACSR conductor.

d. For what purpose bundle conductor are us ed in

transmission line.
Ans.
e. What is dielectric strength of air ?

Ans. The dielectric strength of air is approximately 3 kV/mm. Its exact
value varies with the shape and size of the electrodes and increases
with the pressure of the air.
f. How are voltage distribution and the string efficiency

affected by rain ?
Ans. In the rainy season, insulators are wet and the mutual capacitance
value increases. Thus the ratio of shunt to mutual capacitance i.e.,
k decreases. This increases the uniformity of the voltage distribution.
Hence in rainy season, string efficiency is higher.
g. What is the role of earthing transformer in neutral

grounding ?
SECTION-B

a. Derive formula to calculate the ratio of copper volume used
in two phase four-wire system and a two-wire DC system.
Ans.
1. In overhead system, maximum voltage between each conductor
and earth forms the basis of comparison.
a. DC Systems :
P
Load current, I1 =
Vm
I1
+
Vm
–
I1
Fig. 2.
2
 P  l  l 
2. Line losses, W = 2I12R1 = 2    R 1   a 
 V m  a1  1 
2P 2 l
WVm 2
4P 2 l 2
WVm 2
I2
Vm
2Vm
Vm
I2
Fig. 3.
P
2V m
2
 P  l P 2l
2. Line losses, W = 2I22R2 = 2   
 2V m  a 2 2 a 2 Vm 2
P 2l
3. a2 =
2WVm 2
P 2l 2
WVm 2
b. AC two-phase four-wire system :
I7
2Vm
2Vm I7
I7
I7
Fig. 4.
P
1. Load supplied by each phase =
2
P
2. I7 =
2 2Vm cos 
2
 P  l P 2l
=4   
 2 2Vm cos   a7 2V m a7 cos 2 
2
P 2l
a7 =
2Vm W cos 2  2

2 P 2l 2 0.5 K
= 4a7l = 
b. Draw a phasor diagram of a nominal-T transmission line

and find its A, B, C, D constants.
Ans. The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are
expressed in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end
Vs = AVr + BIr ...(1)
Is = CVr + DIr ...(2)
i. Nominal T method :
R jX R jX
Is 2 2 Vc 2 2
Ir
Ic
Z/2 Z/2
Vs Vc Y = j C Vr
Fig. 5. T-equivalent circuit of medium transmission line.

G
Ic
Vs E
C
O Is X
 A Vc 2
r 
s Vr Is R D
2
Ir R
Ir Is
H
2 Ir X
Ic B 2
F
1. From Fig. 5,
Z
Vc = Vr + I ...(3)
2 r
2. The current through the shunt admittance is
Ic = V c Y
 Z 
=  Vr  Ir  Y
 2 
YZ
Ic = YVr  Ir
2
3. Now the sending-end current is
Is = Ir + Ic
YZ
= I r  YVr  Ir
2
 YZ 
Is = YVr   1   Ir ...(4)
 2 
and the sending-end voltage is
Z
Vs = Vs  Is
2
Z Z  YZ  
= Vr  I r   YVr   1   Ir
2 2  2  
 YZ   Z Z YZ 2 
= 1   Vr     I
 2  2 2 4  r
 YZ   YZ 
 Vs =  1   Vr  Z  1   Ir ...(5)
 2  4 
4. For general transmission circuit constants, comparing the eq. (4)
and eq. (5) with eq. (1) and eq. (2) respectively, we get
YZ  YZ 
A = 1 = D; B = Z  1  , C=Y
2  4 
 YZ  YZ  
1  2 Z 1 
 
4  
5. The transfer matrix for the network is  ...(6)
 YZ 
 Y 1
2 
c. Derive express ions for voltages induced due to (i)

electromagnetic and (ii) electrostatic effects of interference
between power and telephone lines and show how these
results can be used for calculating electromagnetically and
electrostatically induced emf’s on telephone line when the
power line is 3-phase and there are two telephone
conductors.
Ans.
A. Electrostatic interference :
1. In electrostatic interference the electric potential of the
communication lines is raised which may be dangerous.
2. Consider a three-phase system consisting of three conductors R, Y,
and B, which are placed at the corners of a triangle and two
telecommunication lines P, Q connected parallel to the three-phase
system as shown in Fig. 7.
3. The potential distribution between the three-phase system and
plane (earth) is the same as the potential distribution between the
image of the three-phase system and the plane.
4. Consider a conductor R of a three-phase system. Let HR be the
height of conductor R from the ground. q is the charge per metre
length of conductor R and – q is the charge on image of conductor
R.
R
B HR Y
P Q
HB HY
B1 Y1
R1
Fig. 7. Three-phase power line communication
line and image of power line.
5. The electric-field intensity at a distance x from the centre of conductor
R,
q q
Ex = 
2 x 2 (2 H R  x)
The potential of conductor R with respect to earth,
HR HR
q 1 1 
VR = E dx    x  (2 H dx
 x 
x
r
2 r R
q  1 1  q 2H R  r
VR =
2   ln r  ln 2 H  r   2 ln r
R
q 2 HR
= ln ( 2HR >> r)
2 r
where, r is the radius of conductor R
6. Suppose P is placed at a distance DPR from the conductor R, then
the potential of conductor P with respect to earth,
HR HR
q 1 1 
VPR =  Ex dx    x  (2 H  x)  dx
DPR
2 DPR  R
 2 H R  DPR 
ln  
q 2 H R  DPR  DPR
= ln  VR
2 DPR 2 H R
ln
r
Similarly, the potential at P due to the charge on conductors Y and
B i.e., VPY and VPB can be calculated.
7. In addition, the resultant potential of P with respect to earth due to
charge on conductors R, Y and B is VP = VPR + VPY + VPB (vector
addition).
In a similar way, the resultant potential of conductor Q with respect
to the earth due to charge on conductors, R, Y, and B can be
calculated.
B. Electromagnetic interference :
1. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is caused when a power
conductor with a strong magnetic field is placed near other
conductors (communication lines). The flux lines of the strong
magnetic field cut the nearby conductors (communication lines)
and induce voltages on them. Presence of EMI can interfere with
the communication signal.
2. Consider a three-phase overhead transmission system consisting
of three conductors R, Y and B spaced at the corners of a triangle
and two telephone conductors P and Q below the power line
conductors running on the same supports as shown in Fig. 8.
DRQ
DRP
B Y
DYQ
DBP D BQ
DYQ
P Q
Fig. 8. Three-phase power line and communication line.

3. Let us assume that the radius of each conductor is r and consider

the loop formed by the conductors R and P. Now the distances
between R and P, and R and Q are DRP and DRQ, respectively.
4. Flux linkages of conductor P due to currents in all conductors of
power line given by ;
7  1 1 1 
p = 2  10  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
 DRP DYP DBP 
5. Flux linkages of conductor Q due to currents in all conductors of
power line,
7  1 1 1 
Q = 2  10  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
6. Total flux linkages of communication lines,
 = P – Q
 1 1 1 
= 2  10 7  I R ln  IY ln  I B ln
 DRP DYP DBP 
 1 1 1 
 I ln  IY ln  I B ln
 R DRQ DYQ DBQ 
 D D D 
= 2  10 7  I R ln RQ  IY ln YQ  I B ln BQ 
 DRP DYP DBP 
Therefore, the induced voltage in the communication line,
V = 2 f  V/m
7. Here, the voltage induced and flux linkages of communication line
depends upon the values of IR, IY, and IB
Case-I : If the currents IR, IY, and IB are balanced and power lines
are transposed, then flux linkages with the communication lines
are zero. Therefore, voltage induced is also zero.
Case-II : If the currents IR, IY, and IB are balanced and power lines
are untransposed, then flux linkages with the communication lines
are small. Therefore, voltage induced is also small.
Case-III : If the currents IR, IY, and IB are unbalanced, then there
is flux linkage with the communication lines and therefore, voltage
is induced.
8. The induced voltage can be reduced by increasing the distance
between the power lines and the communication lines or even by
transposing them.
d. Derive expression for sag and tension in a power conductor

string between two supports at equal heights considering
the wind and ice loading.
Ans.
A. Expression for sag and tension for supports at equal
heights :
Supports at equal levels :
A l/2 l/2 B
x/2 P S
y
T
O wx
x
S = Sag
portion OP are :
T × y = wx × x / 2
wx 2
y=
2T
x = l/2 and y = S
w(l / 2) 2 wl2
 Sag, S = 
2T 8T
B. Effect of ice and wind :
downward
= (w  wi )2  (ww )2
o ww
(w + wi) wt
Fig. 10.
wt l 2
Slant sag, S =
8T
ww
tan  =
(w  wi )
e. What is the need of grounding the neutral ? Describe briefly

the various grounding technique.
SECTION-C
a. Draw single line diagram of a three bus system having
three synchronous motors M1 to M3 connected to bus-3
through transformer T3, transmission lines TL1, TL2 and
TL3 connected between bus 1-2, 2-3 and 1-3 respectively.
Ans.
TL3
M1
G1 G2 M2
T1 T2 T3
M3
TL1 TL2
Bus-1 Bus-2 Bus-3
Fig. 11. Single line diagram.
Procedure :
1. Draw buses 1, 2, and 3.
2. Connect transmission lines TL1, TL2, TL3.
5. Connect M1, M2, M3, to bus 3 through T3.
b. State Kelvin’s law. Determine the best current density in

amp/mm2 for a three phase overhead line. The line is in use
for 2600 hours per year and conductor costs Rs. 3.0 / kg. It
has a specific resistance of 1.73 × 10– 8 -m and weights
6200 kg/m3. Cost of energy is 10 paise/unit. Interest and
depreciation is 12 % of conductor costs.
Ans.
i. Kelvin’s law :
which the total cost of transmission line is minimum. This is known
as Kelvin’s law.
ii. Numerical :
Conductor costs = Rs. 3 per kg;  = 1.73 × 10 – 8 -m
= 6200 × la kg
= Rs. 3 × la × 6200
= Rs. 18600 × la
= Rs. 186 × la × 10
= Rs. 1860 × la
 l 
= I2R × 10–3 kW = I2   × 10 – 3
 a
 6 l  3
= I2 1.73  10    10
 a
l
= I2 × 1.73 × 10–9
a
l
= 1.73 × 10–9 × I2kW
a
current density.
l
1860 la = 1.73 × 10–9 × I2
a
I2 1860
= × 109
a2 1.73
I
= 1.03 × 106 A/mm2
a

a. Find the inductance per phase of symmetrically spaced
Ans. Double circuit three phase lines with transposition :
a Dc'a c'
Dab Dbc' Dab' Db'c'
b Dca Dc'a' b'
Dbc Da'b Db'c Da'b'
c Dca' a'
a b
A B
a' b'
c
B b C
b' c'
c a
C A
c' a'
Fig. 12.
1. Formula for inductance of a 3 unsymmetrical line
 Mutual GMD 
L = 2  10 7 ln   ...(1)
 Self GMD 
2. For double circuit line
DAB = Mutual GMD between phase A & B i.e., between
a, a and b, b
= (Dab Dab Dab Dab)1/4

DBC = Mutual GMD between phases B and C i.e.,
between b, b and c, c
= (Dbc Dbc Dbc Dbc)1/4
DCA = Mutual GMD between phases C and A i.e.,
between c, c and a, a
= (Dca Dca Dca Dca)1/4
3. Mutual GMD of line
Dm = (DAB DBC DCA)1/3
= (Dab Dbc Dca Dab Dbc Dca Dab Dbc Dca Dab
Dbc Dca)1/12
DSA = Self GMD of phase A i.e., a, a
= (Daa Daa Daa Daa)1/4
1/ 4 1/ 2
 2
= r ' r ' Daa '    r ' Daa ' 
DSB = Self GMD of phase B i.e., b, b'

= (Dbb Db'b' Dbb' Db'b)1/4
1/ 4 1/ 2
 2
= r ' r ' Dbb '    r ' Daa ' 
DSC = Self GMD of phase C i.e., c, c

= (Dcc Dcc Dcc Dcc)1/4
1/ 4 1/ 2
 2
= r ' r ' Dbb '    r ' Daa ' 
4. Equivalent self GMD,

Ds = (DSA DSB DSC)1/3
= (r Daa . r Dbb . r Dcc)1/6

= (r3 Daa Dbb Dcc)1/6
5. Inductance of double circuit line per phase
Dm
L = 2  107 ln
Ds
1
( D D D D D D D D D D D D )2
7
= 2  10 ln ab bc ca ab ' bc3' ca ' a ' b b' c 1/c '6a a ' b ' b ' c' c' a '
(r ' Daa ' Dbb' Dcc ' )
Case I :
Inductance of 3 double circuit line with hexagonal spacing as shown
in Fig. 13.
a D c'
D D
b 3D 2D b'
D
D
c D a'
Fig. 13. Double circuit three phase line with hexagonal spacing.
1. Dab = Dbc = Dca = Dca = Dab = Dbc = D
Dca = Dab = Dbc = Dab = Dbc = Dca = 3D
Daa = Dbb = Dcc = 2D
2. Inductance per phase
[ D6 ( 3D)6 ]1/12
L = 2  10 7 ln
[2r '(2D)3 ]1/ 6
( 3D2 )1/ 2
= 2  10 7 ln
[ r ' 2D]1/ 2
 3D
= 10 7 ln   H/m
 2r ' 
Case II :
a p c'
s q
b b'
r
s
c a'
Fig. 14. Double circuit three phase line with flat vertical spacing.
1. Conductors are placed flat and vertically spaced.
Dab = Dbc = Dab = Dbc = Dca = s
Dac = Dac = 2s
Dac = Dbb = Dca = p
Dab = Dba = Dbc = Dcb = q
Daa = Dcc = r
2. Inductance per phase using eq. (1)

1
(s . s .2s . q. q . p . q. q. p. s . s .2s)12
7
L = 2  10 ln
(r '3 . r . p. r .)1/ 6
7
 1/ 6  s  1/ 2  q  1/ 3 
= 2  10 ln  2      H/ m
  r'  r  

b. A 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line has flat horizontal

conductors are hard drawn 7 strand copper wire (outside
conductor diameter = 1.05 cm). The voltage of the line is
110 kV. Find the capacitance to neutral and charging
current per km.
Ans.
1. Deq = (3.5 × 3.5 × 7)1/3
= 4.4 m
0.0242 0.0242
2. Cn = 
log ( Deq / r ) log (440 / 0.525)
= 0.00826 F/km
1 106
3. Xn = 
Cn 314  0.00826
= 0.384 × 106 /km to neutral
4. Charging current
Vn (110 / 3)  1000
=  = 0.17 A/km
Xn 0.384  106

a. Explain the situation under which corona phenomenon
starts in high voltage power transmission lines. Identify
the factors with reason that affect corona.
Ans.
A. Theory of corona formation :
1. The air around the conductor contains a number of free electrons.
When the potential is applied between the two conductors a potential
gradient is established and under its influence the electrons acquire
a uniformly increasing acceleration.
2. Thus, the free electrons attain speed and these free electrons collide
with the other slow moving or neutral molecules and in the process
dislodge electron from it.
Air with dVd

=
dielectric strength dr
r
dVg
E=
dr
Conductor
surface
Fig. 15. Corona formation.

3. When the potential gradient reaches about 30 kV (max. value) per
cm, the velocity acquired by the free electrons dislodge one or more
electrons from it.
4. These dislodged electrons and the previous free electrons strike
other neutral molecules producing more number of electrons. When
the saturation point is reached the insulating property of air is
destroyed and the air becomes conducting and corona forms.
5. Corona occurs if
dVd dVg
<
dr dr
dVg
where, = Electric potential at conductor surface
dr
dVd
= Dielectric strength
dr
where r is a radial vector, perpendicular to conductor surface.
If potential gradient (dV g/dr) exceeds the dielectric strength
(dVd/dr) the corona occurs.

versa.
is more.
loss.

string insulator. A string of 8 suspension insulators is to
be fitted with a grading ring. If the pin to earth capacitance
is equal to C, find the values of line of pin capacitances that
would give a uniform voltage distribution over the string.
Ans.
i. Methods of equalizing the potential :
2. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and
more uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K can be
decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance.
3. In order to reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor
from tower must be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be
used.
4. However, limitations of cost and strength of tower do not allow the
use of very long cross-arm.
Tower
Cross arm
Shunt
capacitor
Line
Fig. 16.
1. A guard ring is simply a metal ring which is electrically connected to
the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator.
2. The potential across unit in a string can be equalized by using a
guard ring which is metal ring electrically connected to the conductor
and surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. 17.
C
C1 i1
i1
C2
C
C1 i2 i2 C
3
I
C
guard
ring
Fig. 17.
3. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and
the line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way that
shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc., are equal to metal fittings line
capacitance currents i1, i2 etc.
4. The result is that same charging current I flows through each unit
of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution
across the unit.

1. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen
that each has a different capacitance.
2. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e., they are assembled in
the string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum
capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom unit is reached.
3. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance. This method
tends to equalise the potential distribution across the units in the
string.
ii. Numerical :
1. The capacitance of the pth link from the top is given by,
pC g
Cp =
n p
2. Here n = 8, Cg = C. Hence the line to pin capacitance from the top
are given by,
1c 1 2c 1
c1 =  c, c2   c
81 7 82 3
3c 3 4c 4
c3 =  c, c4   c=c
83 5 84 4
5c 5c 6c
c5 =  , c6  3c
85 3 86
7c
c7 = =7c
87

a. Show that the most economical size of conductor in a single
Ans.
A. Most economical size of conductor :
1. Let r = Radius o f co nducto r or inner radius of
insulation.
R = Internal radius of sheath or outer radius of
insulation.
o = Permittivity of free space.
r = Relative permittivity of the dielectric.
q = Charge on the conductor per unit length
V = Operating phase-to-neutral voltage
2. The electric flux density at a distance x from the center is,
q
Dx =
2x
and the electric stress is given by,
Dx q
gx =  ...(1)
 o  r (2 o  r ) x
r x
dx
Fig. 18. Single-core cable.

3. The potential difference between the conductor and the sheath is
equal to the work done to move a unit charge from the conductor to
sheath.
R R
q
Thus, V=  g x dx   dx
r r
(2  o  r ) x
q R
= ln ...(2)
2  o  r r
4. Combining eq. (1) and (2), we get
V
gx =
 R
x ln  
 r
V
5. The maximum stress will occur at x = r, gmax = ...(3)
 R
r ln  
 r
gmax
6. The value of gmax will be minimum when =0
d
d D
7. Putting r= and R  in eq. (3), we get
2 2
2V
gmax =
D
d ln  
d
D     D 
d ln   (2V )  2V d ln   
gmax  d  d d   d
= 2
d   D 
 d ln  d  
 
   D 
0  2V d ln   
d   d
= 2
  D 
 d ln  d  
 
 2V   D 1   D 
= ln    d  
2
  d   D   d2  
  D   
 d ln     d 
  d   
gmax 2V   D 
 = 2 
ln    1  ...(4)
d   d  
  D 
 d ln  d  
 
gmax
8. Now the value of must be zero to get minimum gmax.
d
 D
ln   –1 = 0
 d
 D
ln   = 1
 d
D or R = e  R = e.r
d r
B. Dielectric loss :
1. The dielectric loss is a power loss which occurs in the paper insulation
(dielectric) of a cable as a result of the electric field developed due to
the leakage current and the reversal of current in case of AC
supply.
2. This loss increases with temperature.
3. It has a direct bearing on the operation of a cable. A specific cable
has a definite heat dissipating ability at its operating temperature.
Therefore, any increase in dielectric loss will result in a decrease in
load carrying ability.
4. Dielectric losses are usually negligible for cables operating up to
33 kV.
C. Heating of cables : Under working conditions, the temperature
of the cables increases due to the following factors :
1. The heat produced within the cables.
2. The dissipation of heat up to the periphery of the cables.
3. The heat dissipation to the surrounding medium.
4. The current carried by the cables.
5. The various load conditions like continuous, distributed, intermittent
etc.
6. The heat is produced within the underground cables due to following

losses :
a. Copper loss which is also called I2R loss or core loss.
b. Dielectric loss.
c. Sheath loss.
b. Derive the formula for insulation resistance of a cable.

Calculate insulation resistance of 5 km length of single
core cable whose insulation resistance is 5 × 1014 -cm,
insulation thickness is 1 cm and radius of conductor is
1.25 cm.
Ans. Insulation resistance of single core cable :
Direction
Core of leakage
current
Layer of
insulation
r
R
Fig. 19. Single cable.
Elementary
ring
dx
Fig. 20. Elementary ring.

l
R= 
A
dx
2x
R
 dx
R=
2 
r
x
 R
= ln ohms/metre
2 r
 R
2l r
Given :
Specific resistance of insulation = 5 × 1014 -cm = 5 × 1012 -m,
Length of cable, l = 5 km = 5000 m, Core radius, r1 = 1.25 cm
To Find : Insulation resistance.
1. Internal sheath radius, r2 = r1 + Insulation thickness = 1.25 + 1 =
2.25 cm
r2 2.25  10 2
log e = log e  0.5878
r1 1.25  102
2. Insulation resistance of cable
 r 5  1012
= log e 2  × 0.5878 = 93.55 M
2l r1 2  5,000

a. Describe layout of distribution system and also explain
primary and secondary distribution.
b. i. Enlist the cause of loses in distribution system.

ii. Explain radial ring interconnected systems and stepped

distribution.
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Power System - I (EN : Sem-5)

Price: Rs. 80/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 B to SQ-18 B)

SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 B to SP-16 B)

Course Outcome Knowledge

Describe the working principle and basic components of conventional power

UNIT-I (Power Generation):

UNIT-II (Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power- I):

Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme EN (V & VI semester) Page 5

UNIT-IV (Transmission Line Parameters):

UNIT-V (Insulated Cables):

Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme EN (V & VI semester) Page 6

Part-2 : Concept of Cogeneration, ......................... 1–7B to 1–9B

Part-3 : Load Curve, Load Duration .................... 1–9B to 1–11B

Part-4 : Role of Load Diversity in ....................... 1–12B to 1–13B

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Draw the basic structure of power system.

Small consumers (400/230 V)

2. Transmission : Transmission of electrical supply is the part of a power

Que 1.2. Explain the conventional and non-conventional energy

Que 1.3. Give general layout and function of essential element of

Fig. 1.3.1. General layout of a hydro-electric power plant.

Econo- Feed water

Ash Ash handl- Boiler Super-

Fig. 1.4.1. Layout of a thermal power plant.

Que 1.5. Give general layout and operation of nuclear power

Hot reactor coolant Hot working

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.6. Explain the concept of cogeneration (combined heat and

8. In conventional method steam is produced by a boiler and electricity is

Fig. 1.6.2. Reject heat utilization system.

Que 1.7. Discuss the captive power plants.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.8. Define the terms :

ii. Load duration curve : A load duration curve represents re-

Que 1.9. The load-duration curve for a system is shown in

Que 1.10. The yearly load duration curve of a power plant is a

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.11. What do you understand by load diversity ? Explain the

Intermediate load Intermediate load

Based load Based load

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. Draw the basic structure of power system.

Q. 2. Give general layout and function of essential element of

Q. 3. Give the layout of a modern thermal power plant and explain

Q. 4. Give general layout and operation of nuclear power plant.

Q. 5. Explain the concept of cogeneration (combined heat and

Q. 6. Discuss the captive power plants.

Q. 7. Define the terms :

Part-2 : Configurations of Transmission .......... 2–18B to 2–28B

Part-3 : Corona Effect, Factors ........................... 2–28B to 2–39B

Part-4 : Performance of Lines : .......................... 2–39B to 2–49B

Part-5 : Long Transmission Lines, ..................... 2–49B to 2–55B