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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

Seventy ways to make ceramics

J.R.G. Evans ∗
Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AJ, UK

Abstract
This is an attempt to classify ceramic manufacturing processes in such a way that the connections to related operations in other industries and
to the ancient crafts of antiquity become apparent. The aim is to make it easier for students of ceramic processing to move seamlessly across a
terrain that is conceptually integrated and therefore to find solutions to manufacturing problems through creativity informed by a pan-materials
taxonomy of processes. This approach veers towards the ‘systematic’ method of creativity as exemplified by TRIZ but it is important to recognise
that in some organisations the ‘chaos’ approach is also gaining recognition and what at first appears to be an oxymoron; ‘management for chaos’
is gaining acceptance. The relevance of an integrated approach to processing of materials is discussed in relation to the efficacy of the National
System of Innovation (NSI).
© 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: A. Processing; Manufacturing

1. Introduction in ceramics processing the connections could be made much

clearer.
On an occasion that honours a person who has demonstrated As will be demonstrated and as is appropriate for this auspi-
the capacity to provide leadership, guidance and encouragement cious occasion, there are at least seventy ways to make ceramics.
to the whole ceramics community, it seems both appropriate If we are paying attention to ceramic science and technology as
and admissible to take an historical and broad perspective of it is delivered to students, we should perhaps be slightly dissat-
what is often called ceramics ‘processing’. A ‘process’ is “a isfied with the structure of ceramic ‘processing’ as a subject and
systematic series of actions or operations directed to some end”. we should take little comfort from the fact that the same accu-
The ‘end’ in a ceramics context, is usually an object which has sation can be levelled at the other materials sciences. Should
shape and form or a part of an object such as a coating. So science and engineering students have to learn manufacturing
we are really talking about making shapes. Ceramics cannot be processes in much the same way that student linguists learn a
melted, forged or machined quickly so ceramics processing is new language? Should they be expected to memorise a long
a bit more of a nuisance than it is for other materials! Much of list of obscure words and acronyms for processes that are appar-
this discussion is concerned with the taxonomy of ceramics pro- ently disconnected both from each other and from others used in
cessing and hence with how we teach it to the next generation diverse industries? It is probably fair to say that the descriptions
of scientists and engineers but closely allied to classification is of processes are often deliberately veiled in ambiguity to help
the question of creativity and inventiveness and how they are defend proprietorship but this does not account for the problems
fostered. Then arises the question of how well does the NSI of taxonomy. There is a suggestion that even textbooks in manu-
foster innovation by transmitting needs to scientists and engi- facturing present somewhat confusing taxonomies of processes.
neers and how well does it guide the outputs of scientists and Some textbooks on manufacturing processes have identifiable
engineers into commercial practice when it comes to ceramic allegiance to restricted classes of materials. It is arguable that
processing. These three issues; classification, inventiveness and such allegiance has no place in a modern Materials Science,
practice are closely linked in any area of scientific activity but the unity of which allows for a common currency in materi-
als processing. Are we reluctant to do joined-up science and
engineering when it comes to delivery on processing? Science
∗ Tel.: +44 20 7679 4689; fax: +44 20 7679 7463. is about making connections. Inventiveness is about making
E-mail address: [email protected]. connections.

0955-2219/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2007.12.015

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2. Taxonomy in ceramic processing which some texts on manufacturing forget to mention. They do it
rather cleverly by redefining the states of matter to give a chapter
Students of materials often learn manufacturing pathways in headed “Forming from the liquid and particle state”. The justi-
the form of lists of disconnected processes. There is no recogni- fication is obvious; powder suitable for compaction flows like a
tion that the processes might have some relationship to each other liquid (having a low angle of repose) into a die (cf. mould), has a
and to processes in other industries by a network of intersecting free volume comparable to that of a liquid and loses free volume
pathways. There is no idea that they may be connected rather like appropriately when it “solidifies” by compaction. Perhaps it is
a family tree to antiquity or indeed that they might share ‘genetic a meta-liquid? The student needs to remember that the analogy
defects’. Students learn these processes in the same way a child does not stretch very far; liquid flows more slowly in a pipe as
learns to spell and it must seem that they were plucked out of thin the pipe gets longer, powder flows more quickly.7
air unencumbered by antecedent and unconnected by principles. In the classification that follows, the four basic divisions are
To the student, processing is all about memory work; names to kept and treated as universal for all materials, as indeed they are
be learned for an exam, names soon to be forgotten. at a conceptual level. Compaction processes are placed in with
The real situation is not like that. Actually, ceramic pro- casting using the meta-material, free volume argument but fore-
cessing has learnt from and borrowed procedures from other warning students not to go treating powders as fluids in general.
industries. I use the term borrowed deliberately because ceram- The freeforming processes are separate but it is pointed out that
icists have often given those processes back with a far higher they can individually be loaded into the four classes (albeit with
level of understanding than attended them upon receipt. They some conceptual acrobatics).
have paid their interest on these loans in the form of enhanced
knowledge.
When it comes to textbooks on manufacturing processes, the 3. Inventiveness: serendipity or systematic thought?
choice of chapter headings reveals just how problematic is the
taxonomy even though these are mostly books that disclose no Shaping ceramics continues to provide challenges to the sci-
allegiance to a specific materials class in the title. One of the entific community especially as computer controlled methods
pitfalls of education is that if the same subject is taught under open up the capability for macro and microstructure design and
different course unit headings, the students tend to see it as two for computer control of 3D functional gradients. There is a pop-
separate subjects. The main aim of undergraduate students at ular idea that inventions are plucked out of thin air, unconnected
lectures is to get their notes into the right folders. So a course to previous ideas, uninformed by organised thought and equally
on materials processing delivered by a metallurgist can be seen accessible to all. The open access of the patent protection proce-
as quite a different subject to a course on materials process- dure, at least in principle, is a motivating force in our economic
ing delivered by a ceramicist. Undergraduates tend to perceive system and there is plenty of evidence to support the serendipity
knowledge as intrinsically fragmented because that is the way of invention. To argue from such examples towards a general
the assessment system is structured; students are tactically alert! rule of the dependence of invention on serendipity would, of
One of the most direct and standard classification of materi- course, be to use the fallacy of converse accident. Indeed, just
als processing is found in Ghosh and Mallik.1 After a chapter as there are some who claim that Shakespeare’s plays can be
on ‘Properties of Materials’ we get the straight unambiguous reduced to seven themes, so too there is an idea that inventions
four-way division into ‘Casting Processes, Forming Processes, have their own taxonomy. Booker8 puts forward the idea that
Machining Processes and Joining Processes’. There follows an most stories ever written can be reduced to seven plots (Over-
added chapter on ‘Unconventional Machining Processes’ which coming the Monster, Rags to Riches, The Quest, Voyage and
could have formed part of ‘Machining’ if the focus had not Return, Rebirth, Comedy, Tragedy). The arguments are compli-
been so heavily metallurgical. DeGarmo et al.2 follow the same cated and the book is substantial as Booker searches for order
approach except that casting and forming are thrown together in apparent chaos. What is relevant for us working in ceram-
in the same chapter. They differ at a fundamental level because ics processing is that others have done the same for the patent
casting involves a state change and deformation processing does literature.
not. One text gives the four classifications in relation to metals The soviet engineer Genrich Altshuller believed that a
and then adds, to a chapter list of different processes, the head- ‘method for inventing’ must exist and during his work in the
ing “Plastics” as though this is a new process.3 Kalpakjian4 does 1940s for the Russian Navy, began to develop a method that
much the same thing, separating both ‘Processing of Polymers has become known as TRIZ (the acronym for Teoriya Resh-
and Reinforced Plastics’ and ‘Processing of Powder Metals and eniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch) or ‘Theory of Inventive Problem
Ceramics’ as though these involve fundamentally different pro- Solving’.9,10 His finding was that invention is the removal of
cesses to those used for metals. Lindberg5 puts “Plastics and technical contradictions with the help of principles that can be
Adhesives” and “Powder Metallurgy” into separate headings. identified; he logged 40 such principles. TRIZ is one of several
This means that adhesive joining is seen as distinct from other systems for invention and is probably the most well-known. Vin-
joining processes which have already been described in a sep- cent et al.11 show how TRIZ can be used to adopt in technology,
arate chapter and that powder processing must sit on its own. methods used in nature, so-called biomimetics but they point out
Alexander et al.6 are keen to keep to the four standard divi- that the database contains limited biological knowledge. Vincent
sions but have a problem in how to include powder processing, et al.12 go on to show how the TRIZ system can be extended.

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The important idea for our work in ceramics processing is find a quick answer, even if it be a wrong answer. This is an idea
that Altshuller recognised that the principles he found when that also pervades John Holt’s ‘How children fail’.18 The second
analysing patents from one industry were applicable to problems is “internal locus of evaluation”; the creative person is deemed
in another. He presents an idea of the universality of techni- to be relatively unaffected by praise or criticism. It is sometimes
cal problem solving which shows a striking similarity to the said that their ‘centre of judgement’ lies within the ‘bound-
ethos expressed in Richard Feynman’s well-known ‘tapestry’ aries of self’. In some assessments this appears as ‘disregard
metaphor: “Nature uses only the longest threads to weave her for authority’ which can be misleading; the authority exerted
patterns, so that each small piece of her fabric reveals the orga- by peers can be forceful yet imperceptible. An example might
nization of the entire tapestry”.13 The issue for those of us in be the way in which research funding ‘priorities’ sometimes
education is whether these tenets can be used to guide the career lurch from one theme to another under the ‘authority’ of collec-
development and peer structures of our systems of scientific tive thought and by analogy with fashion. The third is “ability
and engineering education and professional advancement, part to play with elements or concepts”; On this, Rogers17 waxes
of the aim of which is to contribute indirectly to the NSI. It lyrically and is worth quoting in full. “. . . the ability to play spon-
can sometimes seem that our systems favour intellectual isola- taneously with ideas, colours, shapes, relationships, to juggle
tionism. Since we embrace the principle of excellence through elements into impossible juxtapositions, to shape wild hypothe-
specialisation and we have a well-trenched system of disciplines ses, to make the given problematic, the express the ridiculous, to
supported both by the universities and professional institutions, translate from one form to another, to transform into improbable
structures not noted for their fluidity, it is quite possible for prac- equivalents.”.17 The literature on creativity is so vast and often so
titioners in one subject area to become progressively separated bizarre that conventional science and engineering departments
from those in another adopting the caricature of a tribal identity. are reluctant to introduce it at undergraduate level but it is rapidly
The need to ameliorate these schisms is now recognised and the accessing the research schools.
interdisciplinary efforts of the professional institutions and the
initiatives of research funding councils go some way to broad- 4. Intellectual integration and the NSIs
ening our outlooks. It is fair to say that the ceramics processing
community has, over the last two decades, embraced the organic Part of the reason for the state of materials processing is his-
and physical chemistry of surfactants, dispersants and polymers torical and is to do with the essential difference between the aims
in its quest to control particle behaviour; some ceramicists have and objectives of university scientists and manufacturers when
become colloid and polymer scientists and the community has they engage to do ceramics processing research. The scientist is
benefited. primarily interested in causation and is asking questions of the
TRIZ and similar ‘systematic’ approaches to creativity appeal external world; “Why does it happen?”, “Why is it cracked?”
to the science and engineering community partly because of their Why is it full of holes?”. The manufacturer is primarily inter-
organised nature but there is another putative route to inven- ested in goals and purposes and is making statements like; “We
tiveness and originality that is gaining popularity; the ‘chaos’ need to make this happen and we need to stop this happening”,
approach. The transfer of ideas or principles between subjects “We want this to happen faster”. There is a tragic sense in which
and between industries is considered to be due to serendipity the scientist is listening to an external world but can hardly hear
and to depend on a host of unpredictable prompts and interac- it while the manufacturer is instructing an external world which
tions. This does not mean that we are helpless to accelerate the is recalcitrant in inattentiveness. It is no wonder that when these
process. Advocates of ‘chaos in organisations’,14–16 promote two meet there are often difficulties in devising a joint research
the guiding principle of “management for chaos” in contrast to strategy that will fulfil the business and professional goals of
the obsolete “management of chaos”. Changing work patterns, each. On the one hand, these are matters of personal interac-
a flux of new interactions between people, the appearance of tion to be resolved by individuals but viewed collectively, they
meeting rooms and tea rooms, the emergence of UK research define the effectiveness of the National System of Innovation
council’s ‘sandpits’ are signs that the organisation recognises (NSI).
that new ideas nucleate on the edge of chaos. Encouraging and The efficiency of National Systems of Innovation (NSI) is
exploiting chaos is seen by some as a positive challenge to the a controversial issue because in western cultures, NSIs can
established organisational structures. Surprisingly, the universi- only be debated against a background context of state control
ties have been quite slow to adapt, often being hamstrung by rigid vs. the free-market, some arguing that government agencies
budgetary structures and, in the UK, by national competitive should not interfere with the way businesses develop their
research assessment “exercises”. technologies. This dualism makes it difficult to achieve the
Fascination with the source of creativity has spawned a large co-operation needed for effective functioning of an NSI. In
and diverse literature among which one of the more cautious some of the advanced free-market economies that are less ide-
analyses has identified three important characteristics.17 The ologically driven, NSIs are highly integrated and productive.
first is “openness to experience” or “extensionality” in which The NSI in the UK comprises an association of Manufactur-
a person accepts stimuli without distortion caused by emo- ers, Investors, the Department of Innovation, Universities and
tional defensiveness. This category includes the well-known Skills, the Universities, the Research Councils, Charitable Trusts
‘toleration of ambiguity’ concept, namely the ability to accept such as the Leverhulme, the Professional Institutions and the
contradiction without the discomfort that stimulates a need to Research Associations each of which has its own remits and

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Table 1
Casting/solidification processes for ceramicsa

a These tables are not exhaustive of the processes in each class.

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targets. Various knowledge transfer (KT) initiatives attempt to 5. Classification of the 70 ways
bring these diverse organisations together.
It is well known that NSIs in western developed nations have Tables 1–5 are not intended to be exhaustive of the multiplic-
limited efficacy in stimulating manufacturing growth and the ity of processes that have and are being used to shape ceramics
Peters study19 highlights this by using as a case study, the route but they do aim to portray a classification that can be used to iden-
to market of TFT-LCD displays, a journey that took nearly 40 tify similarities. Furthermore, the classification can be arranged
years. It is an interesting case study because the development to lead to new methods of forming.
of both thin film transistors and fast liquid crystals were nec-
essary but neither was sufficient. The aetiology of failure for 5.1. Casting/solidification processing
several western companies that participated in the early work
is the so-called ‘Hayes and Abernathy syndrome’20 ; short term What most textbook authors on processing omit is that all the
cost reduction in existing product lines rather than long term processes listed under casting in Table 1 follow the same prin-
development of technological competitiveness, an emphasis on ciple but that the method of state change can vary. It does not
early return on investment and a distancing of senior manage- much matter that the state change mechanism differs because
ment from the technological base giving rise to ‘management by in each case we have usually one surface (the mould) which
numbers’. It is likely that in assessing the history of high tech- can even be a flat sheet, which will define the final shape;
nology, those names, Hayes and Abernathy, will pop up again and that is casting. This is why replication foaming appears in
and again in an attempt to account for missed opportunities. this section; topologically, there is one surface upon which the
Japanese and Korean NSIs were more integrated and it is from slurry is cast as in tape casting. In the classification, the state
those nations that displays emerged into the market place. There change is a second order identifier but it should be remembered
is a sense in which the Peters study holds up a mirror to show that in each state change method, free volume at some level of
the extent of fragmentation of some NSIs. structural hierarchy generally (but not always) decreases. Free

Table 2
Deformation processes

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change advances from the defining (mould) surface and there is

a free volume change, residual stresses develop.
In slip casting, state change is achieved by phase separation
by capillarity and particle interstitial free volume decreases by
∼35%. In tape casting, state change is by evaporative phase
separation and the free volume change is about 25% as solvent
is lost. In compaction, state change is due to the collapse of
free volume induced by pressure and represents the difference
between tap density and compact density, being typically around
20%. In slip casting, tape casting and compaction, the free vol-
ume collapse is often non-uniform throughout the body so that
deformation occurs on sintering. In slip casting, the casting rate
is parabolic with time so the first layers cast quickly with lower
packing efficiency. In compaction, the non-uniform packing is
due to pressure drop throughout the section and the density gra-
dient is the reverse of slip casting, being higher near the plunger
wall.
Fig. 1. Changes in specific volume on solidification of a ceramic injection
moulding mixture. The specific volume change for the organic vehicle is
In the coagulation casting processes, state change is by floc-
5.8 vol.%. This is lowered by adding atactic to isotactic polypropylene. (1) No culation, often induced by change to pH. Electrophoresis, like
ceramic powder, (3) 40 vol.% powder and (5) 51 vol.% powder. slip casting, involves phase separation but unlike slip casting, the
liquid is stationary while the particles move. CVD and PVD are
treated as casting processes because they involve a gas–solid
volume as defined by Haward,21 decreases by about 5% in the state change by analogy with a liquid–solid state change and
crystallisation of metals and by slightly more in semicrystalline can produce macroscopic objects of several millimetres in thick-
polymers. Fig. 1 shows the specific volume changes on melting a ness. Sputtering on the other hand is treated as a joining process
ceramic injection moulding blend, state change is controlled by because it rarely produces a macroscopic object; the thin film
the reduced crystalline fraction in the polypropylene. Thus injec- generally being dependent on the substrate to which it adheres.
tion moulded semicrystalline polymers and most metals undergo Self-propagating reaction synthesis is included even though it
a phase change on solidification but amorphous polymers such has limited shape-forming capability; methods of controlling
as atactic polystyrene, oxide glasses and glassy metals change shape particularly with foamed SPRS have been demonstrated.
state by an increase in viscosity at or near to a glass transition. In On the other hand, reaction bonding is not included because it
reaction injection moulding, free volume generally decreases by requires one of the extant shaping methods. Sol–gel appears in
chemical reaction and the change is slightly lower. Fig. 2 shows the guise of individual shaping methods because it is really a
a modern injection moulding machine; its principle of operation state change mechanism not a shaping process per se.
is the same as that of a metal die casting machine. The free vol- All solidification processes have an associated state change
ume change often produces shrinkage defects and they appear and, conversely, it should be possible to derive several casting
in large metal sand castings, die castings and injection mould- processes for every mechanism of solidification state change.
ings. If this was a taxonomy of living things, we would call these Viewed in this way there is no need to treat the principles of
genetic defects! Another ‘genetic defect’ is that wherever state solidification processes as being different for different materials.
Furthermore, there is little technical justification to do so; if our
classification has an empty box in the list of state changes, it
may be that a new process is waiting to be found!

5.2. Deformation processing

Methods of changing the shape of an object by plastic

deformation appear in ceramics processing in several disguises
(Table 2). Superplastic forming allows some fine-grained ceram-
ics to be forged at temperatures above 0.5 Tm but where this is
not possible, the deformation can be applied to a ceramic suspen-
sion where it is the continuous phase that deforms if permitted
by the displacement of particles. The boundary between defor-
mation processes and casting processes becomes blurred in the
case of shaping of glasses or amorphous polymers where the
Fig. 2. A modern injection moulding machine with wear resistant barrel insert distinction between solid and liquid is some arbitrary viscosity
for ceramic injection moulding; the principle is similar to that used in metal die value. Deformation can also be used to shape pre-ceramic poly-
casting; injection moulding is a casting process. mers, often by elongational deformation as in fibre spinning;

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Table 3
Machining/material 97–108 removal

Table 4
Joining

the polymer is subsequently converted to a ceramic. Many of is a good example to which practically all ceramic–ceramic
the foaming processes for ceramics involve elongational flow of and ceramic–metal joining methods have been applied during
a powder suspension and are thus distinguished from replication development.
foaming which is casting upon a free surface.
5.5. Solid freeforming
5.3. Machining/material removal
Solid freeforming (Table 5) can be defined as the creation of a
shape by point, line or planar addition of material without confin-
The common feature in this class of processes (Table 3) is
removal of material from a blank to leave any one of an infinite Table 5
number of shapes. These are subtractive processes and anything Solid freeforming
that cuts, abrades, ablates or corrodes provides a potential new
process.

5.4. Joining

Joining (Table 4) is given a separate category even though

most joining processes could be inserted into ‘casting’ or ‘defor-
mation’. Thus the use of metallic brazing fillers or oxide ‘solder’
glasses can be identified with casting between two surfaces
and diffusion bonding involves microscopic plastic deformation,
often by diffusional creep, to achieve intimate surface contact by
conforming to the asperities of the surfaces. At a macroscopic
level joining is treated as a manufacturing process because the
final product depends upon the successful assembly of sepa-
rately manufactured parts. The case of solid oxide fuel cells

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Fig. 3. A model of the maze at Hampton Court Palace made with a Xaar inkjet
printer using zirconia and fired at 1400 ◦ C. The distance marker is 1 mm. The
likely applications are for high temperature gas phase microreactors.

ing surfaces other than a base.151 Fig. 3 shows a sintered zirconia

part that was made by ink-jet printing using a state change
brought about by evaporation of solvent while Fig. 4 shows an
extrusion freeformed ceramic lattice. It would of course, be pos-
sible to force each SFF process into one of the four categories
because some involve state changes (stereolithography) some
deformation (extrusion freeforming) and some joining (lami-
nated object manufacture) but an important concept would be
lost. A good example of solid freeforming is the growth of bio-
logical systems; indeed SFF processes can be identified with Fig. 5. An array of blades made from zirconia by ink-jet printing. Such struc-
tures can be used in miniature motionless mixtures in microfluidics for highly
biomimetics. Into which of the other four categories should the corrosive liquids.
fabrication of living things be placed? There is no requirement
in this definition of SFF that the shape must be downloaded
puter numerical control but it is still machining and the physical
from a digital computer. The definition deals with the nature of
mechanism of material removal is unchanged by the process
the physical processes of construction, not its morphogenetic
control method. Living organisms are ‘downloaded’ in part from
encodement. This is also true of other definitions of processes;
‘digital’ DNA although it is accepted that a multiplicity of exter-
machining, for example, can be manually controlled or by com-
nal factors make a significant contribution to morphogenesis.152
Furthermore, there are examples of solid freeforming that are
admitted by this definition that have no digital control whatever.
Compare, for example, the array of pillars in Fig. 5, which are
made by ink-jet printing droplets of zirconia suspension and then
sintering with Fig. 6 which shows columns from the Postojna
caves in Slovenia made by deposition of droplets of mineral-rich
rainwater. Their shape has been determined by minute surface
irregularities that are progressively accentuated by surface wet-
ting followed by mineralization. The rate of build can be as
low as 0.1 mm per year153 (it is often argued that SFF meth-
ods are slow). This constitutes solid freeforming in nature just
as the plastic deformation of the geological strata under high
hydrostatic stress represents deformation processing of ceram-
ics in nature, the weathering of rocks represents one of nature’s
ceramic machining operations and the filling of fissures by sil-
ica is analogous to joining of ceramics in nature. The ultimate
in solid freeforming is atom-by-atom construction, now made
Fig. 4. This superb regularity is now obtainable with extrusion freeforming. This
ceramic structure is made of two-phase calcium phosphate with 80 ␮m filaments possible by manipulation in the AFM.
and 70 ␮m gaps and is formed as part of a study of hard tissue scaffolds but similar Much of this discussion has emerged from the problems
structures are being used as microwave band gap metamaterials. that academicians inevitably become aware of when presenting

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powder. Solvent casting was largely replaced for polymers in

1949 by tubular film blowing. A similar process has been used
for casting lead–tin alloys under a doctor blade as a traditional
way to make sheet for organ pipes. Early examples of solid
freeforming include masonry, which can be traced to the 4th
millennium BC155 and the formation of coiled pots which is first
recorded in the 5th millennium BC156 which is an antecedent to
extrusion freeforming.

6. Concluding remarks

Although each ceramic processing method has detailed and

specific steps that distinguish it from others which often serve to
confer proprietorship and although the names given to ceramic
processes are sometimes obscure, a review of seventy processes
reveals that each one falls into one of five classes. Further-
more, these classes include historical antecedents that connect
the inventiveness of modern day scientists with the ingenuity of
their predecessors. Some of the geological processes also fall
into these five classes. This taxonomy has two advantages. It
allows students of science and engineering to apprehend materi-
als processes in generic terms rather than by memorising lists of
apparently disconnected processes. It also assists in the invention
and development of new processes by allowing a pan-materials
Fig. 6. Solid freeforming in nature; columns in the Postojna caves (Slovenia); and pan-industry view of materials processing.
compare these structures with that in Fig. 5.

Acknowledgements
ceramic processing to students and the attempt here has been
to ameliorate them by dealing in concepts of processing before The author is grateful for the support of EPSRC under Plat-
introducing individual precisely defined processes. This method form Grant No. EP/E046193 and Leverhulme Trust Grant No.
of delivery still retains lacunae because the processes of interest F/07 476/V.
tend to be ‘high technology’ or ‘state of the art’ and these are
the ones that command the most interest for students. Their his-
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Please cite this article in press as: Evans, J.R.G., Seventy ways to make ceramics, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2007.12.015