Work and energy

If we integrate the equation of motion derived from Newton's 2nd law with respect to

displacement we obtain the Work-Energy relationship.

Work-Kinetic Energy relationship

Work done by 𝐹⃗ on the particle is

𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗

But 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑅⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑆

Where 𝐹⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐹 , 𝑑𝑅⃗ = 𝑑𝑆

We note only the component of force parallel to the path does work. The normal component

𝐹 does not do work.

𝑑𝑈 is positive if 𝐹 and 𝑆 have the same sense, and 𝑑𝑈 is negative if 𝐹 and 𝑆 have opposite

sense.

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The work done in moving the particle from position 𝑆 to position 𝑆 is;

𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑆

From Newton's law 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

∴ 𝑈 = ∫ 𝑚𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ , but 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = 𝑎 𝑑𝑆

𝑈 = ∫ 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑆

Also 𝑎 = =𝑣

∴ 𝑈 = ∫ 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 | = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣 )

But the kinetic energy of the particles defined

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣

∴ 𝑼 = 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 = ∆𝑻

Work = change in kinetic energy

𝐹⃗ – Resultant of all forces

𝑈 – Work done of all forces

In terms of velocity components the kinetic energy can be expressed as

𝑇 = 𝑚[𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ + 𝑧̇ ] in rectangular coordinate

𝑇 = 𝑚[𝑟̇ + (𝑟𝜃)̇ + 𝑧̇ ] in 𝑟𝜃𝑧 coordinate

𝑇 = 𝑚[𝑅̇ + (𝑅𝜙̇ ) + (𝑅𝜙̇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙) ] in 𝑟𝜃𝜙 coordinate

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Potential energy

The work done on a particle is:

𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = ∫(𝐹 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑧)

The integral ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ is called line integral.

In general, this integral depends on the path of the particle between points 1 and 2 in space.

If 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ is an exact differential it can be expressed in terms of a differential of some scalar

function 𝑉. Let this differential be – 𝑑𝑉.

The negative sign here is taking to correspond with the convention for positive potential

energy.

𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = −𝑑𝑉 = (𝐹 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑧)

If 𝑉 exist

𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧

Comparing these relations we get

𝐹 = , 𝐹 = , 𝐹 =

∴ 𝐹⃗ = − 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 = −∇𝑉

∇𝑉 – Gradient of 𝑉

∇= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘

The quantities 𝑉 is called the potential energy (P.E.) of the particle.

If 𝐹⃗ can be derived as shown above, it is called conservative force.

∮ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = − ∮ 𝑑𝑉 = −(𝑉 − 𝑉) = 0

The closed contour integral of 𝑑𝑉 is zero.

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i.e. P.E. is conserved.

2
∴ ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = −(𝑉 − 𝑉 )

= independent of the path

The most known conservative force fields are:

1
1. Gravity force field

2. Elastic forces associated with elastic deformation of bodies.

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Gravity force field

ℎ −ℎ ≪𝑅 2

We can assume that g is constant. 1

ℎ

Flat earth assumptions. ℎ

ℎ − ℎ is large, then g varies according to

𝑔=𝑔 ( ) 𝑅
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ

Where 𝑔 – gravity acceleration at sea level

ℎ - altitude of the body.

For constant 𝑔

2 𝑧
𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = ∫ (𝐹 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑧)
𝑚𝑔
ℎ
= ∫ 0 + 0 − 𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑧 1
ℎ

= −𝑚𝑔(ℎ − ℎ ) ℎ

= −𝑚𝑔ℎ

∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = ∫ −𝑑𝑉 = −(𝑉 − 𝑉 ) = −∆𝑉

∴ −𝑚𝑔ℎ = −∆𝑉 ∆𝑽𝒈 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

For variable 𝑔
2

𝐹 = , 𝑟 =𝑅+ℎ

1
𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑅⃗ = ∫ (0 + 0 + )𝑑𝑟 ℎ

= 𝑚𝑔 𝑅 ( − )
𝑟

When 𝑟 = ∞ 𝑈=− 𝑚𝑔 𝑅
𝑅
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
But 𝑈 =− 𝑉 −𝑉 = −∆𝑉
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 𝑉 =−

The gravity potential is 𝑉 = −

𝑉 =− 𝑉 =−

∆𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 = − + = 𝑚𝑔 𝑅 ( − )

Work done on the spring

𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥

We can define an elastic potential as:

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑥

= 𝑘𝑥

Work done by the spring = 𝑘𝑥

Force exerted by the spring on a contact body

𝐹 =− = −𝑘𝑥

Let 𝑈 = work done by all forces except elasticity and gravity forces.

∴ ∆𝑇 = 𝑈 + −∆𝑉 + (−∆𝑉 )

∴ 𝑈 = ∆𝑇 + ∆𝑉 + ∆𝑉

= ∆𝐸

Where 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 = total mechanical energy.

This is more convenient form to use.

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Conservation of energy

If ∆𝐸 = 0 = 𝑈

𝐸 = constant

So; if we have no forces other than gravity and elasticity acting on the particle, the work

done = 0 and 𝐸 constant. This is called "principle of conservation of mechanical energy"

Power = rate of change of energy

⃗
𝑃= = 𝐹⃗ ∙ = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑉⃗

Work done by a couple

Couple 𝐹⃗ is parallel to x-axis

y
Small change in 𝜃 along axes x, y, and z respectively
𝑑𝜃

And displacement of the disk is:

F⃗ x

𝑑𝜃⃗ = 𝑑𝜃 𝑖 + 𝑑𝜃 𝑗 + 𝑑𝜃 𝑘 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑎
𝑑𝜃⃗ has a direction along axis a-a 𝑎
𝑟
Rotation 𝑑𝜃 does not produce work 𝑑𝜃 z

The same is for 𝑑𝜃 F⃗

Work is done by 𝑑𝜃 only.

𝑑𝑈 = 2(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ) 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑟𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑀𝑑𝜃

𝑀 – magnitude of the couple

Or 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑀⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝜃⃗

∴ 𝑈 = ∫ 𝑀⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝜃⃗ = ∫(𝑀 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 )

⃗∙ ⃗
𝑃= = = 𝑀⃗ ∙ 𝜔⃗
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