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Structural Applications

www.powermag.com
www.Wikipedia.com
Courtesy: Google images

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 1


Materials
Materials:
• Engineering applications Ages: Stone-Bronze-Iron-Silicon
• Load bearing or structural components Bronze: Alloy: Cu-10-12 at.% Sn

Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites


Classification

Alloys/Intermetallics
Metallic Ionic or covalent Covalent bond
Secondary bonds

Stiffness in GPa Strength in MPa

Mater Sci Eng Intro_W. D. Callister

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 2


Behavior of Materials
Behavior: Definition

Particular response (R) to given External Influence (F)


𝑅 = 𝑅(𝐹) F : Field
1 𝜕𝑅 1 𝜕2 𝑅 2 1𝜕 𝑅
3
3
𝑅 = 𝑅0 + ቚ 𝐹 + 2 ቚ 𝐹 + 3 ቚ 𝐹 + ⋯.
1! 𝜕𝐹 𝐹=0 2! 𝜕𝐹 𝐹=0 3! 𝜕𝐹 𝐹=0
Taylor expansion
𝑅0 = 0 or Load Vs displacement ∞
1 𝜕𝑛 𝑓
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + ෍ 𝑛 ቤ 𝑥𝑛
𝑛! 𝜕𝑥 𝐹=0
𝑅0 ≠ 0 Net Magnetization vs External field 𝑛=1

𝜕𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅0 + ቤ 𝐹 (Linear response theory)
𝜕𝐹 𝐹=0
𝜕𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅0 + (𝑃) 𝐹 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = ቤ
𝜕𝐹 𝐹=0

‘P’ is Material’s property

Courtesy: Google image

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 3


What is the meaning of Mechanical?
• Response of Materials to forces or loads
• Materials experience stresses (𝜎) undergoing deformation (𝜀)

𝜕𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅0 + (𝑃) 𝐹 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = ቤ
𝜕𝐹 𝐹=0

e.g., Stress = (Elastic modulus) × (Strain) *** Hooke’s Law


𝜎=𝐸𝜀 E = Elastic modulus (Material’s property)

Stress Temperature
-Static, Dynamic, time varying Stress
-Temperature

Time

*** Present purpose: Stress = Force/Area and Strain = ΔL/L

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 4


Early Days
Materials Tetrahedron “Ut tensio, sic vis“
meaning "As the extension, so the force”
Performance

Characterization

Processing

Structure

Properties Courtesy: Google Image

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 5


Load Vs Extension & Stress Vs Strain
Tensile Compressive

L L L

A1 A2 A3
ΔL1 ΔL2 ΔL3

P P P P
A1 < A2 < A3 ΔL1 > ΔL2 > ΔL3
Dimensionality
Normalization
A3 A2 A1 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃
P 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑆 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

Stress
Load

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

∆𝐿
𝑒= Strain
Displacement 𝐿

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 6


Units
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
S = Engineering Stress = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
e = Engineering Strain = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

• Load or force : N
• Displacement: m
• Area: m2
• Stress = Force/Area = N/m2
• Strain = ΔL/L = m/m = Dimensionless

Stress = 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa i.e., Pascal 1 kPa = 103 Pa


1 MPa = 106 Pa
Stress = 1 N/mm2 = 1 MPa 1 GPa = 109 Pa

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 7


Uniaxial Tensile Test
• Tensile test: Simple test gives various mechanical properties of materials
Dog-bone shape or plate shape sample
Sample geometry w
t Area (A0) = w × t
Gauge length
P
L0
Shoulder Shoulder

Cylindrical sample
A0 = πr2
Courtesy: Google Image

P
ASTM
𝐿0
Sheet = 4.5
𝐴0
𝐿0
Round = 4.0
𝐷0
American Society for Testing and Materials

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 8


UTM
Universal testing machine (UTM):
Capable of performing many other mechanical tests
(Compression, bending, etc.)

Constant crosshead velocity, v


mm/min
Load Cell:
continuously measure the
load or force being applied

Upper Jaw (Moving)

Extensometer
(measure displacement on sample)

Lower Jaw (Stationary)


Data:
Load Vs Displacement
Stress Vs Strain
Courtesy: Google Image

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 9


Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
Ductile metals/alloys
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)
or Tensile strength
Necking Max. stress a material demonstrates

Engineering Fracture stress:


𝐹
UTS Material fails catastrophically
Stress =
𝐴0
C
(MPa) Plastic
Non-Linear
region Elastic:
B Regain original dimensions
Elastic Limit D
Fracture after releasing the load
A Proportionality Limit
Plastic:
Permanent change in
Linear region
dimensions after releasing
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 the load.
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐸)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

∆𝐿
Engineering Strain = 𝐿 (-)
0

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 10


Measures of Yielding - Transition from Elastic to Plastic
Engineering
Stress =
𝐹 Hooke’s Law 𝑆∝𝑒
𝐴0
𝑆=𝐸𝑒
P Proportionality Limit:
(MPa) Y Hooke’s law is strictly obeyed
B
A Elastic Limit:
Beyond B- Permanent or plastic
deformation starts. No measurable
strength on sample

Yield stress/strength:
Yielding of material i.e. a permanent
∆𝐿 measurable deformation on sample
0.002 Engineering Strain = (-)
𝐿0

• Measuring yield strength (YS) becomes difficult


• Accepted procedure: deform sample to 0.2% longer than before the test.
• Stress corresponding to 0.002 strain offset called as “Proof Stress”
This schematic is exaggerated, in practice, points A B Y P lie very close to each other

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 11


Measure of ductility
Ductility is a qualitative term
• Extent to which materials deform without fracture
• Strain to fracture or elongation

𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0
Elongation (ef) =
𝐿0
Lf L0 𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓
A0 Reduction in area (q) =
𝐴0
Af ΔL
During plastic deformation (before necking)
P “constancy of volume”
𝑞
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝐿 = 𝐴0 𝐿0 𝑒0 =
1−𝑞

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 12


Measuring other parameters
Parameters: from uniaxial tensile test

S Ductility: strain till fracture

Strength: YS and UTS


Ability of a material to resist plastic deformation

Stiffness = Slope of S-e curve in linear elastic regime


i.e. Young’s modulus
e Ability to resist elastic deformation

Toughness:
Energy absorbed per unit volume of material till fracture = area under stress strain curve
Toughness = stress × strain = N/m2 = N m/ m3 = J/ m3

Resilience: Energy absorbed per unit volume when deformed elastically


Useful for applications, such as mechanical springs

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 13


UTS and Necking

Gauge marks
UTS
S
Cross section
After void formation
𝐴𝐿 ≠ 𝐴0 𝐿0
Initial necking

e
Void formation
Neck: region of instability

Void coalescence Instability:


No need to increase load to
develop further strain
Crack propagation
• Cross section area decreases
• Deformation gets concentrated in
Fracture
the neck region, leading to fracture

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 14


Typical S-e curves
D: Brittle: No plastic strain
A: Ductile materials: Al, Cu
B: High strength low ductility
UYP B: High strength steel
C: Two yield points e.g. spring steels
LYP
S 0 C: Low C steels (Fe- < 0.3 wt.%C)
A: Low strength and high ductility Upper yield point (UYP)
Lower yield point (LYP)

D: Ceramics

Strain to fracture: ef
ef ≤ 0.1% ∶ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 ef ≈ 10 % ∶ 𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
ef > 1000 % ∶ 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 15


True Stress Vs True Strain
• As sample deforms, cross section area decreases
• Stress experienced by sample increases
• Need of instantaneous measurement of stress and strain

𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝜀 =
𝐿
𝐿
𝑑𝐿 𝐿 𝐿0 + ∆𝐿 Flow curve
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 = න = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝐿0 𝐿 𝐿0 𝐿0 σ vs ε

𝜀 = ln 1 + 𝑒
𝑃 S-e
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎 =
𝐴
Stress
𝑃 𝐴0
𝜎= ∵ 𝐴𝐿 = 𝐴0 𝐿0
𝐴0 𝐴
𝐿
𝜎=𝑆
𝐿0

𝜎 = 𝑆 1+𝑒 Strain

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 16


Flow curve (σ Vs ε)
Elastic solid
n=1
Plastic region: 𝜎 = 𝐾 𝜀 𝑛
n : the strain hardening exponent
σ n=0 K : the strength coefficient
Perfectly plastic solid n & K are material’s constant
Elastic region: 𝜎 = 𝐸 𝜀
n varies 0.1-0.5 for metals
ε K is the true stress at ε = 1
𝑑𝜎
Rate of strain hardening or strain hardening rate 𝜃 =
𝑑𝜀
𝜎 = 𝐾 𝜀𝑛
ln 𝜎 = ln 𝐾 + 𝑛 ln 𝜀
𝑑𝜎 𝜎
=𝑛
𝑑𝜀 𝜀

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 17


Necking: Considère’s Criterion
“Necking begins when the increase in stress due to decrease in the cross-sectional
area is greater than the increase in load bearing capacity of the specimen due to
work hardening.”
𝑑𝜎
σ 𝑉𝑠 𝜀
Instability: 𝑑𝜀
𝜎 𝑉𝑠 𝜀
No need to increase load to develop further strain

𝐹 = 𝜎𝐴 𝑑𝜎
=𝜎
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐴 𝑑𝜎 + 𝜎 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜀
𝜀𝑢
At necking, 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐴 𝑑𝜎 + 𝜎 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝐴 ε
=− 𝑑𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 𝐴 Constancy of volume =𝑛
𝑑𝜀 𝜀𝑢
𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐿
=𝜎 ∵− = = 𝑑𝜀 𝜀𝑢 = 𝑛
𝑑𝜀 𝐴 𝐿
True uniform strain

• Necking begins at a point where rate of strain hardening is equal to the stress.
𝑑𝑆
• In terms of engineering values, 𝑑𝑒 = 0, at max. value of S!!

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 18


Atomistic Basis of Elasticity
• Probing the origin of Young’s modulus (E)
• Forces between atoms i.e., interatomic forces?
• Packing arrangement of atoms in crystals?

Interatomic potential (or work done)


A B
U =− m
+ n n>m
r r Lennard-Jones

Repulsive Energy ER
ro
Energy E

ro
Net Energy EN
dU
F=
Attractive Energy EA dr

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 19


Atomistic Basis of Elasticity: Ball and spring model
r0
ao
Spring: F = k x
Atoms: F = S (r - ro)
r
k = Spring constant
S = Bond stiffness

• Interatomic bonds (same as spring constant)

✓ Primary: covalent, ionic, metallic (Strong)


✓ Secondary: hydrogen, van der Walls (Weak)

• Atomic packing (same as number of springs)

ro

For very small displacement,


stiffness is constant (So)

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 20


Atomistic Basis of Elasticity

r0
σ
σ

r0

r0

r
Stretching 𝑟 − 𝑟0
strain (𝜀) = Stress per bond/atom (σ) = F/ro2
𝑟0
σ ro2 = So (r-ro)
σ ro2 = So ro ε

σ/ε = So/ ro

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 21


Elastic Modulus

Metal Modulus of Thermal


/Alloy Elasticity Expansion
(GPa) Coefficient
(10-6 m/(mK)
Al 70 22.2
Diamond 1000 Brass 97 18.7
Graphite 27 Cu 110 16.6
PVC 0.003 Mg 45 25
Ni 207 13

Thermal expansion Vs Modulus of Elasticity Steel 210 12


Ti 107 8.6
Modulus of Elasticity Vs Melting point??? W 407 4.3

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 22


Stress – Strain Curve till Elastic Limit

Important Note:
• There is a change in lattice parameter(s), thus change in lattice volume
• However small, there is a change in volume during elastic deformation
• What about the volume change in the plastic deformation?
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 23
State of stress at a point
Very generic usage, stress = Force/area

Is state of stress same throughout the deforming body?

Stress is an response of material to an externally imposed strain


Rather, resistance to external strain or applied forces
Augustin Cauchy
Image courtesy: Wikipedia

A more difficult concept is the idea of forces and stresses acting inside a material,

“within the interior where neither eye nor experiment can reach” as Euler put it.

many great minds working for centuries at the concept of stress we use today,
Augustin Cauchy, who presented a paper on the subject to the Academy of
Sciences in Paris, in 1822.

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 24


State of stress at a point: Poisson’s ratio, ν
Stress σ vs ε
Total strain, 𝜀𝑡
𝜀𝑡 = 𝜀𝑒 + 𝜀𝑝
S-e
Elastic Plastic

What is 𝜀𝑝 throughout σ vs ε

Plot, σ 𝑉𝑠 𝜀𝑝 ???
E x
z
𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑒
y
𝜀𝑡 Strain 𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝜀𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
x z
Young’s modulus, E: σ = 𝐸𝜀
𝜀𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 is related to 𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
by an elastic constant y
𝜀𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝜀𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
Poisson’s ratio, ν 𝜈 = −
𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 Lateral strain
Negative sign??? Isotropic
ν ~ 0 – 0.5 for most materials Poisson pronounced as Posson and not Poyson

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 25


State of stress at a point
Free body diagram, FBD F 𝐹
F F State of stress at a point 𝜎𝑖 =
𝐴𝑖
∆𝐹
𝜎= 𝐹
F ∆𝐴 𝐴2 𝜎2 =
𝐴2
∆𝐹
𝜎 = lim
F
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝐹
𝐴0 𝜎0 =
𝐴0
F F
Change in shape or cross section
Change in state of stress
General case
F1 FBD Force/traction implies body is in
F1
Static Equilibrium
F5
෍𝐹 = 0 No acceleration
O O
F2 F2 ෍𝑀 = 0 No rotation
F4 FTraction ∆𝐹
F3 𝜎=
∆𝐴
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 26
State of stress at a point
Stress changes with orientation of the cutting plane
FBD
F1
z

O y
FTraction2 x
F2

FTraction1 Stress changes with orientation or


change in reference coordinate axis

For convenience, we don’t define stress at some arbitrary angle

Stress defined on perpendicular to the cut surface and parallel to the cut surface

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 27


State of stress at a point: Normal and shear stress

∆𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ΔA 𝜎⊥ = lim
ΔFcosθ ∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴
θ
ΔF ∆𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
O 𝜎∥𝑦 = lim
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴
ΔFsinθsinΦ
Φ ∆𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
ΔFsinθcosΦ 𝜎∥𝑥 = lim
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴

ΔFsinθ


𝜎⊥ is called as a Normal Stress 𝜎∥ is called as Shear Stresses

Compression or extension Distortion of shape 𝜎∥ represented by τ


Normal or shear stresses changes with
surface orientation or change in reference coordinate axis

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 28


State of stress at a point: Normal and shear stresses
Complete specification of state stress at a point
Specifying Normal and shear stresses or Stress components on three orthogonal planes
z How many stress components are required in
order to completely specify stress at point O?
3 components in One plane
Y plane X plane
Total = 9 components in cartesian coordinate

y z 𝜎𝑧𝑧
Z plane
y 𝜏𝑧𝑥
x
x ⇀𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝜎𝑦𝑦 ↿ 𝜏𝑥𝑧 ↿ 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑦𝑦
σ denotes normal stress
𝜏𝑦𝑧 ↿⇁𝜏 𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝑥𝑦
Along this direction 𝜎𝑥𝑥
Plane on which it acts
𝜏𝑦𝑥 τ denotes shear stress
Infinitesimal Elemental cube: area of faces are small
enough so that change in stress over the face is negligible

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 29


State of stress at a point: Normal and shear stresses
z
𝜎𝑧𝑧 ‘-’ve Sign convention
y
x Normal stress:
Tension ‘+’
𝜏𝑦𝑥 ’-’ Compression ‘-’

Shear stress:
𝜏𝑦𝑧 ’-’ Along Positive direction on Positive plane: + ve
Along negative direction on Positive plane: - ve

X3
X2
9 Components of a stress X1
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13
𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 30


Stress Tensor: Rank, Dimension & Components
Scalar: Magnitude (Mass, distance, Temperature etc.) 10 kg, 5 cm, 100 °C Order: 0

Vector: Magnitude and Direction (Velocity, Force etc.) 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘 Order: 1
Tensor: Magnitude, Direction and the Plane of application (Stress, electromagnetic tensor)
Stress Tensor Cube is 3D
𝝈𝒙𝒙 𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝝉𝒙𝒛 Plane ⊥ X 𝝈𝒙𝒙 𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝝉𝒙𝒛
𝝉𝒚𝒙 𝝈𝒚𝒚 𝝉𝒚𝒛 Plane ⊥ Y 𝝉𝒚𝒙 𝝈𝒚𝒚 𝝉𝒚𝒛
𝝉𝒛𝒙 𝝉𝒛𝒚 𝝈𝒛𝒛 Plane ⊥ Z 𝝉𝒛𝒙 𝝉𝒛𝒚 𝝈𝒛𝒛

X Y Z Rank (or order) is the amount of


Tensor describing information you need to find a
Direction along a cube must be 3D specific component
Rank/ 2nd order tensor
Dimension: 3 Electromagnetic tensor
Components = Dimension Order Order: 2
Components = 32 =9 Dimension: 4
𝒗𝒊 𝝈𝒊𝒋 𝝈𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝑺𝒊𝒋𝒌𝒍 Notation Components = 16

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 31


Independence of stress components?
z 𝜎𝑧𝑧 Static equilibrium ෍ 𝐹 = 0 and ෍ 𝑀 = 0

y 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 Moment along Z direction


x ⇀ 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ෍ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝜎𝑦𝑦 ↿ 𝜏𝑥𝑧 ↿ 𝜎𝑦𝑦 Moment = Force × perpendicular distance

𝜏𝑦𝑧 ↿⇁ 𝜏𝑦𝑥 Clockwise Counter-Clockwise


𝜏𝑥𝑦 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥
Δz 𝜎𝑥𝑥 2 (𝜏𝑦𝑥 )(Δ𝑥Δ𝑧)
2
= 2 (𝜏𝑥𝑦 )(Δ𝑦Δ𝑧)
2
Δx 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦
Δy
Similarly, we can show: 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧


𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 6 independent stress components
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 32


2D Stress state (Plane stress)
Thin plate No stress perpendicular to the plate
z
Stresses present Stresses absent or zero
y 𝜎𝑦𝑦
x 𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 , 𝜏𝑧𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧
↼ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝜎𝑥𝑥
Area of plane OP (Y-plane) = mA m = cosθ, l = sinθ

y Area of PQ = A Area of plane OQ (X-plane) = lA


Q Fy
For body to be in equilibrium
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝐴 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑚𝐴

𝜏𝑥𝑦 Fx
θ P 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑚𝐴 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∙ 𝑙𝐴
O x

𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝐹𝑥′ = 𝐹𝑥 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐹𝑦 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃


𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝐹𝑥′ 𝐹𝑥 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐹𝑦 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = =
𝐴 𝐴

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 33


Plane stress condition: Normal stresses

(𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝐴 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑚𝐴) ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑚𝐴 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∙ 𝑙𝐴) ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃


𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ =
𝐴

𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = (𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑚) ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑚 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∙ 𝑙) ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = (𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∵ 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 Replace, 𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝜋/2


Similarly, we can show that 𝜎𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦


𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2 2 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 =
2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 =
𝜎𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2
2 2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 34


Plane stress condition: Shear stress
y
Area of PQ = A
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′
Q Fy

Total force parallel to y’ 𝜎𝑥𝑥


𝜏𝑥𝑦 Fx
θ P
𝐹𝑦′ −𝐹𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 O x


𝐹𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝐴 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑚𝐴
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = = 𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝐴 𝐴 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑚𝐴 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∙ 𝑙𝐴
𝜎𝑦𝑦

−(𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝐴 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∙ 𝑚𝐴)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑚𝐴 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∙ 𝑙𝐴)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃


𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ =
𝐴

𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2θ
2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 35


Mohr’s Circle of stress
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 (1)
2 2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑦′ 𝑦′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 (2)
2 2
𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2θ
2 (3)

Add, (1) and (2) 𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′ 𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦

Regardless of the orientation angle θ, the sum of normal stresses is INVARIENT

Rearrange the equation (1), then square the equation (1) and (3), and then add them
2 2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ − + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

𝜎 h 𝜏 r2
2
𝜎−ℎ + 𝜏 2 = 𝑟2 Equation of a circle

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 36


Mohr’s Circle of stress
2
𝜎−ℎ + 𝜏 2 = 𝑟2

𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
Shear Stress 𝑟= + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
2
τ

Utility of Mohr’s circle


O σ
• Analytical method (0,0)
(h, 0)
become tedious or Normal Stress
cumbersome
• Easy to construct

𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦
ℎ=
2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 37


Mohr’s Circle: Conventions and Construction
Shear stress
• Length = Stress
- ve Ordinate CW: +ve • Every point on a circle:



τ Stress corresponding
to a particular plane
CCW

⇀ 𝐵(𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥 )
(𝜎𝛼 , 𝜏𝛼 )

CW 𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ ve 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2α
⇀ C 𝜎𝑥𝑥 Abscissa
-σ O
𝜏𝑥𝑦
σ
𝜎𝑦𝑦 -ve values +ve values
B
⇀ α
𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝜏𝑥𝑦
Compressive

Tensile

𝐴(𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 )
𝜎𝑥𝑥

𝜎𝑥𝑥 (𝜎𝜃 , 𝜏𝜃 ) θ= 0
𝜏𝑥𝑦 θ
⇀ A
𝜏𝑦𝑥 -τ CCW: -ve
𝜎𝑦𝑦

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 38


Mohr’s Circle: Important results
τ D 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Point A and B represent planes with
ZERO Shear Stress
• A & B are ‘PRINCIPAL PLANE’
• Principal planes are Orthogonal
𝑟
90 ° 90 ° • 𝜎1 > 𝜎2
B C A • Plane A is Major Principal Plane
σ • Plane B is Minor Principal Plane
(𝜎2 , 0) (𝜎1 , 0)
180 °
• Plane of Maximum Shear
𝜎1
𝜎2 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟 =
2
E 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Plane of Maximum shear is
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
always 45 ° from Principal Planes
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝑟=
2
➢ On Principal planes, shear stress is zero. However, it is not necessary that on
plane of maximum shear, normal stresses are zero.

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 39


Mohr’s circle: Analytical way

𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦


𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 (1)
2 2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑦′ 𝑦′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 (2)
2 2
𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2θ
2 (3)
Christian Otto Mohr
German civil engineer
Image courtesy: Wikipedia
Location of the plane of Maximum shear and its value?
𝑑𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′
=0
𝑑𝜃
Show how much rotation needed to arrive at locations of Principal planes?

Prove that the angle between Principal planes and the plane of maximum shear is 45° ?

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 40


Mohr’s circle: Solved example
τ
Scale: 1 unit = 10 MPa

θ = 0°
A(-80, 25)

2θ2 = 21°𝜎 O(-15,0)


2 𝜎1 σ
Principal Planes 𝜎2 (-84.6, 0) 𝜎1 (54.6, 0)

2θ1 = 201° B(50, -25)

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 41


Mohr’s circle: Solved example
(𝜎𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 69.6) τ 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =ℎ=
(−15, 69.6) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

θ = 0°
A(-80, 25) 2θs = 69°

Plane of Maximum Shear


σ
O(-15,0)

B(50, -25)

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 42


Mohr’s circle: Plane stress: Special conditions
𝜎1
τ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ൗ2 𝜎1 𝜎1
,
2 2

𝜎1
Uniaxial Stress State
𝜎1 σ

𝜎2 When, τ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 No normal stresses


on this plane State of pure shear
𝜎1 = 𝜎2
0, 𝜎1
𝜎1
𝜎1 𝜎1 σ

When,
𝜎2
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 τ
State of
𝜎1 Point Hydrostatic pressure
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = −𝑝 σ

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 43


Plane stress: Day to day examples

Courtesy : Google images

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 44


Principal Stresses: Eigen values and Eigen vectors
Alternate way of thinking principal stress
X3
Symmetric θ
X2
𝜎11 𝜎12
X1 𝜎1 0
𝜎21 𝜎22 Diagonalization of matrix
0 𝜎2

• If matrix is symmetric then diagonal values are real


• Stress matrix is real, i.e., Principal stresses are real

In Linear algebra, problem of finding Eigen Values and Eigen vectors

Eigen Values: λ1 and λ2 = Principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2

Eigen Vectors: Direction of Principal stresses


𝜎11 𝜎12
Stress Matrix 𝐴 = 𝜎21 𝜎22 Matrix Equation X2
𝐴 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣 𝑣2
𝑣1 X1
Eigen vector 𝑣= 𝑣 𝑣1
2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 45


Principal Stresses: Eigen values and Eigen vectors
𝐴 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣 𝜎11 − 𝜆 𝜎12
=0
𝜎12 𝜎22 − 𝜆
To solve this equation, let’s rewrite
𝜆2 − 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 𝜆 + (𝜎11 𝜎22 − 𝜎12 2 ) = 0
1 0
𝐴𝑣= 𝜆𝐼𝑣 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥, 𝐼 =
0 1
INVARIANT INVARIANT
𝐴𝑣− 𝜆𝐼𝑣=0 0
0= Quadratic equation, solution
0

𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 𝑣=0 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 𝜎11 − 𝜎22 2


𝜆= ± + 𝜎12 2
This equation is satisfied, 2 2
when 𝑣 = 0 or 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0

∵𝑣≠0 h r
Centre Mohr’s circle Radius
Thus, 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0

𝜎11 − 𝜆 𝜎12 𝜆 0 Substitute, the values of 𝜆 to find Eigen vector


=0 ∵ 𝜆𝐼 =
0 𝜆
𝜎12 𝜎22 − 𝜆 and 𝜎12 = 𝜎21 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 𝑣=0

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 46


Principal Stresses: Eigen values and Eigen vectors: Solved example

150+75 150−75 2
𝜆= ± + 432
2 2

𝜆 = 112.5 ± 57.055

𝜆1 = 169. 55 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2 = 55.45

𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 𝑣=0

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒, 𝜆 = 𝜆1
𝜎11 𝜎12 150 −43 𝑣1
𝐴= 𝜎 𝜎22 = 150 − 169.55 −43
21 −43 75 −43 75 − 169.55 𝑣2 = 0
𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0
−19.55𝑣1 − 43𝑣2 = 0 (1)
−80 − 𝜆 25
=0 −43𝑣1 − 94.55𝑣2 = 0
25 50 − 𝜆 (2)

2 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑣1 = 5 ⇒ 𝑣2 = −2.27


𝜎11 + 𝜎22 𝜎11 − 𝜎22 2
𝜆= ± + 𝜎12
2 2 You will get the same answer using eqn (2)

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 47


Principal Stresses: Eigen values and Eigen vectors: Solved example

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒, 𝜆 = 𝜆2 𝑋2
150 − 55.45 −43 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 0
−43 75 − 55.45 𝑋2′
94.55𝑣1 − 43𝑣2 = 0 (3)
−43𝑣1 + 19.55𝑣2 = 0 (4)
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑛 3, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑣1 = 1 ⇒ 𝑣2 = 2.19 𝑣2 = 2.19

𝑣1 = 1
𝑣1 = 5 𝑋1

𝑣2 = −2.27
𝑋1′

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 48


Some interesting examples: Welding

Fracture strength of the welded material = 150 MPa


Weld joint

60° Uniaxial 200 MPa

Will the weld withstand this condition?

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 49


Delhi Iron Pillar: The rustless wonder
Height: 7.21 m
Diameter: 0.406 m

Density: 7800 kg/m3

Find compressive stresses and compressive


strains at the cross-section located at 3 m
from the top?

Relate normal force acting on the cross-


sectional area of the pillar as a function of its
length

Late Prof R. Balasubramaniam


MSE, IIT Kanpur (Corrosion aspect)

Image courtesy: Wikipedia

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 50


Principal stresses in 3D
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 Assume plane ABC is a principal plane
𝐴 = 𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23
𝜎 is a Principal stress
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33
෍ 𝐹𝑋1 = ෍ 𝐹𝑋2 = ෍ 𝐹𝑋3 = 0
𝑋3
𝜎 Similar approach as we dealt with 2D stress state
C
Derivation of this is given Mechanical Metallurgy by
𝜎11
G E Dieter
𝜎12 𝐴𝑣= 𝜆𝐼𝑣
𝜎21 ↿⇁
𝜎22 ↿ 𝜎13
O B 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 𝑣=0
𝜎23 𝜎31
⇀ ⇒ 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0
𝜎32 𝑋2

A 𝜎11 − 𝜆 𝜎12 𝜎13 ∵ 𝜎12 = 𝜎21


𝜎33 𝜎12 𝜎22 − 𝜆 𝜎23 =0 𝜎13 = 𝜎31
𝑋1 𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33 − 𝜆 𝜎23 = 𝜎32

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 51


Principal stresses in 3D
𝜆3 − 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 𝜆2
+ 𝜎11 𝜎22 + 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 𝜎33 𝜎11 − 𝜎12 2 − 𝜎23 2 − 𝜎13 2 𝜆
− (𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 2𝜎12 𝜎23 𝜎13 − 𝜎11 𝜎23 2 − 𝜎22 𝜎13 2 − 𝜎33 𝜎12 2 ) = 0

𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 = 𝐽1


𝜎11 𝜎22 + 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 𝜎33 𝜎11 − 𝜎12 2 − 𝜎23 2 − 𝜎13 2 = 𝐽2 INVARIENT
𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 2𝜎12 𝜎23 𝜎13 − 𝜎11 𝜎23 2 − 𝜎22 𝜎13 2 − 𝜎33 𝜎12 2 = 𝐽3 Three invariants

𝜆3 − 𝐽1 𝜆2 + 𝐽2 𝜆 − 𝐽3 = 0

• The solution to this equation will yield three Eigen values: 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 and 𝜆3
• The Eigen values are unique for a given state of stress
• Therefore, any coordinate transformation keeps the state of stress the same
• Eigen values: 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 and 𝜆3 don’t change, implies we will get the same Cubic equation

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 52


Principal stresses in 3D: Invariants
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13
𝐴 = 𝜎12 𝜎22 𝜎23
𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33

𝐽1 = 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 Sum of the diagonal elements or the Trace of a stress matrix

𝐽2 = 𝜎11 𝜎22 + 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 𝜎33 𝜎11 − 𝜎12 2 − 𝜎23 2 − 𝜎13 2


𝜎22 𝜎23 𝜎11 𝜎13 𝜎11 𝜎12
= 𝜎 + + Sum of the minor of diagonal elements
23 𝜎33 𝜎13 𝜎33 𝜎12 𝜎22

𝐽3 = 𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 + 2𝜎12 𝜎23 𝜎13 − 𝜎11 𝜎23 2 − 𝜎22 𝜎13 2 − 𝜎33 𝜎12 2 Det (A)

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 53


Principal stresses in 3D: Solution to the cubic equation

𝜆3 − 𝐽1 𝜆2 + 𝐽2 𝜆 − 𝐽3 = 0

If we know one of the roots, say 𝜆1 , then the above equation reduces to

𝜆 − 𝜆1 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0

General solution to cubic equation


1
Substitute: 𝜆 = 𝑡 + 𝐽1
3
1 4 3 1 Depressed cubic:
𝑡 3 + 𝐽2 − 𝐽1 2 𝑡 + 𝐽 + 𝐽1 𝐽2 − 𝐽3 = 0
3 27 1 3 No square term

𝑡 3 + 𝑝𝑡 + 𝑞 = 0

−𝑝 1 3𝑞 −3 2𝜋𝑘
Roots: 𝑡𝑘 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2
3 3 2𝑝 𝑝 3

For real roots: 4𝑝3 + 27𝑞 2 < 0 Solved Example: Excel

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 54


Three principal stresses σ1> σ2 > σ3 ???

By convention: σ1 is the algebraically greatest principal stress


σ 1 > σ2 > σ3
σ3 is the algebraically smallest stress

80 80 80

50 50 50

Similar, approach is taken in the case of a 2D stress state


Mohr’s circle: 3D Stress State
X3 τ
20
X2
X1
50 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎2 − 𝜎3 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ቚ =
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ቚ = 𝑥𝑧 2
100 𝑦𝑧 2
xz plane
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
σ1 = 100 MPa yz plane 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ቚ =
σ2 = 50 MPa 𝑥𝑦 2
σ3 = 20 MPa σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
xy plane
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ቚ =
𝑥𝑧 2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 56


Transformation of the general stress tensor: 2D
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
X2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑦′ 𝑦′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2θ
2 𝜋
−𝜃
2
𝜎1′ 1′ = 𝜎11 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎22 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2𝜏12 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 θ

𝜎2′ 2′ = 𝜎11 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜎22 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 −2𝜏12 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 θ X1


𝜎22 − 𝜎11
𝜏1′ 2′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2
Direction Cosines 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑋෣ ′
𝑋𝑗 𝑖

i.e., 𝑎11 𝑎12


𝑎11 : represents cosine X1’ & X1 𝐷= 𝑎 𝑎22
21
𝑎12 : represents cosine X1’ & X2
𝑎21 : represents cosine X2’ & X1 𝐷=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑎22 : represents cosine X2’ & X2 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 57


Transformation of the general stress tensor: 2D

𝜎11 𝜎12 Transformation 𝜎1′ 1′ 𝜎1′ 2′


𝐴= 𝜎 𝜎22 𝐴′ = 𝜎 ′ ′ 𝜎2′ 2′
21 Rotation with θ 21

𝐴′ = 𝐷𝐴𝐷𝑇

𝜎1′ 1′ 𝜎1′ 2′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜎11 𝜎12 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃


𝜎2′ 1′ 𝜎 2′ 2′ = 𝜎21 𝜎22
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

′ =𝜎 ′ ′ =𝑎 𝑎 𝜎
𝜎𝑚𝑛 𝑚 𝑛 𝑚𝑖 𝑛𝑗 𝑖𝑗

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 58


Tensor notations (Einstein summation convention): A brief introduction
Rule 1: Any index repeated twice in a single term is summed over
Index= 1,2,.., n. Typically n = 3

𝜎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 i & j appears twice, thus they will be summed up
Let’s say, i, j = 1, 2 (for 2D)

Say, j = 1, 2 𝜎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛1 𝜎𝑖1 + 𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛2 𝜎𝑖2


Say, i = 1, 2 𝜎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑛1 𝜎11 + 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑛2 𝜎12 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑛1 𝜎21 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑛2 𝜎22
i & j are called dummy index
• Not already in the expression
I can replace it with any index I want
• That it is over the same range (here 1,2)

e.g. I can replace, i by l and j by k 𝜎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝜎𝑙𝑘

𝜎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 Here, m and n are appearing once, they are called as Free index
They can’t be replaced with another indices
𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗
Rule 2: No indices occur three or more times in a given term
𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ✓
Rule 3: In an equation involving Einstein notation, the free indices should match on both sides
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 +𝑢𝑘 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 +𝑢𝑘 ✓

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 59


Einstein notations: Utility
′ =𝑎 𝑎 𝜎
𝜎𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑖 𝑛𝑗 𝑖𝑗

Say, i, j = 1, 2
′ =𝑎
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝜎𝑚𝑛 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛1 𝜎11 + 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑛2 𝜎12 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑛1 𝜎21 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑛2 𝜎22 𝐷= 𝑎 𝑎22
21

Say, m=1 and n = 1


𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜎11 = 𝜎1′ 1′ = 𝑎11 𝑎11 𝜎11 + 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝜎12 + 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝜎21 + 𝑎12 𝑎12 𝜎22 𝐷=
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜎1′ 1′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝜎11 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝜎12 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝜎21 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝜎22

𝜎1′ 1′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝜎11 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝜎12 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ∙ 𝜎22

𝜎1′ 1′ = 𝜎11 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎22 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2𝜏12 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Verify this for 𝜎1′ 2′ 𝑜𝑟𝜎2′ 2′

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 60


Transformation of the general stress tensor: 3D

𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 𝜎1′ 1′ 𝜎1′ 2′ 𝜎1′ 3′


Transformation
𝐴 = 𝜎12 𝜎22 𝜎23 𝐴′ = 𝜎2′ 1′ 𝜎 2′ 2′ 𝜎 2′ 2′
𝜎13 𝜎23 𝜎33 Rotation with θ 𝜎3′ 1′ 𝜎 3′ 2′ 𝜎 3′ 3′

𝐴′ = 𝐷𝐴𝐷𝑇 𝑋3

Tensor notation
′ =𝑎 𝑎 𝜎
𝜎𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑖 𝑛𝑗 𝑖𝑗 where i , j = 1, 2, 3

When nothing is specified, the indices vary from 1 – 3 𝑋2

𝑋1

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 61


Measure of deformation
Concept of strain

Measure of deformation More complex idea to understand than stress


u 𝜕𝑢1
𝑢 𝐵′ = 𝑢 𝐴′ + 𝑑𝑥
O A ∆𝑥1 B C X1 𝜕𝑥1
𝜕𝑢1 𝐵′
𝑢1 + ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑥1 1

O’ 𝑢1 A’ B’ C’
𝜕𝑢1 𝐴′
𝑢1 + ∆𝑥1 𝑢1
𝜕𝑥1

Strain along X1
𝜕𝑢1 O A ∆𝑥1 X1
𝐴′ 𝐵′ − 𝐴𝐵 𝑢1 + ∆𝑥1 − 𝑢1 B
𝜕𝑥1
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀11 =
𝐴𝐵 ∆𝑥1 𝜕𝑢1
𝐴′ 𝐵′ = ∆𝑥1 − 𝑢1 + 𝑢1 + ∆𝑥1
𝜕𝑥1
𝑑𝑢1
𝜀11 = 𝐴′ 𝐵′ = ∆𝑥1 +
𝜕𝑢1
∆𝑥1
𝑑𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1
𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝑥1

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 62


Measure of deformation
Shear Strain Involves rotation of axis X1 and X2
𝜕𝑢2
𝑢 𝑢2 , 0 = 𝑢 0,0 + 𝑑𝑥
Change in shape 𝜕𝑥1
𝑢2 𝜕𝑢2
X2 Shear strain, 𝛾12 ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑥1 1
𝜕𝑢1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥1
𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜋
𝐵′ 𝛾12 = − ∠𝐴′ 𝑂𝐵′ 𝐴′
𝑢2 B 2 𝜕𝑢2
∆𝑥
𝛽 𝜕𝑥1 1
𝛾12 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝛼
∆𝑥2 O A
∆𝑥1 X1
𝐴′ 𝜕𝑢2
∆𝑥1
𝛼 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑢2
∵ 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 ≈ 𝛼 𝛼=
O ∆𝑥1 A X1 𝜕𝑥1
𝑢1
𝜕𝑢1
The change in angle is very small Similarly, we can show 𝛽=
𝜕𝑥2
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢1
𝛾12 = +
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 63


Strain: Sign convention

Tensile Extension +ve


Normal strain
Compressive Reduction in length -ve

Shear strain

⇀ ↼
𝛼 𝛼
⇀ ↼
Decrease in angle Increase in angle

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛾 > 0 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛾 < 0

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 64


State of strain
X2 𝜕𝑢1
𝑢1 + ∆𝑥2
𝜕𝑥2
′ Projection of 𝑂′ 𝐴′ along X1
𝐵
𝐶′ Infinitesimal strain theory
𝛽 𝜋
𝜕𝑢2 𝐴′ 𝛾12 = − ∠𝐴′ 𝑂′ 𝐶 ′
𝑢2 + ∆𝑥2 𝛼 2
𝜕𝑥2 ′
𝑂
C B 𝜕𝑢2 𝛾12 = 𝛼 + 𝛽
𝑢2 𝑢2 + ∆𝑥1
∆𝑥2 𝜕𝑥1
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢1
O ∆𝑥1 A 𝛾12 = +
(0,0) 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2

𝑢1 X1 Engineering shear strain

𝜕𝑢1
𝑢1 + ∆𝑥1 Extend to 3D
𝜕𝑥1
𝜕𝑢1
𝑂′ 𝐴′ − 𝑂𝐴 𝑢1 + ∆𝑥1 − 𝑢1 𝜕𝑢 𝜀11 , 𝜀22 , 𝜀33 , 𝛾12 , 𝛾23 , 𝛾31
𝜕𝑥1 1
𝜀11 = = =
𝑂𝐴 ∆𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 6 components of strain
𝜕𝑢2 Tensor???
Similarly, we can show 𝜀22 =
𝜕𝑥2 𝛾12 change in angle
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 65
Strain tensor
𝜕𝑢
Displacement tensor = 𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝑗
X2 X2 X2
𝜕𝑢1
𝑒12 =
𝜕𝑥2
𝛽

𝛼 X1 X1 X1
𝜕𝑢2
𝑒21 =
𝜕𝑥1 𝑒12 ≠ 𝑒21 𝑒12 = 𝑒21
𝑒12 = −𝑒21
No shear strain Shear Pure shear
+
Rigid body rotation rigid body rotation No rigid body rotation
How much is the rigid body rotation, that if removed, remains shear strain???
1
Rigid body rotation 𝜔12 = 𝑒12 − 𝑒21
2
𝜔12 = 𝑒 𝜀12 = 𝑒12 − 𝜔12 𝜔12 = 0
1
𝜀12 = 𝑒12 − 𝑒12 − 𝑒21
2
One of the component 1
of the strain tensor 𝜀 12 = 𝑒 + 𝑒21
2 12
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 66
Strain Tensor
1 1 1
𝜀12 = 𝑒12 + 𝑒21 𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝑒𝑖𝑗 + 𝑒𝑗𝑖 + 𝑒𝑖𝑗 − 𝑒𝑗𝑖
2 2 2
In general, we can write 𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗 + 𝜔𝑖𝑗
1
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝑒 + 𝑒𝑗𝑖 Symmetric strain tensor of Rank 2
2 𝑖𝑗
𝜀11 𝜀12 𝜀13
1 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀21 𝜀22 𝜀23
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = + Strain Tensor
2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜀31 𝜀32 𝜀33
1
𝜔12 = 𝑒12 − 𝑒21 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
2 + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
1
𝜔𝑖𝑗 = 𝑒𝑖𝑗 − 𝑒𝑗𝑖 Rotation Tensor 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
2 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = +
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
+
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝛾𝑖𝑗 = + + +
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝛾𝑖𝑗 = 2𝜀𝑖𝑗
Similarly, write rotation tensor 𝜔𝑖𝑗
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑗𝑖 Is 𝜔𝑖𝑗 symmetric?

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 67


Hydrostatic and Deviatoric stress
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 𝜎𝑚 0 0 𝜎11 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜎12 𝜎13
𝜎 = 𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 = 0 𝜎𝑚 0 + 𝜎21 𝜎22 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜎23
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 0 0 𝜎𝑚 𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 − 𝜎𝑚

Hydrostatic Deviatoric
Stress state Stress state
𝜎𝑚 , 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝜎𝑚 = =
3 3

𝜎𝑚
Pure tension or
compression Elastic Volume change Shape change
No shape change No volume change
No plastic deformation Causes plastic deformation

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 68


Elastic stress-strain relations
Isotropic materials: Elastic properties are not a function of the direction/orientation
x
Elastic constants z
Young’s modulus: E y
Poisson’s ratio: 𝜈 𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝜀33
x z

y
𝜀22
Lateral strain
Isotropic

𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝜀33 = 𝜀22


𝜎11
𝜀11 =
𝐸
𝜎11
𝜀33 = 𝜀22 = −𝜈𝜀11 = −𝜈
𝐸

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 69


Elastic stress strain relations
3D State Stress
Normal Stress produces ONLY Normal Strains
Principal of Superposition
Shear Stress results in ONLY Shear Strains
Equations relating
𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 Normal stresses with Normal Strains
𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 1
𝜀11 −𝜈 −𝜈 𝜀11 = 𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 (1)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 11
𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 1
𝜀22 −𝜈 −𝜈 𝜀22 = 𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎11 + 𝜎33 (2)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 22
𝜎11 𝜎22 𝜎33 1
𝜀33 −𝜈 −𝜈 𝜀33 = 𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎11 + 𝜎33 (3)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 33

Adding equations, (1)+(2)+(3)


1
𝜀11 + 𝜀22 + 𝜀33 = 𝜎 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 − 2𝜈 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33
𝐸 11 𝜎𝑚
∆𝑉 1 3𝜎𝑚
𝜀11 + 𝜀22 + 𝜀33 = = 3𝜎𝑚 − 2𝜈 3𝜎𝑚 = 1 − 2𝜈 Bulk Modulus, K
𝑉 𝐸 𝐸
∆𝑉 3 1 − 2𝜈 𝐸
= V𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∆= 𝜎𝑚 𝐾=
𝑉 𝐸 3 1 − 2𝜈
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 70
Elastic Stress Strain relations
Shear stresses and shear strains (for isotropic materials)

Shear Stress results in ONLY Shear Strains

𝜎12 , 𝜎23 , 𝜎13 ⇒ 𝛾12 , 𝛾23 , 𝛾13

1 1 1
𝛾12 = 𝜎12 𝛾23 = 𝜎23 𝛾13 = 𝜎13
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
where, G is the shear modulus
Another Elastic constant

Shear strain in terms of strain tensor

1 1 1 1
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝛾𝑖𝑗 𝑖≠𝑗 𝜀12 = 𝜎 𝜀23 = 𝜎 𝜀13 = 𝜎
2 2𝐺 12 2𝐺 23 2𝐺 13

Four Elastic constants: E, 𝜈, G and K


𝐸 K is not independent
𝐾=
For Isotropic materials Is G independent constant?
3 1 − 2𝜈

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 71


Elastic Stress Strain relations
Relation between Young’s modulus, E and Shear modulus, G
y 1 1
𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎 − 𝜈 −𝜎
𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝐸 𝑥𝑥 𝐸
x 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = −𝜎 𝜎
𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 1+𝜈 = 𝜀
𝐸
𝜎𝑥𝑥 1 1
𝜀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜈 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = −𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎 𝜎
𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − 1 + 𝜈 = −𝜀
𝐸
No normal
stresses on
this plane τ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎 y 𝜏=𝜎
0, 𝜎
Shear strain
′ =
1
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝜏
𝐺
𝜎 𝜎 σ
x ′
1
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎
State of pure shear 𝐺

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 72


Elastic Stress Strain relations
Relation between Young’s modulus, E and Shear modulus, G
Mohr’s circle for stress Mohr’s circle for Strain
τ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎 Shear strain ′
𝜀𝑥𝑦 ′
𝜀𝑥𝑦 =𝜀


𝛾𝑥𝑦
∵ 𝜀𝑥𝑦 = 𝜀=
2
𝜎 𝜎 σ −𝜀 𝜀 Normal strain 1

∵ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎
𝐺
1
𝜎 𝜎 ∴𝜀= 𝜎
𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 1+𝜈 = 𝜀 ⇒𝜀= 1+𝜈 2𝐺
𝐸 𝐸

𝜎 1
1+𝜈 = 𝜎
𝐸 2𝐺 Four Elastic constants:
𝐸 E, 𝜈, G and K
𝐺=
2 1+𝜈 Only two are independent:
E, 𝜈

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 73


Values of Poisson’s ratio
We can calculate the value of 𝑣 for two extreme cases:
Material Poisson's ratio
1. when the volume remains constant and Rubber ~ 0.499
2. when there is no lateral contraction Gold 0.42 - 0.44
∆𝑉 3 1 − 2𝜈 Saturated Clay 0.40–0.49
V𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝜎𝑚 = 0
𝑉 𝐸 Magnesium 0.35
1 − 2𝜈 = 0 Titanium 0.34
Copper 0.33
⇒ 𝜈 = 0.5
Aluminium Alloy 0.32
𝐸
𝐺= Clay 0.30–0.45
2 1+𝜈
𝐺 Stainless Steel 0.30–0.31
As G and E are positive, ⇒ ≥ 0 Steel 0.27–0.30
𝐸
Cast Iron 0.21–0.26
⇒ 𝑣 ≥ −1
Sand 0.20–0.45
⇒ 0.5 ≥ 𝑣 ≥ −1 Concrete 0.20
Glass 0.18–0.3
What are Auxetic Materials???? Foam 0.10–0.40
Cork ~ 0.00

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 74


Something interesting on: Poisson

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 75


Anisotropy of elastic behavior
Anisotropy: both normal strains and shear strains contribute to a normal stress
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 𝜀11 𝛾12 𝛾13
𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 𝛾21 𝜀22 𝛾23
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 𝛾31 𝛾32 𝜀33
Generalized Hooke’s Law 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝜀𝑘𝑙 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 : Elastic Stiffness or Elastic constants
Linear elastic materials 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝜎𝑘𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 : Compliance tensor
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 : 4th Rank tensor Components = 34 = 81

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 76


Anisotropy of elastic behavior
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 𝜀11 𝛾12 𝛾13
𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 𝛾21 𝜀22 𝛾23
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 𝛾31 𝛾32 𝜀33
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑗𝑖 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑗𝑖

36 components are independent

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 77


Anisotropy of elastic behavior
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 Stiffness tensor 𝜀11 𝛾12 𝛾13
𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝛾21 𝜀22 𝛾23
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑗𝑖 𝛾31 𝛾32 𝜀33 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑗𝑖
Normal stress to Normal strain Normal stress to Shear strain

𝜎11 𝐶1111 𝐶1122 𝐶1133 𝐶1123 𝐶1113 𝐶1112 𝜀11 𝜀11 𝜀11
𝜎22 𝐶2211 𝐶2222 𝐶2233 𝐶2223 𝐶2213 𝐶2212 𝜀22 𝜀22 𝜀22
𝜎33 𝐶3311 𝐶3322 𝐶3333 𝐶3323 𝐶3313 𝐶3312 𝜀33 𝜀33 𝜀33
= =
𝜎23 𝐶2311 𝐶2322 𝐶2333 𝐶2323 𝐶2313 𝐶2312 𝛾23 𝛾23 2𝜀23
𝜎13 𝐶1311 𝐶1322 𝐶1333 𝐶1323 𝐶1313 𝐶1312 𝛾13 𝛾13 2𝜀13
𝜎12 𝐶1211 𝐶1222 𝐶1233 𝐶1223 𝐶1213 𝐶1212 𝛾12 𝛾12 2𝜀12
Voigt Shear stress to Normal strain Shear stress to Shear strain

(Contracted) Notation 11 → 1 22 → 2 33 → 3 23 → 4 13 → 5 12 → 6
𝜎1 𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 𝐶14 𝐶15 𝐶16
𝜀1
𝜎2 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 𝐶24 𝐶25 𝐶26 𝜀2
𝜎3 𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 𝐶34 𝐶35 𝐶36 𝜀3
𝜎4 = 2𝜀4
𝐶41 𝐶42 𝐶43 𝐶44 𝐶45 𝐶46
𝜎5 𝐶51 𝐶52 𝐶53 𝐶54 𝐶55 𝐶56 2𝜀5
𝜎6 𝐶61 𝐶62 𝐶63 𝐶64 𝐶65 𝐶66 2𝜀6
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 78
Anisotropy of elastic behavior
𝜕𝑈
Elastic strain energy 𝑈 = 𝜎𝜀 =𝜎
𝜕𝜀
𝜎11 = 𝐶11 𝜀11 + 𝐶12 𝜀22 + 𝐶13 𝜀33 + 𝐶14 2𝜀23 + 𝐶15 2𝜀13 + 𝐶16 2𝜀12
𝜎22 = 𝐶21 𝜀11 + 𝐶22 𝜀22 + 𝐶23 𝜀33 + 𝐶24 2𝜀23 + 𝐶25 2𝜀13 + 𝐶26 2𝜀12

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
= 𝜎11 = 𝜎22
𝜕𝜀11 𝜕𝜀22

𝜕2𝑈 𝜕2𝑈
= 𝐶12 = 𝐶21
𝜕𝜀11 𝜕𝜀22 𝜕𝜀22 𝜕𝜀11
𝐶12 = 𝐶21
𝜎1 𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 𝐶14 𝐶15 𝐶16 𝜀1
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 = 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑙𝑘
𝜎2 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 𝐶24 𝐶25 𝐶26 𝜀2
𝜎3 𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 𝐶34 𝐶35 𝐶36 𝜀3 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 = 𝐶𝑗𝑖𝑙𝑘
𝜎4 = 2𝜀4
𝐶41 𝐶42 𝐶43 𝐶44 𝐶45 𝐶46 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = 𝐶𝑗𝑖
𝜎5 𝐶51 𝐶52 𝐶53 𝐶54 𝐶55 𝐶56 2𝜀5
𝜎6 𝐶61 𝐶62 𝐶63 𝐶64 𝐶65 𝐶66 2𝜀6

21 Independent elastic constants

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 79


Independent elastic constants Vs Symmetry

𝜎11 𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 𝐶14 𝐶15 𝐶16 𝜀11


𝜎22 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 𝐶24 𝐶025 𝐶26 𝜀22
𝜎33 𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 𝐶34 𝐶35 𝐶36 𝜀33
𝜎23 =
𝐶41 𝐶42 𝐶43 𝐶44 𝐶45 0 𝐶46 𝛾23
𝜎13 𝐶51 𝐶52 𝐶53 𝐶54 𝐶55 𝐶056 𝛾13
𝜎12 𝐶61 𝐶62 𝐶63 𝐶64 𝐶65 𝐶66 𝛾12
n-Fold means rotation of
Crystal Rotational Independent (360/n) retains the symmetry
Structure Symmetry Elastic constants
Triclinic None 21 a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ β ≠ γ

Orthorhombic 2 perpendicular 9 a ≠ b ≠ c and α = β = γ


2 fold axis

Cubic 4 Three-fold 3 a = b = c and α = β = γ


𝐶11 = 𝐶22 = 𝐶33 𝐶44 = 𝐶55 = 𝐶66 𝐶23 = 𝐶13 = 𝐶12

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 80


Anisotropy of elastic behavior

Dependence on orientation of Young’s modulus for monocrystalline


(a) copper; (b) cubic zirconia.

Mechanical behavior of Materials: M Meyers & K Chawla

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 81


Anisotropy of elastic behavior
Compliance tensor
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 → 𝐶𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑗 → 𝑚 𝑘𝑙 → 𝑛 𝐶𝑚𝑛 → 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙

𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝜎𝑘𝑙 Compliance Tensor, 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙

𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 → 𝑆𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑗 → 𝑚 𝑘𝑙 → 𝑛
𝑆𝑚𝑛 ↛ 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙
Scaling factors
𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 → 𝑆𝑚𝑛

𝑖𝑓 𝑚, 𝑛 ≠ 4, 5, 6 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑚𝑛 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝑒𝑥. 𝑆12 = 𝑆1122


𝑖𝑓 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 5, 6 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑚𝑛 = 2𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝑒𝑥. 𝑆14 = 2𝑆1123

𝑖𝑓 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 4, 5, 6 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑚𝑛 = 4𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝑒𝑥. 𝑆54 = 4𝑆1323


Why do we need scaling factors?
−1
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 Symmetric nature of compliance and Stiffness tensor

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 82


Compliance tensor: Isotropic materials
𝜀11 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14 𝑆15 𝑆16 𝜎11
𝜀22 ⋮ 𝑆22 𝑆23 𝑆24 𝑆25 𝑆26 𝜎22
𝜀33 ⋮ ⋱ 𝑆33 𝑆34 𝑆35 𝑆36 𝜎33
𝛾23 = 𝜎23
⋮ … ⋱ 𝑆44 𝑆45 𝑆46
𝛾13 ⋮ … … ⋱ 𝑆55 𝑆56 𝜎13
𝛾12 ⋮ … … … ⋱ 𝑆66 𝜎12
Normal stress to Normal strain
For Isotropic Materials

1 𝜈 𝜈 1
0 0 𝜀11 = 𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎22 + 𝜎33
𝐸

𝐸

𝐸 0 𝐸 11
𝜈 1 𝜈
− − 0 0 0 𝜎11 1
𝜀11 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜈 𝜈 𝜎22 𝛾= 𝜎
𝜀22 1
0 𝐺
− − 0 0 𝜎33
𝜀33 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
= 1 𝜎23
𝛾23 0 0 0 𝐺 0 0 𝜎13
𝛾13 𝜎12
𝛾12 1
0 0 0 0 𝐺 0
1
0 0 0 0 0 𝐺

Find relation between 𝑆44 in terms of 𝑆11 and 𝑆12 ?


MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 83
Isotropic: Compliance and Stiffness tensor
Strain Compliance Stress
1 𝜈 𝜈
− − 0 0 0 Zener ratio
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜈 1 𝜈 (Anisotropy ratio)
− − 0 0 0
𝜀11 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝜎11 Anisotropic cubic crystals
𝜀22 𝜈 𝜈 1 𝜎22
− − 0 0 0
𝜀33 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝜎33 2𝐶44
𝛾23 = 𝜎23 𝑎𝑟 =
1
𝛾13 0 0 0 0 0 𝜎13
𝐶11 − 𝐶12
𝐺
𝛾12 1 𝜎12
0 0 0 0 0 𝑎𝑟 = 1 , 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐
𝐺
1
0 0 0 0 0
𝐺
Stress Stiffness Strain
𝜆 is Lamé’s constant
𝜎11 2𝐺 + 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 0 0 0 𝜀11
𝜎22 𝜆 2𝐺 + 𝜆 𝜆 0 0 0 𝜀22
𝜎33 𝜆 𝜆 2𝐺 + 𝜆 0 0 0 𝜀33
𝜆 = 𝐶12
𝜎23 = 𝛾23
0 0 0 𝐺 0 0 1
𝜎13 0 0 0 0 𝐺 0 𝛾13 𝐶44 =
𝜎12 0 0 0 0 0 𝐺 𝛾12 𝑆44

𝐶11 in terms of 𝑆11 and 𝑆12 ?


Find relation between
𝐶12 in terms of 𝑆11 and 𝑆12 ?
MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 84
Elastic Stored Energy
Work done in elastically deformed body
Stored as a potential energy (U) Released when the load is removed
Assuming linear elasticity 𝑓 𝑥
𝜎
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐹
𝑓 𝑥
A X

L
O 𝑥 𝜀
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥)
𝑥 Very small displacements and
𝑈 = 𝑤 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥) for a linear elastic materials
0
1 1 1 No appreciable change
𝑈 = 𝐹𝑥 = (𝜎𝐴)(𝐿𝜀) = (𝜎𝜀)(𝐴𝐿) in Area or volume
2 2 2
Elastic stored energy 1 1 𝜎 1 𝜎2 1 2
per unit volume 𝑈0 = 𝜎𝜀 = 𝜎 = = 𝐸𝜀 ∵ σ = Eε
2 2 𝐸 2𝐸 2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 85


Elastic Stored Energy
1
𝑈0 = 𝜎𝜀 Uniaxial case
2
Similarly, for Shear stress and shear strain
1
𝑈0 = 𝜏𝛾 ∵ 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
2

Generalization
We can write this equation in terms
3D stress state Principle of superposition of ONLY stress or ONLY strains
1
𝑈0 = 𝜎 𝜀 + 𝜎22 𝜀22 + 𝜎33 𝜀33 + 𝜎12 𝛾12 + 𝜎13 𝛾13 + 𝜎23 𝛾23
2 11 11

Tensor notation
1 Only difference is that we get the
𝑈0 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜀𝑖𝑗 tensor component of the shear strain
2

MSE302: Mechanical Behavior of Materials_Niraj Chawake 86

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