(1862) Isochronism of Balance-Springs

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W ALTH A M
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WALTHAM
WATCH PAPERS.
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ALFRED MUDGE & SON, PRINTERS,
34 School Street, Bostox.

PREFATORY.
The American Watch Company, of Waltham, proposes to issue for
gratuitous distribution to its customers and the watcli trade, a series of
small pamphlets, which shall contain such essays, new and old, on the
theory and practice of watch making, and such selections of interesting
and valuable matter from horological works and journals as may seem
best suited to the end the Company has in view ; namely, to excite a
deeper interest in sound and scientific watch making in this country, and
incidentally, by the better cu-culation here of the best foreign treatises on
the nicer points of the art, to give and get information. The Company, as
is well known, has disregarded entirely foreign precedent in its method of

manufacturing, and has even released itself, by investigation and experi-
ment, from many practices which seem to involve principles, and, as the
managers think, with the best results ; still, there is a vast fund of stand-
ard knowledge in foreign works, upon the basis of which all good watch
making, here and there, must proceed. Additions to this stock are,
besides, being constantly made and published in foreign countries for the
benefit of all laborers m the art. It is to give this knowledge a freer
diffusion in our own coiintry, where comparatively little has been pub-
lished tipon these topics, and where each man is too often his own teacher,
and, by provoking inquiry and criticism, to make some advance in the
delicate business it pursues, that the Company imdertakes this little pub-
lication.
The pamphlet may be the medium, too, from time to time, of any
communications the Company may wish to make to its customers or the
public, and will be open to correspondence and advertisements from any
source related to the trade.
Waltham, Mass., December. 1862.

ISOOHRONISM OF BALANOE-SPEINGS.
On the Laws of Isochronism of the Balance Spring, as connected

with the higher order of Adjustments of Watches and Chro-
nometers. By •^
Charles Frodsham, Assoc. Inst. C. E.
\\
There is no subject connected with the science of horology,

upon which such general deficiency of knowledge prevails, as that
relating to the laM's of the isochronism of the balance-spring, in

connection Avith the higher order of adjustments of watches and
chronometers ; and, however surprising the circumstances may
appear, that such is the fact, is abundantly proved by the difficulty
almost universally experienced, in procuring competent assistants

in the higher branches of the art. To explain these principles,
and difiûse this knowledge, therefore, is the object of the present
Paper, and in laying it before the Members of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, the Author hopes to do justice to the talents of
the watch-makers of the eighteenth century, whose numerous
researches and inventions constitute the basis of all the horologi-
cal knowledge possessed at the present day; for both in the best
chi-onometers and watches, the principles of the makers of that
period are still invariably followed. It is true, that the separate

pieces in both, are now, by the aid of machinery and by the prac-
tical skill of the workmen, produced in a very high state of
perfection ; but it is not less true, that although the division of
labor has contributed to insure the perfection of the parts, sep-
arately considered, horology, as a science, has not advanced
proportionably ; and talanted individuals are become more scarce,
who, by the study of its laws, are qualified for the task of seeing
that all its principles are properly carried out, and the several
well-made parts combined together, into a correct machine for
measurino- time.
'
b ISOCHRO>"IS:Sl OF BALANCE-SPRINGS.
To regularly educated chronometer-makers, the Author does not

pretend to offer anything new, beyond the scientific investigation
and explanation of the principles of the isochi'onal adjustment,
which, in a practical point of view, must be familiar to them.
Watch-makers, however, properly so called, constitute a much
more numerous class than that of chronometer-makers ; and,
although the practical knowledge of the isochronal adjustment, is
not less necessary to the former, than to the latter, at least if they
aspire to the manufacture of watches of a superior class, yet few
of them have attained a full knowledge of the subject, either in
principle or practice. To another, and a far larger class, namely,
the wearers of watches, the Author ventures to address himself,
with a view to impart to them the requisite knowledge for dis-
criminating between good and indifferent watches.

Of all the adjustments necessary in the parts of a good watch,
the most essential to its performance, is unquestionably that of
the isochronism of the balance spring ; for, if this adjustment be
wanting, wliatever may be the excellence of the machine in other
respects, and however labored its workmanship and other adjust-
ments, it will assuredly disappoint the expectation of the artist,
who will find it incapable of being regulated to preserve the same

rate of going, in the various positions in which it is liable to be
placed. An example is subjoined, illustrative of the effects of a
non-isochronal spring upon an othervîse good watch.
Suppose, for instance, that by comparison with a good clock,
the going of a well-made watch is tried during twelve hours, in
four vertical positions, wherein the friction is much increased, and
the arc of vibration of the balance considerably diminished in
extent (those positions being with the hours xii, vi, ix, and in,
consecutively upwards, during three hours each), and that it keeps
correct time in all those positions ; but that in the horizontal posi-
tion, or with the face upwards, with longer arcs of vibration, the
watch gains one hundred and twenty seconds in twelve hours, the
friction is least in the horizontal position, and the arcs of vibra-

tion are consequently of the greatest extent.
Here then is a watch, which, though gaining considerably in the
long arcs of vibration, indicates, nevertheless, a very near approxi-
mation to perfection, and by its correct performance in the verti-
ISOCHRONIS.M OF BALANC'E-SPRINC^S. 7
cal positions, shows that the balance has been most correctly
poised. The proper remedy, in such a case, is to make a correct
isochronal adjustment of the balance spring. A person, however,
who is unacquainted with this adjustment, would fail to discover
what the true remedy should be, and would follow the plan usually
resorted to, in which by lightening the balance, at the twelve
o'clock part, the times of the vibrations, in the hanging and lying
positions of the watch, may be accommodated to each other ; but
not without increasing the errors in the other three vertical posi-
tions, to tlie great detriment of a nearly perfect watch : thus it is
that many watches, which are fair specimens of workmanship, are

frequently deteriorated by false adjustments, and fail to procure
for their makers, either credit or satisfaction.

Down to the middle of the seventeenth century, horology could
only be considered as a mechanical art, depending entirely upon
good workmanship for its excellence ; but at that period, Dr.
Hooke raised it to the rank of a science, by propounding its laws,
and enriching it with those valuable discoveries and inventions,
which rendered skilful manipulation a mere accessory, although
an indispensable one, to the carrying out the governing laws and
principles, which he had deduced from the highest branches of
science.
The extraordinary talents of Dr Hooke as a mechanician, can-
not be too highly admired ; for the improvements which, through

him, were effected both in watches and clocks, do not seem to be
so much the result of a happily conducted train of experiments,
to which chance had directed him, as to have been elicited by
acute reasoning, upon facts deduced from careful observation.
Dr. Hooke first suggested the plan of reducing the vibrations
of the pendulum of a clock, within those small circular arcs,
wliich do not differ sensibly from the cycloidal curve, and also
giving such an amount of momentum to the pendulum, as should
nullify the effect of any differences that might exist, in the trans-
mission of the impulse through the medium of the train. Great,

however, as were these improvements in the pendulum clock, they
bear no comparison, in value and importance, with his invention
and application of the balance spring to the watch, which unques-
tionably laid the foundation of the chronometric art: for hence-
O ISOCHRO]NISM OF BALANCE-SPRINGS.
forward this balance, with its spring, was destined to perform

an office in the watch, equivalent to that of the pendulum of a
clock.
Previously to this, the watch was a machine too subject to

iiTegularities to be relied on ; but it now became the model of a
movable time-keeper, that by successive gradations of improve-
ment would attain a high degree of perfection, and ultimately
contain M'ithin itself, as at the present day, the capability of cor-
recting its own imperfections, by means of certain applications
of compensation and adjustment.
It is evident, that Dr. Hooke's inventive genius, which suggested
to him the spiral spring, penetrated through the obscm-ity which
concealed the laws of its isochronism from those who afterwards
employed it. His expression, "As is the tension, so is the force,"
clearly demonstrates, not only that he was acquainted with the
isochronal property of the spring, but that the correct interpreta-
tion of the phrase should have unfolded the law to others; it is,
therefore, remarkable, that the spiral spring should have been

employed for nearly a century, before any of his numerous follow-
ers rediscovered the means of isochronizing it.
It may be reasonably inferred, from a variety of circumstances,

that Harrison was unacquainted with the isochronal property of
the spiral; Arnold, however, his immediate follower, seems to
have practically comprehended the subject, and while occupied in
researches as to the means of lessening the difficulties of the
operation, he invented the cylindrical form of balance spring and
compensation balance, which were discoveries of such gi-eat
importance in the progress of ckronometric improvement, that they

may be said to have formed the commencement of a new era in
the science.
The merit of the discovery of isoclrronism in France, was con.-
tested by the rival artists Le Roy and F. Berthoud, by the latter
of whom the subject was, among much other very valuable infor-
mation, elaborately treated in his " Traite des Horloges Marines,"
published at Paris in 1773. It, however, unfortunately happens,
that the artists of the present day are too little acquainted with
the writings and performances of those of the eighteenth centui-y,
such as Sully, Graham, Harrison, Camus, Le Roy, Berthoud,
: :
ISOCBTRONISM OF BALANCE-SPRINGS. »
Ellicott, Cumining, Mudge, Arnold, Earnshaw, etc., etc. If a
society of persons professing the art had been formed, and papers
on the subjects connected with its improvement had been occa-
sionally read at the periodical meetings of its members, it is
impossible to say to what degree of perfection the art might now

have attained, what sums would have been spared, that have been
squandered in useless patents, and what valuable time saved,
which has been thrown away in making researches, the results of
which had been long known and amply described in the works
published about that period.
One of the experiments performed by Berthoud must be men-
tioned, as it has been of the greatest service in enabling the
variations of rate to be traced to their true causes, namely, the
changes of the elastic force of the balance spring, under changes
of temperatm-e.
The diminution of elastic force in balance springs by heat, was
suspected as early as 1747; as appears from the following passage
in the prize essay of the celebrated geometrician, Daniel Bernoulli,
read before the French Academy
" I must not omit a circumstance which may be prejudicial to
balance watches ; it is, that experimental philosophers pretend to

have remarked that certain changes of elastic force uniformly
follow changes of temperature. If that be the case, the spring can

never uniformly govern the balance."
That which Bernoulli only conjectured in 1747, was, in 1773,
established as a matter of certainty, and the amounts in loss of

time, due to each of these three causes, operating conjointly were
subjected to calculation and experiment by Berthoud; with the
following result
One of his marine watches in passing from 0° to 27" Reaumur

(32° to 92° Fah.)—
Seconds.
Loss per diem by expansion of diameter of balance ... 62
Ditto
Ditto
ditto
ditto
by loss of spring's elastic force
by elongation of the spring
.... 312
19
393 or 6m. 33b.

10 ISOCHRONISM OF BALANCE-SPRINGS.
Few of the watch-makers of the present day can form an ade-

qxiate notion of the difficulties which had to be overcome by the
early watch-makers, on finding that their watches varied to so
great an extent as six minutes thirty-three seconds in passing
from 32° to 92° Fahrenheit : while a clock, with a seconds' pen-
dulum, was known not to alter more than about twenty seconds,
under similar circumstances.
Isochronism is an inherent property of the balance-spring,
depending entirely upon the ratio of the spring's tension, follow-
ing the proportion of the arcs of inflection ; a balance spring,
therefore, of any force whatever, having the progression required
by the law of isochronism, will preserve this property, whether it
be applied to a balance making quick, or slow vibrations ; for
which reason, in the present inquu-y, every cu'cumstance is pur-

posely omitted, Avhich gives to the balance its specific character,
as Aveight, diameter, etc , and it is treated simply as the balance.
Writers on isochronism appear to have considered the vibra-
tions of the balance in its totality, and to have reasoned for the
most part on the times of vibrations in their entirety ; but a

better plan, it is submitted, Avould be, to consider the time of
each semi-vibration of the balance, to consist of some number of
very minute equal portions of time, and then by applying the
known laws of forces to the motion of the balance, to determine
what are the specific conditions under which the vibrations them-
selves shall, in their totality, be isochronous.
The elastic force of balance springs belongs to that class of

forces called continuous, because the action is not by a single
impulse, which then ceases ; but by a number of consecutive
impulses, following each other in such rapid succession, as to con-
stitute an vminterrupted and continuous force ; but which force is
uniformly increasing during the bending of the spring, and

uniformly decreasing whilst it is unbending.
The first step towards the comprehension of isochronism, is the
recognition of the accelerated and retarded motion of the balance ;
for which purpose it must be followed, step by step, through the

entire vibration, upon the supposition, that the time of each semi-
vibration is divided into, or composed of, any convenient number
of equal parts, as, for instance, ten. If then the balance be sup-
;;
ISOCHRONISM OF BALANCE-SPRINGS. 11
posed to be moved by the finger from the position where it will

stand, when at rest, over an arc of any number of degrees, and
be there held, it will be perceived, that the spring is wound into
tension, and has acquired an amount of elastic force, proportion-
ate to the angle over which it is inflected, which force is then

reacting against the finger, by which the balance itself is lield in
a state of rest.
The instant, however, that the finger is withdrawn, the elastic
force of the spring will be exerted in overcoming the absolute

inertia of the balance, and at the expiration of the first short
period of time (or one-tenth of the time of a semi- vibration), the
spring will have communicated a slight motion to the balance.
During the second tenth, the spring's force is exerted against the
balance in motion, instead of being at rest, as it was at the com-
mencement of the fixst tenth, and the spring will necessarily
accelerate the motion that the balance had previously acquired
and so on during the third, fourth, and every other succeeding
tenth, the elastic force of the spring, though continually decreas-
ing, will be urging the balance forward, and will therefore continue
to accelerate it, until the spring arrives at the position of quies-
cence, where it ceases further to urge the balance.

The balance having thus returned to the position of rest, from
whence it was moved by the finger, the first half of the vibration
is fully completed, and a change of circumstances takes place
the spring, which continued to communicate motion to the balance
until now that the whole of its force has been transferred thereto,
has resumed for an instant a state of quiescence. The balance
has also assumed a new character, having acquired a sufficient
velocity of motion and momentum, to carry it through the other
half of the vibration, and in so doing to inflect the spring through
an angle, equal to that which was originally moved through by
the finger, and to give the spring the requisite tension for perform-
ing the next succeeding vibration. During the first few tenths of
the second half of the vibration, the spring has so little tension,
that its force retards but slightly the motion of the balance ; but
during the succeeding tenths, the tension gradually increases, until
at length the spring acquii-es sufficient force to entirely arrest the
motion of the balance, at the same extent of arc on the other side
of the place of quiescence, as that to which it was originally
moved by the finger.

Diagram, Fig. 1, shows the magnitude of the several arcs,
traversed by an index, affixed to the rim of the balance, during

each of the successive tenth portions of the time, into which a
semi-vibration of 175 degrees is conceived to be divided.
Fig. 1.
Point of Rest.
An inspection of the figure, and a comparison of the spaces

described during the first and last tenth of each semi-vibration,
will suffice to show that each vibration of the balance is composed
of an alternately accelerated and retarded motion, and how rapidly
the ratio between them proceeds, although it is not probable that
the eye could detect that to be the case, even in a balance of the
slowest motion.
The specific conditions under which the vibrations themselves,
considered in their totality, whether long or short, should be
isochronous, are these :
1st. If the time of each semi-vibration be conceived to be com-

posed of the same number of very small equal instants of time,
and, whatever be the extent of the arc traversed, that the first and
last of these minute instants of time precisely correspond with
the commencement and conclusion of each semi-vibration, the
vibrations, whether long, or short, of such a balance, will be
isochronous, or be performed in equal times.
2nd The elastic force of a balance-spring, increases in direct
proportion to the angle of inflection, by which it is wound into
tension ; and hence it is obvious, that the increasing and dimin-

ishing tension, which causes the balance to follow a definite law
of acceleration and retardation, must itself also follow some
definite ratio of increase and decrease, in order that the first and
last of the very small equal instants of time, shall correspond
with the commencement and conclusion of each semi-vibration.
3d. It is likewise evident, that the ratio of change in the
tension, may be either one which proceeds too rapidly, and, con-
sequently, produces an operation in excess, or one which proceeds
too slowly, and produces an operation in defect; on which account,
there are two varieties of spring which do not produce isochro-
nous vibrations.
4th. In the former variety, producing an operation in excess,
the spring acquhes a greater amount of elastic force, than that
which is due to the angle of inflection in an isochronal spring ;
whence it follows, that the greater the arc of vibration, the gi-eater
will be the angle of inflection, and, consequently, the gi-eater the
excess of undue tension. The eff"ect of this undue tension will
be, to hurry the balance forward during the first half of the
vibration, with too great celerity, and thus cause it to arrive at
the conclusion, before the complete number of minute instants,

due to the isochronous vibration, has expu-ed. A similar eff'ect is'
produced during the second half of the vibration, by the undue

excess of tension arresting the balance, before the full number of
instants has entirely expired. During each semi-vibration, there-
fore, thi'oughout the day, some of these minute instants will be
left unemployed, and their accumulation will be the amount
gained in the long arcs of vibration, in comparison with the per-
formance of the same watch in the short arcs.
5th. In the latter variety, the elastic force due to the angle of
inflection will not be sufficiently great, and the spring will not
have the requisite tension to carry the balance over the first semi-
vibration of a long arc, in the number of instants allotted to it,
nor to arrest it so soon as the isochronous term of the second

semi-vibration requnes. Each semi-vibration, therefore, will
occupy too large a number of instants in its performance, and the

accumulated amount of them, throughout the day, will indicate
the loss during the long arcs of vibration, in comparison with the
performance of the same watch in the short arcs.
It is evident, that however gi-eat may be the science displayed

in the application of a balance-spring, it will be valueless in a
chronometrical point of view, if it will not remain permanently
in the state in which the artist leaves it. For a spring to possess
this indispensable property, a high degi'ee of perfection is, neces-

sarily, requhed, demanding care in the selection of the material,
skill in the manufacture, and science in the application.
Balance-springs are, for the most jsart, made of steel, hardened
and tempered, though some few have been made of gold, of
which metal certain alloys have been particularly recommended ;
but theii- elasticity is not always to be relied on. The use of

glass for springs was suggested by Berthoud, but was, ultimately,
rejected.
Balance-springs must possess as perfect and as permanent a
degree of elasticity as can be attained. These requisites depend
upon the quality, hardness, and temper of the metal, as well as
upon the form or shape of the spii-al. A soft spring gradually
changes its form, and, losing a portion of its elastic force, becomes
defective, and unfit for employment in a watch of the slightest
pretensions, owing to the constant losing on its rate. A hard-

ened and tempered spring, on the contrary, has a tendency to
gain on its rate; but this must not be considered as a defect,
since it is merely the result of the laminae of the spring having
been set in the process of hardening, whereby it has acquired an
adventitious degree of rigidity. This rigidity, however, wears off
after a few months' vibration in the watch, which during this
period almost imperceptibly accelerates a little upon its rate, on
account of the acquisition of the minute increments of additional
elastic force occasioned by the gradually increased flexibility of

the spring. When, however, the processes of hardening and tem-
pering have been properly conducted, the gaining on the rate will
be restricted within very narrow limits, and will soon cease, on
the springs' attaining its maximum amount of flexibility and
elastic force.
Correctness of form, or shape, has been already stated as one of

the conditions requisite to insure isochi'onism. There are two
form.s of springs in use, namely, the cylindrical, or helical spring,
and the spii-al, or flat spring ; the former is exclusively employed
in chronometers, and the latter in all other kinds of watches.*''
The simplest form of spring is the helical, cylindrical. This
spring is formed into a coil of a certain number of rings of equal
diameter, rising one above another, in the form of a cylinder.
The lower end of the spring is turned in by a suitable curve to
accommodate it to the size of the collet, into which that end is
fixed ; and the upper end of the spring is turned in by a more or

less bold sweep, according to the indications of the isochronal
adjustment, and is pinned into a fixed stud.
The collet vibrating with the balance, that point in the circxim-
ference of the collet Avhere the spring is pinned into it, is
inflected through the same extent of arc as the semi-vibration

consists of; and by examination of the action of the spring,
during the vibration of the balance in the chronometer, it will
be perceived, that for each portion of the extent so inflected,
there is a corresponding increase, or diminution of each of the
coils of the helix, throughout the entire length of the spring,
no part whatever being out of action during any portion of the
vibration.
* Writers mention a third, or spherical form, which is stated to be better adapted

for isochronous vibrations ; but it needs the testimony of more numerous experiments
and stronger evidence than has been hitherto adduced, to prove that chronometers with
spherical springs are superior to those with cylindrical springs, of which so many fine
specimens, by various makers, are now in constant use. It may likewise be observed,
as a proof, that the flat spring is capable of the same degree of perfection as the cylin-
drical, that the Author's prize chronometer, No. 1, which has never been surpassed by
any chronometer on record, had a flat spring. This chronometer, during a trial of
twelve months' duration at the Royal Observatory, at Greenwich, was found by actual
daily observation to have made an extreme variation of only fifty-seven hundredths of
a second.
In order to try the isochronism of a spring, the chronometer

must be ready and in going order. If the force of the main
spring be then increased by setting up the ratchet, the arc of
vibration of the balance will be extended ; or if the force of the
main spring be diminished by letting down its ratchet, the arc

will be lessened ; the arc of vibration may therefore be regulated
to any extent desired. Comparisons of the chronometer's rate of
going, dm'ing an equal number of hours, in the long and in the
short arcs of vibration, are then to be made by a good clock, and
the difference, if any, carefully noted. This difference indicates
the state of approximation of the spring to isochronism, and
points out the remedy, if it needs correction, according to the
following rules :
Case 1st. If the clu'onometer be found to lose in the long

arcs, it will prove that the tension, or elastic force of the spring,
has not increased to the amount due to the angle of inflection, or

semi-arc of vibration. Hence, some minute portions of time are
lost in each semi-vibration ; in the first semi-vibration, the bal-
ance not being carried forward with sufficient celerity, so as to
arrive soon enough at its term ; and in the second semi-vibration,
by the spring not acquiring the requisite amount of force soon
enough to stop the balance, at the expiration of the number of
instants due to the isochronous semi -vibration.
The remedy in this case is to shorten the spring, and thereby
to cause the progression of the increase of its elastic force to
become more rapid ; but, as much time is lost by repeatedly un-

pinning the spring, the effect of shortening may be produced
artificially, when the state of the isochronism is within the limits
Avhich experience points out, by merely altering the form of the
upper curve, so as to give it a greater degree of expansion.
Case 2d If the chronometer is found to gain in the long arcs,
in comparison to the time it keeps, when vibrating in short arcs,
it will prove, that the tension increases in a ratio beyond that
which is due to the angle of inflection. In this case, if the
chronometer keeps time, when the semi-arc of vibration is one
hundred degrees, it will gain when it is made to vibrate two
hundred degrees ; for, instead of having so much force as would
compel the balance to vibrate over double the space with a double
mean velocity, which would of course occupy the same time, it
will possess an excess of tension, which will increase the velocity

of each of the semi-vibrations, and necessarily abridge the time
of performing them, and thus cause an accumulation of small
instants, which will be the gain per diem.
The remedy, in such a spring, is to increase the length of the

part in action : but as this is not always convenient, or possible,
the isochronal adjustment is resorted to, in which a kind of arti-
ficial length is given to the spring, by compressing the curve of
the part bent inward at the upper end, so as to make the curve
commence its inward direction at a point a little farther distant
from the stud.*

Before attempting to make any alteration in a spring, it is
advisable to examine the state of the curves, more especially

when the chronometer gains in the long arcs, as it will sometimes
be found, that one or other of the curves is turned in too abruptly,
which has the effect of causing a gain in the long arcs, in conse-
quence of the spring abutting so directly against the curve, as to
leave a part of its length in very imperfect action.
The opinion of the early ^^Titers upon isochronism, was, that a
certain determinate length procured an isochronal spring ; but the

fact is, that in every length of wire there are several isochronal
points, to either of which a balance may be adapted, according
to the nature of the vibrations it is intended to perform. Sup-
pose, for instance, that a cylindrical spring, having ten turns, be
found isochronal, one or more of these turns may be taken away,
and a point in the spring still be found, that will give the
required ratio of increasing tension, and produce isochronous
vibrations.
The spiral, or flat spring, is less simple in its form than the
cylindrical spring ; and although whatever be the form, the prin-
ciples upon which its isochronism depends are not altered, yet
there are circumstances which affect its isochronal perfection in
so material a degree, that they require to be particularly noted ;
and the more especially so, since the spirals are more commonly
* The old methods of tapering the spring, or thinning the upper or under turn,
to malie the increase of tension observe the proper ratio, are never now resorted to
by experienced makers.
employed than the cylindrical springs, while the construction of

the former involves several points of great nicety in the manipu-
lation.
The proper length and strength of wire being well selected,

the manner in which it is turned up into a spiral is important, for
in this operation its natural isochronism may be either partially
or wholly destroyed. This will especially happen if there be any
small points, or elbows in it ; or if the spring be so made, that
during the vibration, any part thereof be either inactive, or have
an imperfect action. Indeed, the absolute necessity for the
spring to continue in free and unrestrained action throughout its
entire length, and diu'ing the whole period of the vibration, can-
not be too strongly vu'ged ; because, an opinion generally prevails,
that the outer turns do not come into action until near the end
of the semi-vibrations.
With the cylinch'ical spring, there is no great difficulty in pro-
ducing the same extent of vibration on either side of the point

of quiescence ; with a flat spring, however, this is not attained
with an equal degi-ee of facility, nor without close attention to its
form, as well as to the mode of pinning it in, so that it be not in

the slightest degree strained from its natural shape, or position,
when out of the watch.
A spiral, to be turned up correctly, should lie in several close
turns towards the centre (Fig. 2), springing off from where it is
pinned into the collet, by a gentle curve, and thence gradually

and constantly expanding, in such a manner that each part of the
spiral would cross, but nowhere coincide with a small ciixular arc
drawn from the centre of the collet and concentric therewith.
This is indispensible to isochronism.
Fie. 2.
ISOCHRONISM OF BALANCE-SPRINGS 19
If, on the contrary, a spiral springs off from the collet, first by
a large bold sweep, and then lies in a few close and large turns, it
Avill be very defective in its action, and quite devoid of the

isochronal property. In such a spring, the middle of the vibra-
tion will not coincide with the point of quiescence ; for the spring
will readily yield to the momentum of the balance, during the

winding up, and contraction of its coils, and the whole length of
the spring will be brought into action, though imperfectly : but,
during the expansion of the coils upon the return of the balance,
the action of the inner turns will not be exerted against curves
which lie across concentric chcles, as in the diagram, but against
such as lie in concentric circles, or very nearly so, and will there-
fore abut so point-blank against them, as to cause no displacement
whatever in a portion of the outer turn ; thus giving the effect of
a short strong spring, which arrests the balance too soon in this
part of the vibration. Such irregularities are obviously quite in-
compatible with the requisites for producing isochronous vibrations.

The isochronal trial of a flat spring in a watch, is more simple
than that described for the chi-onometer, since the balance for the
watch is thrown into the long, or short arcs of vibration, by the
mere change of position, which varies the amount of friction, and
consequently the extent of the arc. In the horizontal position,
with the face uppermost, the friction is least, and the vibrations
are of the fullest extent ; in the vertical, or that in which the
watch is worn, the friction is greatest, and the extent of the
vibration is necessarily curtailed. The trial is made, with the aid
of a good clock, by comparing the rate of performance during a
certain number of hours, in a horizontal position, Math the mean
result of an equal number of hours' performance in any two oppo-
site vertical positions ; for instance, first with the xii. and then
with the VI. upwards, and then in the like manner with the ix.
and III. : the mean result of two opposite vertical positions being
required, in order to neutralize the eff'ect of any slight irregulari-
ties that may exist in the poise of the balance. The indications
and the application of the isochronal adjustment, are the same as
those already described for cylindrical springs, but under greater
restrictions. For, as the balances for watches are, for the most
part, simple and unprovided with any means by which their inertia
3
f
may be varied, as is done in the compensation balance, so as to

suit the elastic force of any particular spring, and the number of
vibrations required to be performed in a given time, the spiral of
a watch must not only be isochronal, but be of the precise degree
of elastic force demanded by the particular balance to be employ-
ed. ^•' The selection of a spring, within the limits of the isochro-
nal adjustment, must therefore be made by trial in the watch.
The great advantage of an isochronal spring, in its innate

power of resisting the influences which cause a change of rate,
such as the change of position, increased friction as the works

become dirty, or the viscidity of the oil in low temperature.
Indeed, it is surprising to see chronometers return from sea with

scarcely a change of rate, although some of them had been going
for three or fom* years, and even for longer periods of time, and
the vibrations had fallen off to a very small arc, in consequence
of the oil becoming so viscid, that, in some instances, a slight
degree of force has been required to draw the pivot out of the
fourth wheel-hole. But what was still more remarkable, some of
these chronometers, after being cleaned, had been observed to
take up their original rate, even perhajjs with a threefold amount
of vibration.
The mode by which an isochronal spring arrives at such per-
fection, may be thus explained : The spring's elastic force is
presupposed to be both perfect and permanent, under similar

temperatures ; for, as has been previously stated, the elastic force
diminishes, as the temperature to which it is exposed is increased.
The elastic force of the spring is counterbalanced by the resist-
ance it meets with, in the work it has to jjerform ; this is of two
kinds, the inertia of the balance, and the friction of the rubbing
parts, from a certain amount of which no machinery is exempt.
If the spring is assumed to possess a force equal to 100, and
that 10 of these parts are requisite to overcome the friction, when
* A
compensation balance ia sometimes applied to a lever watch, with the design to
render it a more perfect instrument; but that cannot be attained, unless duo regard be
had to the isochronism of the spring, as will be understood from what has been already
stated.
t Watches of excellent workmanship occasionally come into the Author's hands,

wilh considerable errors in the long or the short arcs of vibration yet they require ;
nothing more than the isochronal adjustment to render them, what their makers in-
tended, good watches.
at a minimum, there will be 90 parts left, for action upon the

balance. But the friction will vary according to circumstances,
although the spring and balance may remain unaltered. If, there-
fore, the spring has power to carry the balance through a circle
of vibration, when the friction is at a minimum, it will have power
to perform the same amount of work when the friction is at a
maximum, but the 100 parts of force will be diffei-ently appor-
tioned in the execution of the task.
Let it be assumed, for instance, that the friction is trebled ;
there will then be 30 parts employed in overcoming the friction,

and consequently 70 parts only for action upon the balance, which
will necessarily have a less extent of vibration. Now, since the
isochronal ratio of the spring's tension remains unaltered, the be-
ginning and end of each semi-vibration will still coincide with the
first and last of the minute instants of time, composing the
isochronous vibration, which is the condition that is required for
correct performance.
So likewise it is with increased friction in watch-work, the
elastic forces of the balance spring being constantly proportioned
to the angle of inflection, whatever the amount of friction, the
law of isocln-onism remains unchanged, and friction is only an

adventitious chcumstance, which aff'ects the extent of the arc of
vibration, but not the time in which it will be described.
Mr. Faket considered the Paper to be of a class highly de-

serving of the attention of the Institution, for although the subject
did not come within the ordinary course of engineering studies,
nevertheless it involved principles of mechanical action, with
which all engineers ought to be well acquainted. The application
of those principles in the construction and operation of marine
chronometers, had been attended with a degree of precision in
performance, greatly exceeding all that could be required in ma-
chines for the performance of forcible operations ; those being the
machines with which engineers were most conversant, and which
they had brought to a high degree of perfection, as regarded
power, strength, and rapidity of operation, in overcoming resist-
ances, with capability of continuing their operation without

ceasing, as long as might be requhed.
It was a useful exercise of mind, to turn the thoughts occasion-
ally from their habitual course, to the consideration of subjects,

wherein similar principles had been applied with success, for the
attainment of very different objects ; and it was one advantage of

the Institution, that it brought together persons who had acquired
skill in many different pursuits, having but little in common, ex-
cept that they were all applications of mechanical science, and
were dependent on the correctness of such applications for their
success and theii- progress towards perfection.

Chronometers required far more precision in then- motions, than
any other machines, and the perfection to which they had been
brought, rendered the principles of their construction an interest-
ing study, and a correct knowledge of the very minute circum-
stances on which that perfection was dependent, could not fail to
be useful. Mr. Frodsham's paper explained, that isochronism of

the vibration of the balance was a most essential qualification for
correct performance in a chronometer, and that with some partic-

ular length and other conditions of its balance-spring (only to be
found by ti'ial in each case), the requisite equality of the times of
long, or short arcs of vibration of the balance, might be attained.

It was generally admitted as true in theory, that a spring which
exerted an vmiformly increasing force, in being bended during the
motion of tlie balance through equal arcs, and an miiformly
decreasing force in unbending itself, and returning the balance
through the same arcs, would produce the required regulation.
As an illustration of this, the chronometer might be supposed
to be placed M'ith its balance in a vertical plane, and a very
fine hair to be fastened to its rim, and after passing around
its circumference, descending vertically therefrom in the direc-
tion of a tangent, so that any weight which might be appended
to the hair wovdd move the balance some way round from its
quiescent position, and in so doing would bend its spring, until
the increasing force thereof becoming equal to react against

the -weight, the balance Môuld then stop at some angle fi-om its
quiescent position. If the spring were coiTCCtly formed, the ex-

tent of svxch angle should be proportionate to the weight (id lensio
sic vis, as Dr. Hooke expressed it). So that supposing the weight
to be one grain, and that it had moved the balance through an
angle of 20 degrees, then the addition of another grain should
move the balance another 20 degrees; and so on, each increment

of one grain of force should produce an increment of 20 degrees
of angular motion of the balance ; and therefore 10 grains of force
Avould move the balance through ten such increments of 20
degrees each, or an angular motion of 200 degrees from the
quiescent position, that being about an average extent of the
semi-vibration of the balance in chronometers. The same mode
of trial should be supposed to be repeated, with the hair passed
in a contrary direction over the circumference of the balance, and
ought then to show the same results as before ; thereby proving,
the force of the spring to be the same, whether it was being
wound up in the direction of its coils, or being unwound in a
contrary direction. Such a condition of spring having been
attained, in any watch or chronometer, the vibrations of its bal-
ance would (according to theory) be performed in an equal space

of time, whether they were of a longer, or shorter extent. There-
fore a chronometer newly cleaned and oiled, being adjusted to
keep time correctly, with its balance vibrating full one turn and a
quarter (or 225 degrees for the semi-vibration) ought, not to alter
its rates of going as the vibrations became diminished, in the
course of constant use without oiling, even though they should be

reduced to less than one turn (or 175 degrees for the semi-vibra-
tion).
The attainment of such an amount of isochronism was also of
importance for pocket watches, although they did not require the
precision of chi'onometers ; because, in addition to continuing to
go well as the works became dirty, the fusee and chain for the
main-spring might he dispensed with in the construction of the watch,

and the diminution of the vibrations, attendant on the diminishing
force of the main-spring, during each twenty-four hours, should

make no difference in the going of the watch.
The progressive motion of the balance, during its semi-vibra-
tion, in returning from one extremity of the vibration to the
quiescent, or midway position, was an accelerated motion ; and
in proceeding onwards through the opposite semi-vibration beyond
the midway position to the other extremity of the vibration, it
was a retarded motion ; but the acceleration would not take place
by the same law as that of falling bodies, because gravitation
(practically speaking) was an uniform and constant force, which

gave to falling bodies equal increments of velocity in equal times,

which was termed uniformly accelerated motion ; whereas the
force of the balance spring was uniformly decreasing, and could
not therefore produce so rapid an increment of velocity as uni-
formly accelerated motion.
Although the theory that isochronal vibrations must result from
a uniformly increasing and decreasing force of the spring, might
be admitted, yet, in practice, it was necessary that the spring
should be adjusted, so that the law of its force would be accom-
modated to suit all other circumstances, which could interfere
Avith the freedom of the vibration of the balance, the resistance
of the air being one of those circumstances : and in compensa-
tion balances which had screws projecting from their circumfer-
ences, with large heads to serve as weights, the resistance to their
motion througli the an- must be considerable : but that resistance
increasing as the squares of the velocity, it could not occur with
the theoretically assumed uniformity of increasing and decreasing
force of the balance spring, to allow of the isocln-onal vibrations,
which it was admitted in theory, would result from such vmi-
formity.
The usual practice was to adjust to chronometer to go well,
when its balance vibrated to a full extent of one revolution and a
quarter, and then by letting down the main-spring by its rachet
the impelling force was so diminished that the balance would not
vibrate more than tkree-fourths of a revolution ; it was then
expected that the chronometer would go as well as it did at first,
and if it did not, the spring of the balance was altered in its
length, or in the curvatm-e of its ends, in the manner described
in the paper, until by repeated trials and alterations the chronom-
eter was made to go at the same rate, whether the balance
vibrated the full extent, or the diminished extent.
This mode of trial was assumed to be an anticipation of what
would afterwards take place, when the chronometer was in use on
a long sea voyage, where it was found, that the extent of the
vibrations of the balance diminished in proportion to the time the
chronometer continued in use. But it might be doubted, on
close examination of all the cu'cumstances, whether those of the
previous trials, and those of the future use, were on a parity.
-
Because when the maker reduced the extent of the vibrations for
his trials, he did so by diminishing the impelling force that was

imparted to the balance, without altering the resistance to the
motion of the balance. Whereas in long service, the resistance
to the motion of the balance became increased by the gradual
thickening of the oil about its pivot, and that increased resistance
was the chief cause of the diminishing extent of the vibrations.
It was true that the oil in the wheelwork of the train would
and diminish the force with which the escapement

also thicken,
wheel would impel the balance, so that both causes would be in
operation, to diminish the extent of the vibrations, viz., greater
resistance to motion, and less force of impulsion to overcome
resistance, and produce motion ; but the influence of the thick-
ening of the oil would would be much greater, to increase the
resistance to the motion of the balance, than to diminish the

impelling force of the train of wheelwork, because the friction of
the pivots of the balance was caused by a very considerable
motion between the rubbing surfaces, although attended with a
very slight force of pressure: hence the viscidity of the oil,
which was applied to those rubbing surfaces, would greatly aug-

ment the resistance to motion ; whereas the friction of the wheel-
work of the train was caused by a very small motion between the
rubbing surfaces, attended with a considerable force of pressure,
and an equal viscidity of the oil, would not diminish the impell-
ing force of the wheelwork, in the same proportion as the resis-
tance to the motion of the balance was increased. The trials
which were made for adjusting the isochronism of the balance

spring of a chronometer, would be more assimilated to the cir-
cumstances of its future xise, if a temporary friction could be
applied, to retard the motion of the balance, as, for instance, by
applying thick gummy oil to its pivots, orby means of a slender
spring pressing latterally against the axis of the balance, and
thereby reducing the extent of its vibrations, without depending
entirely upon reduction of the impelling force of the main-spring
and wheelwork for reducing that extent ; but both means might
be resorted to, either separately, or in combination, for making
the trials.
It was stated in the Paper, that the friction of the balance did
4
not alter the isochronism of the spring, Avhen it had been fully
attained. That might be the case, whilst the chronometer

remained in the hands of the maker, after he had adjusted the
spring by trial and error, as was described in the Paper ; because
that adjustment, from the mode of making it, would compensate
for the effect of all the diflerence of friction that must exist, when
the motion of the balance was greater, or less, in the case when
the diminution of the motion resulted solely from a reduction of
the impelling force. But after the chronometer had been long in
use at sea, and such diminution would chiefly be the result of
increased resistance to the motion of the balance, from the thick-
ening of the oil, there might be some doubt, whether the usual
mode making the adjustments would suit the future circum-
of
stances as accurately as was desirable.
The conditions under which a spring would produce isochronal
vibrations of the balance were not well understood, although the
result was arrived at by trial and error, as described in the Paper.
An equality of flexure of every part of the spring throughout its
whole length, if not a necessary condition, Aâs no doubt very

important, and would result most naturally from a tapered form
of the spring, which was formerly given by working the steel for
the spring thinner towards each of its ends. And although Mr.
Earnshaw attributed much of the perfection of his chronometers
to such tapering, it had not been continued, which might be
because the tapering was very liable to be irregularly performed,
and in such cases the superior accuracy of springs of uniform
thickness would entitle them to a preference.
Mr. Frodsham said there was no subject connected with
horology, which had been the cause of so much loss of time, and
waste of money and talent, as the prevailing want of knowledge
of the laws of isochronism. Perfection of mechanism alone was
incapable of insuring a correct time-keeper, or the detached
escapements of Arnold and Earnshaw, which were models con-
taining every requisite, would long ago have offered to the careful
imitator, the means of producing perfect chronometers. But no
mechanism, however correct in itself, unless under the influence
of an isochronal spring, would produce a good result ; and per-
sons who were unskilful in obtaining isochronism, had resorted to
a variety of mechanical schemes to obtain arcs of uniform extent,

and, as they hoped, of uniform duration. The remontoir escap3-
ment was one in much
which, with loss of power, a sort of
secondary mainspring was wound up at short intervals, by the
power of the primary spring. By this transfer of agency, all the
errors of the mainspring and train were expected to be avoided,

and it was argued, that as the impulse given to the balance would
be constant and uniform, the arcs of vibration must, of necessity,
be of iniiform extent, and therefore of uniform duration ; but it
might easily be proved that one was not a necessary consequence

of the other. There was, nevertheless, something so plausible in
the remontoir escapement, that several talented men had labored
to improve its construction, in a manner that did their persever-
ence the highest credit ; for instance, Mudge, who effected the
winding up of the remontoii' spring, at every half vibration, and

it was to be regretted that so much zeal, talent and industry,
should have been spent in fruitless research.
The chronometer constructed Avith the Arnold escapement, con-
tained adjustments for all the contingencies which it is liable to
meet with at sea, and his late instruments were adjusted upon
the simple isochi'onal principle, to maintain a uniform rate, in
every variety of position ; notwithstanding they might occasion-
ally fall off in their vibrations, to the extent of ninety degrees.
How then could Mr. Farcy's setting up the main-spring be

accomplished, or what necessity could there be for it, when the
isochronal adjustment provided most perfectly for every change ?
It would he dijficult indeed for an experienced hand to hazard any

attempt at the adjustment of a chronometer at sea, when it ivas con-
sidered that a variation of one degree of Fahrenheit' s thermometer

produced in an uncompensated watch, an error of six seconds per
diem.
Mr. Farcy's remarks were exceedingly valuable, as to whether
the mode adopted in reducing the arcs of vibration during trials,
was really upon a parity with what took place by the thickening
of the oils, after being at sea for a long period ; but Mr. Frod-
sham's experience led him to believe that the adjustment had
been found sufficient.
The plan of tapering the springs was abandoned, because it

;
was impossible to produce isochronism, under all circumstances,

with a spring so made. In a chronometer it might be used, with-
out detriment, nevertheless it distorted the action of the helical
spring, Avhilst to the flat, or spiral spring, it gave a pleasing
appearance during action ; but when ajiplied to the best lever
watches it invariably produced a losing effect in the short arcs of
vibration, amounting sometimes to one hundred and eighty sec-
onds per diem. The plan was moreover unnecessary, because a
more beautiful action of the spring might be obtained by bringing
the outer turn of the spiral round, and pinning it in over the
centre of the collet, or by a flexible stud ; as no error, however,
arose from the thi-ow of the spring, it was best pinned into a
fixed stud.
Among the causes which aff'ected the extent of the arcs of
vibration, were the dirty state of the watch, the thickening of the
oil, and the fallings off" in the power of the mainspring, Avhich
latter was sometimes as much as half its original force : yet if the
balance-spring was isochronal, deviation from the original rate
was generally found to be inconsiderable, even in such an extreme
case.
The lever watch Avas the most useful description of pocket

watch for general wear ;
yet as ordinarily constructed, it was well
known to be very uncertain in its performance, and commonly
lost in the short arcs of vibration (or vertical positions), to the
extent of from one to four minutes per day. The cm-tailment of
the vibrations and the thi-owing the balance out of poise, so as to
accommodate the hanging and lying positions to each other, were
usually resorted to ; whereas by the application of an isochronal
spring, and a well-poised compensation balance of extended
vibrations, excellent results might be obtained for pocket watches
this should be generally known, because so much perfection had
not hitherto been thought within the capabilities of the lever
escapement. Few persons, except those Avho were in the con-
stant habit of seeing the timing of chronometers under adjust-
ment, could be aware of the difficulties attending the task ; and
the wonder was, as an Astronomer Royal had remarked, that they
" went so long and so well as they did."
Another difficulty existed in the process of hardening and tem-
pering the balance-spring, which was one of the most delicate

operations connected with clironometry, and in which a few
degrees difference in the temperature of the water into which it
was plunged caused a difference in the state of hardness ; nor did

the subsequent tempering obviate the effects to be observed, in
the amount of gaining upon the rate of the instrument, which
resulted from such hardness.
We also append the following Table of Trains, by Charles

Frodsham, showing that, with the same main-spring and the same
balance-spring, nearly 70 different characters of balance may be

used, by changing the velocity per minute, as per Table, which
has a range of from 240 to 400 vibrations per minute.
All have the same momemtum, and the same mean vibration
between the hanging and lying position ; the arc of vibration
agreeing more and more closely in the horizontal and vertical
positions as the velocity per minute increases ; for, as a general
rule, you cannot vary the diameter and keep a constant weight.
It must also be well understood, that when we speak of momem-
tum, it always has reference to the work done by a given main-
spring and balance-spring, driving a balance of a certain diameter
and weight a definite number of times in 60 seconds of mean
time, through an arc of vibration M'hich is mean between
a correct
the horizontal and vertical positions, during an equal number of
hours in each position. Thus, if a given main-spring and balance-
spring carry a balance whose diameter is 0.65 inches and weight
9 gi'S. through a certain arc of vibration 270 times per minute of
mean time, the same main-spring and balance-spring will carry a
balance of 0.65 in. diameter and 4.10 grs. weight 400 hundred
vibrations per minute. But, if we prefer weight to diameter,
then we can only use 0.44 inches diameter with a weight of 9 grs.
From the above it Avill be seen a variety of changes can be
made, the law being that the weight be increased or diminished
in the inverse ratio of the square of the diameter, the square of
the number of vibrations per minute, or the square of the number

of degrees in the arc of vibration.
The most useful trains are :
— for lever escapements, a velocity
of 270, 280 and 288 per minute; for marine chronometers, 240,
the well-known half second beat ; for duplex, 300 per minute ;
for pocket chronometers, 300 to 320.

The question may probably arise, is there any time-keeping
quality in any particular train ? None, or very little, except in
extreme cases. Thus, for a stationary instrument (like the ship

chronometer) the slow half second train is preferred ; but this
would be quite impracticable in a watch that is to be carried in
the pocket, as the balance-spring would not probably control its
motion ; besides which, the arc of vibration in the horizontal and

vertical positions, would disagree to too great an extent.
On the other hand, in very high velocities, the properties of
the balance are lost by the diminished weight or diameter, or both,
and the balance has a constant tendency to be overmastered by
the spring and be brought to rest.
ISOCHE.ONISM OF BALANCE-SPRINGS. 31
GENERAL TABLE OF TRAINS.
From 240 to 400 vibrations per minute.

The measures are in lOOths of an in. and the weight in grs.
The arc of vibration is constant, one turn and a half.

!^?^n.*i,l%g
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

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.F<?2- 16—47372-1 QPO

34 School Street, Bostox.

The American Watch Company, of Waltham, proposes to issue for

gratuitous distribution to its customers and the watcli trade, a series of

incidentally, by the better cu-culation here of the best foreign treatises on

is well known, has disregarded entirely foreign precedent in its method of

benefit of all laborers m the art. It is to give this knowledge a freer

and, by provoking inquiry and criticism, to make some advance in the

communications the Company may wish to make to its customers or the

public, and will be open to correspondence and advertisements from any

source related to the trade.

Waltham, Mass., December. 1862.

On the Laws of Isochronism of the Balance Spring, as connected

There is no subject connected with the science of horology,

relating to the laM's of the isochronism of the balance-spring, in

almost universally experienced, in procuring competent assistants

period are still invariably followed. It is true, that the separate

To regularly educated chronometer-makers, the Author does not

criminating between good and indifferent watches.

who will find it incapable of being regulated to preserve the same

friction is least in the horizontal position, and the arcs of vibra-

that many watches, which are fair specimens of workmanship, are

for their makers, either credit or satisfaction.

not be too highly admired ; for the improvements which, through

mission of the impulse through the medium of the train. Great,

forward this balance, with its spring, was destined to perform

Previously to this, the watch was a machine too subject to

therefore, remarkable, that the spiral spring should have been

It may be reasonably inferred, from a variety of circumstances,

importance in the progress of ckronometric improvement, that they

tested by the rival artists Le Roy and F. Berthoud, by the latter

Ellicott, Cumining, Mudge, Arnold, Earnshaw, etc., etc. If a

impossible to say to what degree of perfection the art might now

" I must not omit a circumstance which may be prejudicial to

balance watches ; it is, that experimental philosophers pretend to

follow changes of temperature. If that be the case, the spring can

That which Bernoulli only conjectured in 1747, was, in 1773,

established as a matter of certainty, and the amounts in loss of

One of his marine watches in passing from 0° to 27" Reaumur

393 or 6m. 33b.

Few of the watch-makers of the present day can form an ade-

be applied to a balance making quick, or slow vibrations ; for

which reason, in the present inquu-y, every cu'cumstance is pur-

most part on the times of vibrations in their entirety ; but a

The elastic force of balance springs belongs to that class of

uniformly increasing during the bending of the spring, and

for which purpose it must be followed, step by step, through the

posed to be moved by the finger from the position where it will

ate to the angle over which it is inflected, which force is then

force of the spring will be exerted in overcoming the absolute

cence, where it ceases further to urge the balance.

of the place of quiescence, as that to which it was originally

moved by the finger.

traversed by an index, affixed to the rim of the balance, during

An inspection of the figure, and a comparison of the spaces

1st. If the time of each semi-vibration be conceived to be com-

proportion to the angle of inflection, by which it is wound into