Journal of Human Kinetics volume 35/2012, 141-146 DOI:10.

2478/v10078-012-0088-3 141
Section III – Sports Training

The Relationship Between Body Composition, Anaerobic

Performance and Sprint Ability of Amputee Soccer Players

by
Ali Özkan 1; Gürhan Kayıhan 2, Yusuf Köklü3, Nevin Ergun 4, Mitat Koz 5,
Gülfem Ersöz 5, Alexandre Dellal6,7

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between body composition, anaerobic
performance and sprint performance of amputee soccer players. Fifteen amputee soccer players participated in this study
voluntarily. Subjects’ height, body weight, body mass index, body fat percentage (Jackson and Pollock formula) and
somatotype characteristics (Heath-Carter system) were determined. The sprint performance at 10m, 20m and 30m was
evaluated, whereas the counter movement jump (CMJ), relative CMJ (RCMJ), squat jump (SJ) and relative SJ (RSJ)
tests were used for the determination of anaerobic performance. The results of the Pearson Product Moment correlation
analysis indicated that body composition was significantly correlated with CMJ and SJ (p < 0.01), on the other hand, no
measure of body composition was significantly related to the other component (p > 0.05). A significant correlation was
found between CMJ, RCMJ, SJ, 10 m, 20 m and 30 m sprint performance (p < 0.05); whereas, in contrast, no measure
of body composition was significantly related to the 10 m, 20 m and 30 m sprint performance (p > 0.05). In conclusion,
the findings of the present study indicated that sprint performance was described as an essential factor in anaerobic
performance whereas body composition and somatotype play a determinant role in anaerobic and sprint performance in
amputee soccer players.
Key word: body composition, anaerobic performance, sprint, amputee athletes

Introduction
In amputee soccer, short bursts of high demand in match-play varied for various
intensity power production play a major role in positions (Bloomfield et al., 2007; Gomes et al.,
performance. Amputee soccer activities are 2006). It can be suggested therefore, that anaerobic
comprised of varying explosive movements like performance and the ability to perform high-
forward and backward shuffles, runs at different intensity actions are crucial in this type of sport
intensities and sustained forceful contractions to (Iaia et al., 2009; Dellal et al., 2011). Anaerobic
control the ball against defensive pressure. performance is composed of anaerobic power and
Differences in age, stature, body mass and body capacity. Anaerobic power reflects the ability to
mass index have been recently identified between use the phosphagenic system and anaerobic
elite players of different playing positions capacity reflects the ability to derive energy from
suggesting that the physical and technical a combination of anaerobic glycolysis and the

1 - School of Physical Education and Sports, Bartın University, Bartın, Turkey.

2 - School of Physical Education and Sports, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey.
3 - School of Sports Science and Technology, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey.

4 - Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.

5 - School of Physical Education and Sports, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.

6 - Santy Orthopedicae clinical, Medical Centre Excellence FIFA, sport science and research department, Lyon, France.

7 - Scientific Research Unit, National Centre of Medicine and Science in Sports, Tunis, Tunisia.

.
Authors submitted their contribution of the article to the editorial board.
Accepted for printing in Journal of Human Kinetics vol. 35/2012 on December 2012.
142 The Relationship Between Body Composition, Anaerobic Performance and Sprint Ability

phosphagen system. Anaerobic performance between body composition, anaerobic

depends on many factors, such as body performance and sprint performance of amputee
composition, age, sex, muscle fiber composition, soccer players.
muscle cross sectional area, strength and training
(Kin-İşler et al., 2008).
Methods
Body composition (body size and Subjects
somatotype) is another factor that is generally Fifteen male amputee soccer players with
accepted to have a great influence on athletic unilateral below-knee amputation participated in
performance (Reilly et al., 2000; Gomes et al., this study voluntarily. The causes of amputation
2005). Specifically body fat and fat free mass have were gun shot in 13 subjects, traffic accident in
been accepted as crucial components of anaerobic one subject and congenital malformation in one
performance (Mayhew et al., 2001) and sprint subject. Their mean age, height, body mass and
performance (Dowson et al., 1998; Young et al., body fat were 25.5 ±5.8 yrs, 169.8 ± 5.5 cm, 66.5 ±
1995). For instance, Mayhew et al. (2001) reported 10.2 kg and 10.1 ± 3.6 %, respectively. The study
that body composition component was one of the group consisted of active football players of the
major factors explaining anaerobic power and amputee football team and all the players were
sprint performance (Jacobs et al., 1987). the members of the same team competing in
Sprint performance is another Amputee Super League and trained for two hours
fundamental activity for many sports and consists five days per week. Subjects’ mean training
of a number of components such as the start, experience was 3.3 ± 2.9 yrs. Subjects were
acceleration and maximum speed phases. informed about the possible risks and benefits of
Sprinting also requires high force production the study and gave informed consent to
(Mero et al., 1992). Previous research has participate in this study.
identified force production capabilities of legs to Procedures
be a key component in sprinting (Kin-İşler et al., Anthropometric Measurements
2008). However, these studies used only single- The body height of the soccer players was
trial sprint protocols, neglecting to address the measured by a stadiometer with an accuracy of ±
repeated-effort sprint requirements specific to the 1 cm (SECA, Germany), and an electronic scale
nature of many field and court sports. The (SECA, Germany) with an accuracy of ± 0.1 kg
relationship between the force-generating was used to measure body mass. Skinfold
capacity of muscles and repeated-sprint ability thickness was measured with a Holtain skinfold
has received little attention (Kin-İşler et al., 2008). caliper (Hotain, UK) which applied a pressure of
Amputee soccer is gaining popularity 10 g/mm2 with an accuracy of ± 2 mm. Gulick
throughout the world and it represents a game anthropometric tape (Holtain, UK) with an
that places demand on anaerobic performance, accuracy of ± 1 mm was used to measure the
muscular strength, sprint performance, balance circumference of extremities. Diametric
and locomotor capacity. In amputee soccer, measurements were determined by Harpenden
matches are played between teams of seven calipers (Holtain, UK) with an accuracy of ± 1
players using bilateral crutches. Wearing a mm. The soccer players’ somatotypes were then
prosthetic device is not allowed during match calculated using the Heath-Carter formula (1990)
play (Yazıcıoglu et al., 2007a). The match is played and the percentage of body fat was determined by
in two equal periods of 25 minutes each. Play may the Jackson and Pollock formula (1978).
be suspended for "time-outs" of one per team per Anaerobic performance evaluation (Vertical jump tests)
half which must not exceed one minute. The half All jumps were performed using a force
time interval must not exceed 10 minutes plate (Sport Expert TM, MPS-501 multi purpose
(Yazıcıoglu et al., 2007b). These rules emphasize measurement system, Tumer Electronic LDT,
the importance of body composition, anaerobic Turkey). After a familiarization session (learning
performance and speed of action, three different the proper techniques of the two jump
variables that have not been hitherto studied conditions), each subject performed 3 maximal
within this frame. Therefore, the purpose of the CMJs and SJs, with approximately 2 minutes
present study was to investigate the relationship recovery in between. The subjects did not use

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by Köklü Y. et al. 143

bilateral crutches (wearing a prosthetic device time performance at each distance was used for
was not allowed during jumping). Players were further evaluations.
asked to jump as high as possible; the best score Statistical Analyses
was recorded in centimeters. The SJ was The data are reported as means and
performed from a starting position with the standard deviations. Before using parametric
subjects’ knees flexed to 90◦, hands fixed on the tests, the assumption of normality was verified
hips and with no allowance for preparatory using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Then, the
counter movement. The CMJ was performed from relationships between body composition,
an upright standing position, with the hands fixed anaerobic performance and sprint performance
on the hips and with a counter movement were evaluated by the Pearson Product Moment
preparatory phase which ended at a position Correlation analysis. All analyses were executed
corresponding to the starting position in the SJ. in SPSS for Windows version 10.0 and the
For the SJ and CMJ, two parameters were statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
estimated: maximum jumping height and total
work produced by the body in each jumping
Results
condition calculated according to the Genuario Body composition, anaerobic performance
and Dolgener formula (1980). and sprint performance of amputee soccer players
Sprint performance evaluation are displayed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
The sprint performance of the amputee Correlations between body composition,
soccer players was evaluated using three tests: a anaerobic and sprint performance are presented
10, 20 and 30 m single-sprint test. Sprint times in Table 3. As seen in Table 3, body composition
were measured with light gates combined to the was significantly correlated with CMJ and SJ, on
timing system (Prosport, Tumer Electronics, the other hand, no measure of body composition
Ankara, Turkey). For the 4 single sprint tests, the was significantly related to the other component
timing light gates were placed at the start and at (p > 0.05).
the finish (10, 20 and 30 m mark). These tests were According to the Pearson Product
performed in an indoor court to eliminate Moment correlation analysis, significant
environmental conditions. The subjects performed correlation was found between CMJ, RCMJ, SJ, 10,
two maximal trial sprints using bilateral crutches 20 and 30 m sprint performance; whereas, in
(wearing a prosthetic device was not allowed contrast, no measure of body composition was
during the sprint) over the 10, 20 and 30 m significantly related to the 10, 20 and 30 m sprint
distances with one minute rest intervals. The best performance (p > 0.05).

Table 1
Body composition and somatotype characteristics of amputee soccer players (mean ± sd)
Amputee Body Body
soccer Height Mass Body Fat (%) Endomorfism Mesomorfism Ectomorfism
players (cm) (kg)
(n=15)
169.8±5.5 66.5±10.2 10.1±3.6 3.11±0.98 4.74±1.26 2.45±1.93

Table 2
Anaerobic performance and sprint performance values of amputee soccer players (mean ± sd)
Sprint
Counter Movement Jump Squat Jump
Performance
Amputee Jump Jump
Absolute Relative Absolute Relative
soccer Height Height 10m 20m 30m
(CMJ) (RCMJ) (SJ) (RSJ)
players (CJH) (SJH) (s) (s) (s)
(Watt) (W·kg-1) (Watt) (W·kg-1)
(n=15) (cm) (cm)
837.6 12.5 33.0 809.2 12.2 31.2 2.06 3.7 5.4
±198.9 ±1.8 ±9.7 ±177.9 ±1.9 ±10.1 ±0.2 ±0.4 ±0.7

© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics

144 The Relationship Between Body Composition, Anaerobic Performance and Sprint Ability

Table 3
Correlations between body composition, anaerobic and sprint performance of amputee soccer players
CMJ RCMJ SJ 10 20 30
(Watt) (W·kg-1) (Watt) (m) (m) (m)
Fat % 0.756** NS 0.674** NS NS NS
Endomorfism 0.696** NS 0.659** NS NS NS
Mesomorfism NS NS NS NS NS NS
Ectomorfism -0.661** NS NS 0.613* NS 0.649**
10m -0.683** -0.552* -0.556** NS NS NS
20m -0.585** -0.593* -0.581* NS NS NS
30m -0.661** -0.604* NS NS NS NS
*p<0.05; **p<0.01; NS: No Significant

Discussion of female sprinters and middle distance runners.

This implies that strength plays a major role in
The main findings of the present study high intensity activities (especially sprinting and
suggest that there is a moderate correlation jumping).
between fat %, CMJ, SJ and sprint performance. It When performing different types of
is already known that muscular strength is one of jumps, the central nervous system uses different
the important factors that has a major role in motor programs to execute the neuromuscular
anaerobic and sprint performance. This is because coordination necessary for the specific jumps. The
with increased muscular strength the ability of SJ can be used as the most basic functional
muscles to generate power in short-term high expression of explosive muscle strength as it
intensity activities (10, 20, 30 m sprint) also requires only concentric activation. The CMJ
increases. This result is consistent with the results requires moderate eccentric activation followed
of previous studies. A number of studies by high concentric activation, and therefore
examined the relationship between walking- requires a more complex timing and graded
sprint ability and muscular strength recruitment of motor units. Thus, the SJ can serve
(Klingenstierna et al., 1990; Moirenfeld et al., as a baseline for the potential of explosive muscle
2000). From the study of Nadollek et al. (2002), it strength and CMJ may indicate the development
became clear that strong hip muscles were of this potential (Benckeet al., 2002). Most of the
correlated with increased weight-bearing on the studies mentioned above demonstrated a
amputated limb and improved gait-sprint significant correlation between different sprint
parameters (cadance, gait cycle, velocity, step performance and both SJ and CMJ performance
length and stride length). Velzen et al. (2006) (Kin-İşler et al., 2008). We were able to
investigated the relationship between physical corroborate a relationship between sprint
capacity (aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, performance and vertical jump performance
muscle force, flexibility and balance) and walking (CMJ-SJ). It has been suggested that when the
ability in lower limb amputation and determined subjects’ body mass is incorporated, this leads to a
a strong positive correlation between walking more representative indicator of the subjects’
ability and muscular strength. In addition, a jumping abilities. This means that for the same
relationship between muscular strength and jumping height a heavier subject will need greater
vertical jump performance (CMJ and SJ) was sprint performance to overcome the higher
found by different authors (Çakır et al., 2009; external resistance during jumping. Another
Paasuke et al., 2001; Tsiokanos et al., 2002). finding of the present study was that the measure
Furthermore, Thorland et al. (1987) found a of the jump performance was significantly
significantly strong correlation between isokinetic negatively related to the single-sprint
knee strength and anaerobic power and capacity performance. Similarly, Jason and Mc Guıgan

Journal of Human Kinetics volume 35/2012 http://www.johk.pl

by Köklü Y. et al. 145

(2008) determined an association between the branch in Turkey and is played at the league level.
CMJ and single-sprint performance through the Hence, the subjects of the present study are
9.1 m, 18.2 m, pro-agility and Illinois tests, and it amateur players with training experience of 2.6 ±
is known that the CMJ and SJ are typically used as 1.7 yrs in amputee soccer. Having low training
indicators of lower body power. This jump experience may be one of the reasons for not
performance was inversely related to sprint times finding an association between body composition,
with the relationship becoming increasingly anaerobic performance and single-sprint
stronger with increasing sprint distances (Jason performance. One possible explanation for the
and Mc Guıgan, 2008). lack of association may be the different energy
Conversely, Cronin and Hansen (2005) systems that each measure demands. The findings
found that CMJ and SJ measures were of the present study indicated that body
significantly correlated to sprint performance and composition and somatotype play a significant
Hennessey and Kilty (2001) also demonstrated role in anaerobic and sprint performance. In
that CMJ and SJ were related to all three addition, sprint performance was found to be an
distances. important factor in anaerobic performance of
Amputee soccer is a developing sport amputee soccer players.

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Corresponding author
Yusuf KÖKLÜ PhD
Pamukkale University School of Sport Sciences and Technology, KINIKLI Kampusu, Denizli/ Turkey
Phone: +90 258 296 29 04
Fax: +90 258 296 29 41
E-mail: [email protected] ; [email protected]

Journal of Human Kinetics volume 35/2012 http://www.johk.pl