Luna, Tara. 2009. 9: Vegetative propagation. In: Dumroese, R.

Kasten; Luna, Tara; Landis,

Thomas D., editors. Nursery manual for native plants: A guide for tribal nurseries - Volume 1:
Nursery management. Agriculture Handbook 730. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. p. 153-175.
 Vegetative Propagation
Tara Luna 9

For the past 30 years, interest in the propagation of native plants has been
growing. Many desirable and ecologically important species, however, are dif-
ficult or very time consuming to propagate by seeds. Thus, nursery growers
may want to investigate how to propagate a species of interest by vegetative
propagation. This can be done by combining classic horticultural propagation
techniques with an understanding of the ecological and reproductive charac-
teristics of the species. By investigating how a species perpetuates under nat-
ural conditions, nursery growers may be able to vegetatively propagate the
species and produce nursery stock in situations when there are constraints on
using seed propagation.
Many native plants naturally propagate vegetatively (that is, without seeds
or spores) as a method of ensuring reproduction. Vegetative propagation is
commonly found with species that have short seed life, low seed viability, or
complex or delayed seed dormancy strategies. Species that inhabit ecosystems
with drastic weather patterns, short growing seasons, and endure fires and
other disturbances often reproduce vegetatively. All new daughter plants that
arise from vegetative propagation are genetically identical to the mother
(donor) plant, and these resulting individuals are known as “clones” (figure 9.1).
Nursery managers can make use of a plant’s ability to regenerate vegeta-
tively. The following situations favor vegetative propagation over seed propa-
gation:

Joanne Bigcrane of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes in Montana by Tara Luna.

153
 propagation. In addition, how plants are handled after
rooting also plays an important role.
Because vegetative propagation is more costly than
growing seedlings, the production system must be effi-
cient. A general rule of thumb is that at least 50 percent
rooting must be obtained to produce cuttings econom-
ically. If rare species or individual plants are being
propagated, however, costs may be less important.
Consider these methods to reduce production costs:

Develop a smooth production line, from the collec-

tion of material to the final product.
Train nursery staff how to properly collect, pro-cess,
plant, and grow material.
Build a dibble for making holes in the rooting medium.
Figure 9.1—Pacific yew is a species that is propagated by stem cuttings: (1) because it
has very complex seed dormancy;(2) to obtain a larger plant in a shorter period of time;and Control waste caused by poor propagation or grow-
(3) to perpetuate certain genotypes or individuals exhibiting high levels of taxol, a medici- ing practices.
nal product found within the bark. Photo by Thomas D.Landis.
Lift and harden cuttings properly to reduce mortality.
Develop a good system for overwintering cuttings.
Seed propagation is difficult, very time consuming, Keep good records to improve your results and to
or few viable seeds are produced. document production costs.
Larger nursery stock is needed in a shorter period of
time. The following discussion will provide a broad
An individual, unique plant needs to be propagated. overview of vegetative propagation. More specific
There is a need to shorten time to flower for seed details on vegetative propagation of particular plants
production. can be found in Landis and others (1999) and volume 2
A uniform stock type is needed. of this handbook.
Specific genotypes are desired.
Disease-free nursery stock is required. STRIKING CUTTINGS
A cutting is the portion of a plant that is collected,
Some disadvantages of using vegetative propaga- treated, and planted to develop into a new intact plant
tion include: complete with stems, leaves, and roots. Cuttings can be
collected from mother plants in the wild, or special
Greater production costs than seed propagation, donor plants can be cultured in the nursery. Selection
usually because of increased labor. of mother plants, whether in the nursery or the wild,
Reduced genetic diversity. must be done carefully; it is just as important as the
Specialized propagation structures may be required, origin of seeds to ensure that nursery stock is well
depending on the species or time of year. adapted to the outplanting environment. Collection of
cuttings should follow the same ethical guidelines as
In general, vegetative propagation can be done with collection of seeds to establish proper genetic diversity
pieces of stems, leaves, roots, bulbs, corms, tubers, and and sustainability of wild populations. See Chapter 7,
rhizomes. Many factors, however, contribute to suc- Collecting, Processing, and Storing Seeds, for guidelines. In
cessful vegetative propagation of native plants. The addition, the ability of cuttings to root is often clone
type of vegetative material used, the time of year that specific, so it is important to record the origin of cut-
material is collected, how it is handled and manipulat- tings and subsequent rooting success.
ed to induce rooting, and proper application of the cor- Striking is the process of placing the cutting into soil
rect environmental conditions all affect vegetative or a rooting substrate. Often, propagators will say that

154 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

cuttings have been “struck” to indicate that the cut-
tings have been placed in the rooting substrate.

SHOOT OR STEM CUTTINGS

Shoot cuttings, also referred to as stem cuttings, are
the most common type. These cuttings can be broadly
placed into three categories depending on the time of
year they are collected (figure 9.2). Hardwood cuttings
are collected when plants are dormant, from late au-
tumn through early spring. Softwood cuttings are col-
lected in late spring and early summer when stems
and leaves are actively growing. Semihardwood (green-
wood) cuttings are collected in late summer and early Figure 9.2— “Hardwood” cuttings are dormant wood collected in winter. In late spring
and early summer,new growth that occurs from the hardwood and bends but does not snap
autumn when stem tissues have hardened and termi- when bent is considered “softwood.” In late summer and early autumn, as softwood ma-
nal buds have formed. Within each category, several tures, subsequent cuttings from that wood are termed “semihardwood.” In late autumn,
semihardwood further hardens for winter, becoming dormant wood from which hardwood
cutting types are possible. Both deciduous and conifer- cuttings can be made. Illustration by Steve Morrison.
ous (evergreen) species can be propagated with these
types of cuttings.

Hardwood Cuttings
Deciduous Species
Deciduous hardwood stem cuttings are the easiest,
least expensive type of cuttings because they are easy
to prepare, are not as perishable as softwood or semi-
hardwood cuttings, can be stored in coolers or shipped
if necessary, and require little or no special equipment
during rooting. They are sometimes struck directly on
the outplanting site or brought back to the nursery to
grow as bareroot or container stock.
Figure 9.3—Straight, heel, and mallet cuttings. Straight cuttings are used on easy-to-
If hardwood cuttings are struck directly on the out- root species, while heel and mallet cuttings are commonly used on more difficult-to-root
planting site, they can be live stakes (12 to 16 in [30 to species. Photo by Tara Luna.
40 cm] long), poles (12 to 16 ft [3.6 to 4.9 m] long), or
branched cuttings (2 to 6 ft [0.6 to 1.8 m] long). These stems and are the most common type for easy-to-root
cuttings are collected and outplanted during late species. Heel cuttings are made from side shoots on
autumn to early spring when the cutting is dormant stems that are 2 years old. To make a heel cutting, pull
and the soil at the outplanting site is wet. Live stakes the side shoot away from the tip so that there is a sec-
and branched cuttings need to be long enough to reach tion of older wood at the base of the cutting. Mallet cut-
moisture in the soil profile and are usually driven into tings include a cross-section of older stem at the base
the ground with a mallet with only three to four nodes of the side shoot (figure 9.3).
(buds) above ground. Poles are much longer and are All hardwood stem cuttings have an inherent polar-
driven deep enough so they can remain in contact with ity and will produce shoots on the distal end (nearest
the water table during the driest part of the year. Hard- the bud) and roots on the proximal end (nearest the
wood cuttings of willows and cottonwoods are com- main stem or root system). If planted upside down, the
monly used this way in restoring riparian areas. cutting will not root. When using straight or live stake
If hardwood cuttings are struck in the nursery, they deciduous cuttings, the tops and bottoms of the stems
can be straight, heel, or mallet cuttings (figure 9.3). need to be distinguished. The absence of leaves can
Straight cuttings are made from straight hardwood make it difficult for nursery workers to discern. The

TARA LUNA 155

solution is to cut the bottoms straight across the base
of a node and cut the tops at an angle (figure 9.4).

Coniferous Species
Hardwood cuttings of evergreen conifers are usually
taken in late winter to early spring. Unlike hardwood
cuttings, evergreen cuttings must be struck into a spe-
cial rooting environment (see Chapter 4, Propagation
Environments) as soon as possible because they cannot
be stored for any length of time. Evergreens are best
rooted in special rooting environments after being
wounded or treated with rooting hormone (described
in the following paragraphs). Usually, cuttings are 4 to 8
in (10 to 20 cm) long with all leaves removed from the
lower half. Straight, mallet, and heel cuttings are also
used with evergreen species (figure 9.3).

Softwood Cuttings
Prepared from the new growth of deciduous or ever-
green species, softwood cuttings generally root easier
than other types of cuttings but require more attention
and a special rooting environment. The best cutting
material has some degree of flexibility but is mature
enough to break when bent sharply (figure 9.5). Figure 9.4—Polarity means cuttings will produce shoots on the distal end (nearest the
bud) and roots on the proximal end (nearest the main stem or root system). It is important
Extremely fast-growing tender shoots are not desirable. that the cutting is oriented properly when planted; the absence of leaves can make this an
Herbaceous stem cuttings are softwood cuttings easy but important point to miss.The solution is to cut the bottoms straight across the base
of a node and cut the tops at an angle. Photo by Tara Luna.
made from nonwoody plants. They are handled in the
same way as softwood cuttings (figure 9.6A). Many suc-
culent desert plant cuttings, such as those from cacti, vidual segments containing dormant shoot buds capa-
are easily propagated; cuttings should be allowed to ble of developing into new plants. Root sections are
develop callus for a week before inserting the cutting collected from late autumn to early spring before new
into rooting media. They root readily without misting tissue emerges from buds.
or high humidity (figure 9.6B). Root cuttings are planted horizontally in containers
with the dormant leaf buds on the upper side. Some root
Semihardwood Cuttings cuttings are also planted in the containers vertically, but
Semihardwood (greenwood) stem cuttings are those it is important to maintain the correct polarity (figure
made from leafy broad-leaved evergreen plants and 9.8). To ensure that root cuttings are planted correctly,
leafy summer and early autumn wood from deciduous cut the upper end of the cutting horizontally and cut the
plants. Cuttings are taken during the late summer and basal end diagonally. Root cuttings generally do not
autumn just after a flush of growth has taken place require a special rooting environment unless shoots are
and the wood is partially matured. In many cases, the cut from the root piece and treated as a stem cutting.
terminal bud has formed for the next growing season
(figure 9.7). WHAT TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING CUTTINGS
FROM MOTHER PLANTS
ROOT CUTTINGS A variety of factors can greatly influence the rooting
Although not used as much as other types of cuttings, success of cuttings. Collectors need to be aware of
root cuttings can be made by dividing roots into indi- these factors and, with experience, will be able to dis-

156 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

cern the right type of cutting material to collect. Impor-
tant factors include seasonal timing, juvenility, plagiotro-
pism, species, and cutting size and quality (figure 9.9).
Some species can be readily propagated from cut-
tings collected in any season of the year, while others
have very specific seasonal trends when they will form
roots. For any given species, small experiments are
required to determine the optimum time to take cut-
tings, which is related to the physiological condition of
the donor plant at collection time rather than any
given calendar date. Recordkeeping is important to
improve rooting results from year to year. A
All plants progress from a juvenile phase (incapable
of producing flowers) to a mature or adult flowering
phase. Different parts of the plant, however, can be at
different stages of maturity at the same time. Some-
times the juvenile phase can be distinguished from the
adult phase by differences in leaf shape or color or by
the overall habit of the plant. The juvenile phase is eas-
ily seen in junipers in which juvenile leaves are feath-
ery and needle-like and often differ in color from
mature leaves that are more rounded at the tips. In
other conifers, juvenile wood is usually found on the
lower portion of the tree crown and the adult, cone-
bearing wood is located in the upper crown. In decidu-
ous plants, juvenile wood is found near the stem base
or root crown and can be discerned as the long, non-
flowering shoots (sucker shoots). Cuttings collected
from this region of the plant root more easily than
those from older, mature wood. In some cases, many
difficult-to-root species will root only from stems col-
lected from young seedlings. Hedging or coppicing is
the practice of regularly cutting back donor plants to
maintain juvenile wood and is an efficient means of
generating many long, straight cuttings from a limited
number of plants. Donor plants in natural stands can
be selected for hedging on an annual basis if cuttings
will be collected from the area for several years (figure
9.10). Otherwise, mother plants can be held in the
nursery and used as a source of cuttings. B
Plagiotropism is the habit of a cutting to continue to
grow in the direction it was growing on the donor
Figure 9.5—(A) Softwood stem cutting material has some degree of flexibility but is ma-
plant. In some species plagiotropism is strong but in
ture enough to break when bent sharply.Tender softwood shoots that do not break should
other species it is weak. Similarly, plagiotropism can be not be used.(B) Rooted softwood snowberry stem cutting. Photos by Tara Luna.
strong or weak depending on the original position of
the cutting on the donor plant. Often, plants produced
from cuttings from lateral shoots will maintain a later-

TARA LUNA 157

 A

Figure 9.7—Semihardwood cuttings of Cascade mountain ash collected in late summer

from a lateral branch with a maturing terminal bud. Photo by Tara Luna.

Figure 9.6—Softwood duttings of many herbaceous native perennials, such as (A) Al-
berta pentsemon,can be easily rooted using mist and application of a rooting hormone.(B)
Figure 9.8—Root cuttings, such as these from quaking aspen, are used when stem cut-
Cacti cuttings must air- dry for several days before sticking into containers; unlike other cut-
tings do not root well. Photo by Tara Luna.
tings, they do not need mist or high humidity to root. Photos by Tara Luna.

158 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

al habit, whereas plants produced from terminal
shoots will grow vertically. This habit can create prob- COMMON DIOECIOUS PLANTS
lems with the growth habit of the nursery stock (figure
9.11). ash
Some species of plants are dioecious, meaning that buffaloberry
male and female flowers are borne on separate plants. cottonwood
In such cases, collectors may not realize they have col- fourwing saltbush
lected cuttings of only one sex. Outplanting plants of joint fir
only one sex onto the restoration site may compromise maple
project objectives because seed production over the silverberry
long term would be impossible (Landis and others willow
2003). Therefore, be sure to collect both male and
female cutting material (see Landis and others 2003).
The size and quality of the cutting are important.
Cutting size varies from species to species and by sea-
sonal timing. Easily rooted species such as willow can
be collected as long poles for rooting or made into
small microcuttings. Microcuttings consist of one bud
and a small section of internode stem and are typical-
ly less than 2 in (5 cm) long (figure 9.12). Hardwood cut-
tings vary in length from 4 to 30 in (10 to 76 cm). At
least two nodes are included in the cutting. The basal
cut is made just below a node and the top cut is made
above a node. If more than one cutting is being made
from a stem, be certain that nursery workers handling
the cuttings maintain the correct polarity. The very tip Figure 9.9—Cuttings should be collected only from healthy donor plants, such as these
portions of the shoot, which are usually low in carbo- kinnikinnick, and preferably from juvenile wood. Photo by Tara Luna.
hydrates, are usually discarded. Central and basal por-
tions of the stem cutting usually make the best
cuttings, but there are exceptions. Good cutting wood
has some stored carbohydrates that will supply the
cutting with food reserves until roots form. Very thin or
elongated shoots are not desirable. If cuttings are col-
lected from natural stands, harvest from individuals
that are growing in full sun to partial shade and avoid
those in deep shade. Often, the ability of a cutting to
produce new roots changes from the base of the cut-
ting to the tip. Softwood stem cuttings are usually
straight, 3 to 6 in (7.5 to 15 cm) long with two or more
nodes. Generally, softwood cuttings root better from
terminal shoots. Semihardwood cuttings are usually 3
to 6 in (7.5 to 15 cm) long with leaves retained in the Figure 9.10—Hedging plants such as redosier dogwood on an annual basis provides
upper end. Semihardwood cuttings usually root best many straight, juvenile woody shoots that can be used for cuttings. Photo by Tara Luna.
from lateral shoots.

TARA LUNA 159

 COLLECTING, TRANSPORTING, AND TEMPORARY
STORAGE OF CUTTINGS
Some basic equipment and supplies are necessary to
efficiently collect cuttings and ensure their health
until they are used in the nursery (figure 9.13). The fol-
lowing items are recommended:

High-quality, sharp pruning shears and pruning

poles for collecting from trees.
Spray bottles filled with disinfectant (1 part bleach
(5.25 percent sodium hypochlorite) in 10 parts
water) for pruning shears.
Figure 9.11—Plagiotropism is the effect of the position of the branch utilized for a cutting
on the growth habit of the progeny.The terminal shoot on the juniper cutting on the right,col- Permanent labels and marking pens for noting ori-
lected as a lateral shoot,still exhibits lateral growth tendencies. Photo by John Edson. gin of collection.
Large, white plastic bags with ties for bulk collec-
tions.
Spray bottles filled with water to keep cuttings
moist in the plastic bags after collection.
Portable, insulated coolers for transport back to the
nursery.

When collecting and handling cuttings, it is impor-

tant to:

Collect only from healthy donor plants.

Keep cuttings cool to avoid wilting and desiccation.
Figure 9.12—Microcuttings are small one- to two-node cuttings that can be made from Handle cuttings carefully so that tissues are not
a single stem of willow. Photo by Tara Luna.
bruised.
Make sure that some buds or leaves are present on
stem cuttings.
Collect from nonflowering shoots. In general, cut-
tings root better before or after flowering.
Place cuttings in the same direction when bundling
to avoid mix-ups with polarity during preparation
back at the nursery.

Although hardwood cuttings collected during the

dormant season are quite tolerant of handling and can
be stored in refrigeration for weeks or months before
striking (figure 9.14A), softwood and semihardwood
cuttings should be collected during the early part of
the day and storage should be kept to a minimum. Ide-
ally, softwood and semihardwood cuttings are made on
cloudy, cool days or during the early morning. All cut-
Figure 9.13—Equipment used for the collection of cuttings should include sharp tools, a
cleaning agent for tools, and a cooler to keep cuttings from drying out during transport. tings, even hardwood cuttings, should be handled with
Photo by Tara Luna. care to avoid water loss and physical damage. Tech-
niques used for collecting and handling cuttings can

160 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 A B

Figure 9.14—Hardwood and softwood cuttings are handled very differently during collection: (A) hardwood cuttings can be collected during the dormant season and can be stored for
several weeks in a cooler, (B) while softwood cuttings require more attention so that the stems and leaves do not wilt and desiccate before they are taken back to the nursery, and they are
usually placed in the rooting chamber the same day of collection. Photo A by Joyce Lapp,B by Tara Luna.

greatly affect rooting results. Cuttings should be kept roots are present. If buds are present, the resulting
cool and shaded during collection and transport back roots are termed “preformed” or “latent.” Native
to the nursery. Never lay cuttings on the ground in full species such as willow and cottonwood have pre-
sun. Place cuttings into white plastic bags, mist them, formed or latent root initials. In the nursery, cuttings of
and label with origin information and the date (figure these species are usually struck directly into contain-
9.14B). When collecting from mother plants, make a ers because they do not require a special rooting envi-
proper cut that facilitates healing of the mother plant. ronment. This method is the easiest and most
Take the cutting just above a node, ensuring that you economical way to produce these species because no
do not leave a stub. Then trim the base of the cutting to additional transplanting is needed.
just below the node where rooting is more likely to If no buds are present, then the roots are termed
occur. Between collection sites, disinfect the pruning “wound-induced” and new roots form only in response
shears with a solution of 1 part bleach (5.25 percent to the wound caused by preparing the cutting (figure
sodium hypochlorite) to 10 parts water to avoid the 9.15A). Species requiring wounds can vary consider-
spread of disease. ably in their ability to form new roots. After a root is
At the nursery, refrigerated storage should be avail- wounded, callus tissue forms at the base of a cutting,
able to hold cuttings if they are not struck immediately. primarily from the vascular tissue (figure 9.15B), but
Deciduous hardwood cuttings can be stored for several callus formation is not always essential to rooting. In
days or weeks but generally no longer than 4 to 8 easy-to-root species, callus formation and root forma-
weeks. Wrap deciduous hardwood cuttings in moist tion are independent processes that occur at the same
peat moss or burlap before placing them into storage. time because of similar environmental triggers (figures
Inspect stored cuttings frequently to make certain that 9.15B and C). In difficult-to-root species, adventitious
tissues are slightly moist and free from fungal dis- roots arise from the callus mass. In some cases, exces-
eases. Hardwood and softwood evergreen cuttings, sive callus can hinder rooting and is a signal to use a
deciduous softwood cuttings and semihardwood cut- lower concentration of rooting hormone. Often, excess
tings should not be stored for longer than 1 day and callus should be scraped away and the cutting replaced
preferably should be struck in propagation beds the in the rooting environment.
same day of collection. In general, all species with wound-induced roots
must first be rooted in a special propagation environ-
T YPES OF ROOTING AND PROPAGATION ENVIRONMENTS ment in which the temperature of air and medium are
The development of new roots on a shoot is known as tightly controlled. High relative humidity is encour-
“adventitious root formation.” Two types of roots occur aged, light levels are often reduced, and the medium is
depending on whether buds capable of producing new kept “moist but not wet.” See Chapter 4, Propagation

TARA LUNA 161

 A

Figure 9.16—Developing an efficient system for producing cuttings, employing experi-

enced propagators,and keeping the work area clean are key aspects to reducing production
costs. Photo by William Pink.

Environments, for more details on propagation environ-

ments. Easy-to-root species are often struck directly
into containers filled with regular growing medium
B
and, once rooted in the special propagation environ-
ment, are moved into the regular nursery. Hard-to-root
species are often struck into a special rooting medium
and, after roots form, are transplanted into containers
to continue their growth.

Cutting Preparation
While preparing cuttings, it is important to keep the
work area clean (figure 9.16). Use sharp, well-main-
tained shears and knives to make clean cuts and disin-
fect them often to reduce the possible spread of
disease. Preparing cuttings standardizes their size and
shape, promotes side shoots, and eliminates shoot tips
that often die back. It is important to maintain polarity
during this process, especially for deciduous hardwood
cuttings. Cuttings that will require hormone treatment
C
to encourage rooting, such as those of hardwood nar-
rowleaf evergreens or any softwood or semihardwood
Figure 9.15—(A) Note adventitious roots of a cutting, (B) callus and roots forming at the cuttings, should have one-third to one-half of the
base of a cutting,and (C) the development of adventitious roots over a 6-week period. Photos
by Tara Luna. leaves and buds removed to reduce the amount of
water loss from the cutting. Any flower buds should
also be removed. It is important, however, to retain
some buds or leaves on the cutting so that the cutting
can manufacture food during rooting.

162 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Figure 9.17—Wounding the lower end of the stem often increases rooting results and Figure 9.18—Willow water solution is a homemade rooting hormone that can be used
root mass, especially on cuttings that are difficult to root. Photo by Tara Luna. on easy-to-root species. Photo by Tara Luna.

Wounding Cuttings the heat to cool and steep overnight. After removing the
Wounding, used on species that are difficult to root, willow stems, cuttings can be soaked overnight in the
increases rooting percentages and improves the quanti- willow water and then planted (figure 9.18).
ty and quality of roots produced. Wounding exposes Most cuttings, however, are treated with synthetic
more cells to rooting hormone, encourages callus for- hormones that are available in powder and liquid form,
mation, and, in some cases, removes thick woody tissue and some preparations may contain chemical fungi-
that can be a barrier to root formation (figure 9.17). Cut- cides (figure 9.19). Synthetic hormones can be pur-
tings are commonly wounded by hand-stripping small chased ready to use or can be mixed by growers to
lower stems and leaves to create wounded areas along specific concentrations. Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and
the basal portion of the cutting, scraping the base of the naphthaleneacidic acid (NAA) are the most widely used
stem with a small, sharp knife or potato peeler (figure synthetic auxins for rooting. Often, mixtures of IBA and
9.17), or slicing one or two long, shallow slivers (0.75 in to NAA are more effective than either component alone.
1.25 in [2 to 3.2 cm] long) of tissue from the base of the The effect of rooting hormones varies widely between
stem, making sure to penetrate the cambium layer of species and, in some cases, between genotypes. The
the stem. Slicing requires precision and experience so concentration of a rooting hormone is expressed in
that cuttings are not excessively damaged. either parts per million (ppm) or as a percentage. In gen-
eral, rooting hormone powders are expressed as a per-
Rooting Hormones centage, while liquid solutions are expressed as ppm.
Auxins are natural plant hormones that encourage Although nursery workers can either purchase syn-
root formation on cuttings and are available from nat- thetic rooting hormones in liquid or powder forms or
ural and synthetic sources. In practice, auxins are com- prepare their own from ingredients purchased from
monly referred to as rooting hormones. Willows are a horticultural suppliers, it is generally easiest to pur-
natural source of auxins (Leclerc and Chong 1984). “Wil- chase ready-to-use formulations. It is important to
low water” is a rooting hormone solution that can be remember that all rooting hormones have a limited
made by cutting green, actively growing willow stems shelf life of 18 to 24 months. Therefore, when purchas-
into 1-in (2.5-cm) pieces, mashing them, placing them in ing or mixing hormones:
water brought to a boil, and then removing them from

TARA LUNA 163

Figure 9.19—Advantages of using rooting hormones on cuttings include (1) increased Figure 9.20—Although powders are preferred to liquid hormones by many growers, care
overall rooting percentages if applied correctly and at an effective concentration, (2) more should be taken to apply powder hormones evenly and consistently. Photo by Tara Luna.
rapid root initiation, (3) an increase in the total number and quality of roots, and (4) more
uniform rooting. Photo by Tara Luna.

Record the date of purchase on the container. Ensure cuttings are dipped into the powder to a
Order only what you plan to use within 18 to 24 depth of 0.2 to 0.4 in (5 to 10 mm). Make certain that
months. Order smaller quantities more often to cut surfaces and other wounds are also covered with
ensure that the rooting hormone remains effective. rooting hormone.
Keep containers sealed and refrigerated when not in Remove excess powder by lightly tapping the cut-
use to preserve the activity of the root hormone. tings on the side of the dish.
Always pour a little into a separate container when
treating cuttings. Liquid products are formulated with alcohols and
often must be diluted with great care to the desired
Many growers prefer powders because a number of strength. Some of the advantages of using solutions are
prepared commercial products of varying strengths are a wide range of commercial preparations is available,
available, they are easy to use, and large quantities of specific concentrations can be formulated at the nurs-
cuttings can be treated quickly. ery, and they can be stored for longer periods under the
However, powder must be applied uniformly to all right conditions. Some growers believe that using solu-
cuttings; variable amounts of rooting powder adhere to tions is more accurate than powders are in regard to the
the base of a cutting, which can affect rooting results amount of rooting hormone entering the stem tissue.
(figure 9.20). The following precautions and special The most common procedure for treating cuttings is
techniques are needed when using powders: using the concentrated-solution-dip method (quick-dip
method) in which the base of the cutting is dipped into
Wear gloves during application. the solution for 3 to 10 seconds. Whole bundles of cut-
Transfer enough hormone to a smaller container tings can be treated at once (figure 9.21). Alternately, cut-
from the main stock container for use. Never trans- tings can be soaked for a longer period of time in a more
fer unused hormone back to main stock container. dilute hormone solution. When using liquid rooting hor-
Apply the hormone uniformly; make sure the base of mones, it is important to:
the cutting is moist so that the powder adheres. Press-
ing cuttings lightly onto a moist sponge is a good idea.

164 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 STRIKING, MONITORING, AND GROWING CUTTINGS
As mentioned previously, cuttings may be struck di-
rectly into containers or struck into special rooting en-
vironments. Direct striking into containers is more
efficient and therefore more economical than striking
into a special rooting environment because the cut-
tings are handled only once and expensive transplant-
ing is avoided. Easy-to-root hardwood cuttings, such as
those from redosier dogwood, willow, and cottonwood
(figure 9.22), should always be direct struck. Often, a
dibble of the same diameter and depth of the stem of
the cutting is a useful tool for making openings in the
medium into which the cutting can be struck. If using
powdered rooting hormones, this practice will help
keep the hormone from being brushed off. The follow-
ing should be encouraged when striking cuttings:

Wear gloves if the cuttings were treated with rooting

hormones.
Maintain polarity (keep the correct end of the cut-
ting up).
When using stem cuttings, make certain that at
least two nodes are below the surface of the rooting
medium.
If cuttings were wounded, make certain that
Figure 9.21—Using the liquid hormone “quick dip” method is preferred by many growers wounded tissue is adequately covered with rooting
because bundles of cuttings can be treated at the same time with a consistent uniformity of
application. Photo by Tara Luna. hormone and is below the surface of the rooting
medium.
Wear gloves during mixing, preparation, and appli- Strike cuttings firmly in the rooting medium. Make
cation. certain to avoid air pockets around the base of the
Make certain that the solution was diluted to the stem.
right concentration correctly and precisely. Try to strike cuttings within 1 to 2 days so that all the
Place the solution in a clean jar. plants will have the same level of root development
Ensure that the treatment time is constant for a uni- and thus can be hardened off properly prior to lifting.
form application rate and to avoid damaging the
plant tissue (phytotoxicity). After cuttings are struck, maintain a clean rooting
Make certain that the basal ends are even to obtain environment (figure 9.23); routinely inspect cuttings
uniform depth of dipping in the solution if bundles for proper temperature, humidity, and moisture levels
of cuttings are dipped. and adjust as necessary to match daily weather condi-
Allow the alcohol to evaporate from the stem of the tions. Check to ensure that all equipment (including
cutting before striking cuttings into the propagation bottom heat) is working properly.
bed, a process that usually takes only a couple of
minutes. Environmental Conditions for Direct Struck Cuttings
Properly discard any remaining solution, because it In general, easy-to-root hardwood cuttings directly
is contaminated with plant material. struck into containers can be treated similar to
seedlings. Details on growing container seedlings are
presented in chapters 10 through 13.

TARA LUNA 165

 Temperature
The optimum air temperature for rooting cuttings is
65 to 75 °F (19 to 24 °C). The rooting medium tempera-
ture should be 10° F (5.5 °C) higher than the air temper-
ature; this heat is generated by bottom heating cables
beneath the rooting media or flats.

Light
Providing light for photosynthesis is necessary so
that cuttings can continue to manufacture food during
rooting, but too much sunlight can cause excessive air
temperatures. Shadecloths of 30 to 50 percent shade
Figure 9.22—Easy-to-root hardwood cuttings can be directly struck in containers; this is
the most economical way of producing cuttings. Photo by Tara Luna. cover are most effective to reduce air temperature
while providing sufficient light.

Rooting Medium
A good rooting medium provides aeration and mois-
ture and physically supports the cuttings. A pH of 5.5 to
6.5 is optimum for most plants, but acid-loving plants
prefer 4.0 to 5.0. Some common components of rooting
media generally include a combination of two or more
of the following: large-grade perlite, pumice, Sphagnum
peat moss, sawdust, sand, and fine bark chips.
Different combinations of the components are used
Figure 9.23—The propagation environment must be carefully monitored to ensure that depending on the species being propagated. Selection
the mist system,the timers that control the frequency of mist,bottom heat,and other equip- of the rooting medium components influences rooting
ment are working properly. Equipment controls for outdoor mist systems need to be ad- percentages and the quality of roots produced. Using
justed to accommodate daily changes in wind, temperature, and rain. Photo by Tara Luna.
very fine- or very coarse-grade sands tends to discour-
age the development of secondary roots. Roots that do
Environmental Conditions in Special Rooting Environments form tend to be brittle and break off during the process
Achieving successful rooting requires attention to of transplanting the cuttings into containers for fur-
sanitation, relative humidity, temperature, light, root- ther plant development. A good rooting medium pro-
ing medium, and sometimes mycorrhizae and mineral motes the development of fibrous root systems that
nutrition. See Chapter 4, Propagation Environments, for retain rooting medium during transplanting, which
information about equipment necessary to regulate reduces “transplant shock.”
humidity, temperature, and light.
Mycorrhizal Fungi
Sanitation Some growers inoculate the rooting medium with
Always keep the propagation environment as clean mycorrhizal fungi or other symbiotic organisms, which
as possible. Strike cuttings into a sterilized rooting has improved rooting results with some plants (Scagel
medium. Routinely inspect for and remove dead leaves and others 2003). This practice may be especially
or cuttings that could be a source of disease infection. important for those species that take a long time to
form roots, such as Pacific yew, blueberries, cranber-
Humidity ries, and rhododendrons. See Chapter 14, Beneficial
Until the root system forms, high levels of relative Microorganisms, for more information on mycorrhizae.
humidity must be provided to slow the rate of water
loss from the cutting.

166 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 Nutrient Mist Transplant only on cool, overcast days or during
Some difficult-to-root cuttings may remain in a spe- early morning hours to avoid transplant shock.
cial rooting environment for a long period of time. Over Transplant cuttings in an area of the nursery pro-
time, the cuttings can become weakened, resulting in tected from wind and sunlight.
yellowing of the leaves or leaf and needle drop. Nutri- Prepare containers, medium, labels, and transplant-
ents can be leached from the leaves by the long expo- ing tools before removing cuttings from the rooting
sure to overhead misting. In these cases, the medium.
application of a dilute, complete foliar fertilizer Moisten the growing media prior to transplanting to
through the mist line can improve cutting vigor and prevent tender roots from drying out.
may aid in rooting. Because some species respond Remove cuttings from the rooting medium carefully
favorably to nutrient mist while others are adversely and remove only a few at a time so roots will not dry
affected, you will need to do some preliminary trials out. Loosely wrap a moist paper towel around the
before treating all the cuttings. root systems until they are transplanted.
Handle cuttings carefully by holding the cutting by
Transplanting Cuttings from Special Rooting Environments the stem and by leaving any rooting medium still
A few weeks after striking cuttings into the rooting attached to the root mass. Do not shake medium off
environment, they should be inspected for root devel- the root system.
opment. Using a trowel, carefully lift a few cuttings by Partially fill the container with moistened medium
digging well below the end of the cutting. After most before inserting the cutting. Then add additional
cuttings have initiated roots, turn off the bottom heat moistened medium and gently firm the medium
to encourage the development of secondary roots. with fingers without breaking the roots (figure 9.24B).
When cuttings have developed adequate root systems, Do not transplant the cuttings too deep or too shal-
they need to be hardened for life outside the rooting low.
environment. See Chapter 12, Hardening, for more
information. The goal is to condition stem and leaf tis- After transplanting the cuttings, they should be
sues and promote secondary root development before placed in a shadehouse or protected from full sun and
transplanting. Cuttings can be hardened by following wind for at least 2 weeks. When the cuttings appear to
these guidelines: be well established, gradually increase the level of sun-
light by moving them to a different area of the nursery
Gradually reduce the misting frequency over a peri- or by exchanging the shadecloth for one with a more
od of 3 to 4 weeks. open weave. After a couple of weeks, move the sun-
Increase the frequency and duration of ventilation requiring species into full sun. Cuttings should be
in enclosed propagation systems. closely monitored for any sign of stress. Adequate sun-
Do not let the rooting medium dry out completely. light is needed for new shoot growth and adequate
accumulation of carbohydrates prior to winter. Cut-
After cuttings have hardened, transplant them into tings should put on as much growth as possible to min-
containers and transfer them to the nursery for addi- imize winter mortality.
tional growth. Because cuttings are more expensive to
produce than seedlings, it is important to handle them OVERWINTERING CUTTINGS
carefully at this stage (figure 9.24). It is essential to Sometimes cuttings will not have a sufficient root
avoid root damage by following these guidelines: mass for transplanting by the end of summer. In this
case, they should be left undisturbed and transplanted
Examine each cutting to ensure it has a sufficient the following spring. Be sure to begin hardening them
root system capable of sustaining the cutting after at least 6 weeks before the first frost. See Chapter 12,
transplanting. Cuttings with only a few slender roots Hardening, for procedures. Newly rooted cuttings need
or very short roots should remain in the propagation extra protection during overwinter storage. Ideally, the
bed for further root development (figure 9.24A.) root temperature should be kept at 34 to 41 °F (1 to 5 °C).

TARA LUNA 167

 The medium surface can freeze but not to a depth that
injures young roots. Loss of cuttings due to improper
overwintering storage is a common occurrence and
contributes significantly to costs. For a full discussion
on overwintering plants, including cuttings, see Chap-
ter 13, Harvesting, Storing, and Shipping.
Transplant Retain in
propagation
environment OTHER METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Besides stems and roots, several other portions of
mother plants can be used to vegetatively propagate
new daughters, and stems can be used in ways other
than the traditional cutting described previously.

A
Layering
Layering is a technique by which adventitious roots
are formed on a stem while still attached to the plant.
Layering often occurs naturally without the assistance
of a propagator (figure 9.25). It is mostly used by nurs-
eries with a long growing season and on those species
that fail to root from stem or root cuttings. Layering is
started when plants are dormant. Four types of layer-
ing can be used by propagators: simple, French,
mound, and drop. Simple layer ing is used on species
that produce many shoots annually. Long, low-growing
flexible shoots are pegged down 6 to 9 in (15 to 23 cm)
B from the shoot tip, forming a “U” (figure 9.26A). The
bottom of the U stem is girdled with a sharp knife and
Figure 9.24—(A) Cuttings should have enough developed roots to support the cutting is covered with soil or sawdust, leaving the tip exposed.
once it is lifted and planted outside the mist system. Cuttings with underdeveloped roots
After a sufficient root system is formed, the new plant
should be left in the propagation environment longer to develop an adequate root mass.(B)
Cuttings should be handled carefully during lifting and potting by keeping the tender roots can be severed from the donor plant (figure 9.26B).
undamaged and moist. Photos by Tara Luna. French layer ing is similar to simple layering but uses a
long, single branch that is pegged down to the soil sur-
face. The following spring, pegs are removed and the
branch is laid into a trench and buried up to the tips of
the shoots with well-aerated soil (figure 9.27A) and
sawdust or mulch (figure 9.27B). After burying repeat-
edly, each shoot along the stem will form roots by
autumn of the second year. Mound layer ing or stooling
involves selecting a young stock plant (figures 9.28A
and B) and cutting back shoots to a couple of inches
above ground level (figure 9.28C). Numerous shoots
develop in consecutive growing seasons and are cov-
ered to half their height with sawdust (figure 9.28D).
This procedure is repeated three times as the shoots
C
grow so that, by the end of the second or third growing
season, the well-rooted shoots are unburied and are
Figure 9.25— Many native plants,such as antelope bitterbrush on the Hopi Reservation,
will layer naturally when lower branches come in contact with the soil. Photo by Tara Luna. ready to plant as individuals (figures 9.28E and F). Drop

168 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

lay er i n g is very similar to mounding. Drop layering
involves planting well-branched container plants
deeply in the ground with only the tips of the branches
exposed. New growth forms from the exposed branch
tips, but the buried portions of the stems form roots
along the stems.
Stacked layering is a new vegetative propagation
method for quaking aspen and other rhizomatous
species (Landis and others 2006). This technique takes
advantage of the rapid and extensive root growth of
seedlings and the fact that severed roots will form new
shoots. In the spring, a stack of Styrofoam™ containers
is created with a 1-gallon pot containing a seedling
inserted in the top block. The lower Styrofoam™ con-
tainers are filled with growing medium with a thin
layer of medium sandwiched between the blocks (fig-
ure 9.29A). By next spring, the roots of the mother plant
will have grown down through and colonized the cavi-
ties in the lower blocks. Running a sharp knife between
the Styrofoam™ containers severs the roots, which
then form new shoots (figure 9.29B). After a few
months, the new plants can be transplanted into larg-
er pots. Another set of filled Styrofoam™ containers Figure 9.26—Simple layering. Illustration by Bruce McDonald and Timber Press Inc.
can be situated below the block with the mother plant
to start another propagation cycle. Stacked layering is deep enough to go through the basal plate and the
ideal for propagating species where seeds are rare or growing point. Growing points in the axils of the scales
other vegetative techniques will not work. grow into bulblets. The bulbs can be placed in a warm,
dark place at high humidity for a few months or plant-
Bulbs, Corms, Tubers, Rhizomes, and Crown Division ed upside-down (basal plate up) in clean dry sand, ver-
Bulbs, tubers, corms, and rhizomes are specialized miculite, or perlite. Basal scooping is the removal of the
plant structures that function in the storage of food, entire basal plate to remove the shoot and flower bud at
nutrients, and water. Many culturally important native the center of the bulb. This exposes the fleshy leaf bases
species not easily grown from seeds have these struc- from which small bulblets will develop. Cor ing involves
tures. removal of the center portion of the basal plate and the
A bulb is an underground storage organ consisting of main growing point of the bulb. Cored bulbs can be
a short, fleshy stem surrounded by fleshy modified treated as described for scoring. S e c t i o n i n g involves
leaves (scales). Tunicate and scaly are two types of cutting a mature bulb into five to ten pie-shaped sec-
bulbs. Tunicate bulbs have outer scales that are dry and tions, each with a portion of the basal plate attached.
membranous (figure 9.30A). Tunicate bulbs can be These sections are treated and handled as described for
propagated by using offsets, scoring, scooping, coring, scoring. Cuttage involves cutting a mature bulb verti-
sectioning, and cuttage. Offsets of tunicate bulbs are cally into six or eight sections. Next, the basal plate is
the main method used to increase bulb stock. Any cut so there are one to four scale segments attached on
species that readily produces offsets can be propagated each piece of basal plate. These are treated with a fun-
this way, but a large amount of bulbs is required to pro- gicide and planted in perlite or vermiculite with the
duce many plants (figure 9.30B). Camas and mariposa segment tips exposed above the rooting medium.
lily may be propagated by offsets. B a s a l s c o r i n g is Scaly bulbs (also known as nontunicate bulbs) lack a
when three incisions are made at the base of the bulb, tunic and are characterized by the scales being sepa-

TARA LUNA 169

Figure 9.27— French layering. Illustration by Bruce McDonald and Timber Press,Inc.

rate and attached to the basal plate (figure 9.31). They leaves (figure 9.32). It differs from a bulb in being a solid
are easily damaged and will dry out quickly without stem structure consisting of nodes and internodes that
the protective tunic, so it is necessary to handle them are compressed. Cormels are miniature corms that
with more care. These bulbs are propagated by scaling, form between the old and new corms. One to 2 years of
which is done after flowering. The outer two layers of growth is usually required for them to reach flowering
scales are removed from the mother bulb and treated size. Trout lilies and some shooting stars produce
with rooting hormone to induce bulblet formation. corms.
Scales are inserted vertically (about half their length) Tubers are swollen modified stems that serve as
in propagation flats with moist sand and peat moss. underground storage organs. The most common tuber
Two or three growing seasons are needed to reach is the potato. “Eyes” are actually nodes containing
flowering size. Individual bulb scales are removed from buds. Propagation by tubers involves planting the
the mother bulb and placed in growing conditions so entire tuber or dividing it into sections containing at
that bulblets form at the base of each scale. Usually, least one eye or bud. Wapato is a native plant that pro-
three to five bulblets form per scale. Native lilies and duces tubers.
fritillaries are propagated by scaling. Rhizomes are specialized stems in which the main axis
A corm is very similar to a tunicate bulb and consists of the plant grows horizontally or vertically at or below
of a swollen stem base enclosed by the dry, scale-like the soil surface. Many native species, such as iris, repro-

170 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Figure 2.28—Mound layering.Illustration by Bruce McDonald and Timber Press,Inc.

TARA LUNA 171

 duce by rhizomes and they are easily propagated into
larger numbers from a few nursery plants by divisions
(figure 9.33).
Rhizomes vary in length and size according to
species. Rhizomes are cut into sections with each con-
taining at least one shoot bud or active shoot; some
roots are attached to the bottoms of the rhizomes and
are planted into containers individually. Rhizomes can
also be planted in nursery beds and used as a source
for bareroot stock for planting or for cultural uses such
A B
as basketry (figure 9.34).
Another method of propagation by division that dif-
Figure 9.29—(A) Roots from the mother plant grow downward through the cavities of
stacked Styrofoam™ containers. (B) The roots are then severed, after which they develop fers slightly from dividing rhizomes is crown division.
new shoots. Illustration by Jim Marin. It is an important method for propagating many native
herbaceous perennials that produce multiple offshoots
from the crown. Crown divisions are usually done in
early spring just before growth begins (species that
flower and grow in spring and summer) or in late sum-
mer (species that bloom in late summer and early
autumn). Plants are dug up and cut into sections with a
sharp knife, each with a substantial portion of the root
system, and transplanted individually.

A Stolons, Runners, and Offsets

Stolons, runners, and offsets are specialized plant
structures that facilitate propagation by layering.
Stolons are modified stems that grow horizontally
above the soil line and produce a mass of stems (figure
9.35A). Runners are specialized stems that arise from
the crown of the plant and grow horizontally along the
ground and produce a plantlet at one of the nodes (fig-
ure 9.35B). Raised beds planted with species with
stolons or runners can be an endless source of materi-
al, and plants can be dug and potted individually or
transplanted as bareroot stock.
Plants with rosettes often reproduce by forming new
shoots, called offsets, at the base of the main stem or in
the leaf axils. Offsets are cut close to the main stem of
the plant with a sharp knife. If well rooted, an offset
can be potted individually. Sever the new shoots from
the mother plant after they have developed their own
root systems. Nonrooted offsets of some species may
B be removed and placed in a rooting medium. Some of
these offsets must be cut off, while others may simply
be lifted from the parent stem.
Figure 9.30—(A) Camas is a native cultural plant with a tunicate bulb. (B) Native bulbs
are often grown in raised beds; offsets from the mother bulbs are harvested and planted
when they are dormant. Photos by Tara Luna.

172 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 Micropropagation
Micropropagation is a process used to propagate
plants using very specialized tissue culture tech-
niques. Tissue culture is the procedure for maintaining
and growing plant tissues and organs in an aseptic cul-
ture in which the environment, nutrient, and hormone
levels are tightly controlled. A small piece of vegetative
material called the explant is used to create a new,
entire plant. Rare or greatly endangered native species
have been micropropagated to increase the number of
individuals for restoration projects when other meth- Figure 9.31—Cormels form between the old and new corms and can be separated and
ods of propagation have been limiting or failed. Micro- planted individually. Photo by Tara Luna.
propagation has also been used as a method to offer
plants in the nursery trade in order to preserve them
from poaching and eventual extirpation from wild
populations. Micropropagation works well for some
species and poorly for others. For some native plants,
such as orchids, it is one of the only options for suc-
cessfully germinating seeds. Most native plant nurs-
eries do not have an elaborate tissue culture facility
because of the high cost, although small-scale micro-
propagation can be done with minimal equipment in a
clean room. Micropropagation continues to play a role
in the conservation of native plants and is included
here as a viable propagation option when other meth-
ods fail. See volume 2 of this handbook for species that
have been micropropagated.

ESTABLISHING MOTHER PLANTS AT THE NURSERY

Some nursery managers find it advantageous to main-
tain donor plants at the nursery as a continual source
of cutting material. This practice can be more efficient A
than collecting from wild populations year after year,
especially if the same ecotypes will be used for a long-
term restoration project. Usually, mother plants are
planted in field beds at the nursery or, in some cases,
are kept in large containers. Regardless, mother plants
must be clearly labeled as to species and origin. If
mother plants are in field beds, an accurate map
should be kept. Mother plants should be hedged on an
annual basis to maintain wood juvenility and to pro-
duce numerous straight shoots to use as cutting mate-
B
rial. One disadvantage to using mother plants grown at
the nursery is that they require nursery space and
must be intensively managed. Figure 9.32—Scaly bulbs, such as those of yellowbells, can be propagated by (A) scaling
and by (B) removing and planting the small rice-like bulblets individually. Photos by Tara Luna.

TARA LUNA 173

 A B

C
Figure 9.33—Many native plants have rhizomes.Rhizomes vary in thickness and length and can be used to propagate many more plants from existing nursery stock.(A) Missouri iris and
(B) and (C) water sedge propagated from divisions. Photo A by Tara Luna,B and C by Thomas D.Landis.
C

Figure 9.34—(A) Dogbane rhizomes can be raised in field beds for cultural uses such as basketry.(B) White-rooted sedge being raised in field beds for basketry.
Photo A by William Pink,B by Chuck Williams.

SUMMARY
Vegetative propagation is the production of daughter tings, divisions, or layering. Micropropagation is an op-
plants from the stems, leaves, roots, or other portions tion for propagating rare and endangered species or
of a single mother (donor) plant. Daughter plants con- others that are very difficult to propagate by other
tain the exact genetic characteristics of the donor. Veg- methods. Keeping good records will improve the suc-
etative propagation techniques can be used on many cess of rooting cuttings and reduce nursery costs.
species if seeds are unavailable or difficult to germi-
nate. Producing plants from cuttings is more labor in- LITERATURE CITED
tensive and expensive, and production may require Landis,T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; Barnett, J.P. 1999.The container tree nursery manual: volume 6,
special propagation structures. Experience is required seedling propagation. Agriculture Handbook 674.Washington, DC: U.S. Department
to determine the best collection time, hormone treat- of Agriculture,Forest Service.167 p.
ment, and medium necessary to root cuttings. Some Landis, T.D.; Dreesen, D.R.; Dumroese, R.K. 2003. Sex and the single Salix: considerations
native species cannot be successfully rooted from stem for riparian restoration.Native Plants Journal 4:111-117.
cuttings, while others can be propagated from root cut-

174 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Landis,T.D.; Dreesen, D.R.; Pinto, J.R.; Dumroese, R.K.2006.Propagating native Salicaceae
for riparian restoration on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona. Native Plants Journal
7:52-60.
Leclerc, C.R.; Chong, C.1984.Influence of willow and poplar extracts on rooting cuttings.
The International Plant Propagators’Society,Combined Proceedings 33:528-536.
Scagel, C.F.; Reddy, K.; Armstrong, J.M.2003.Mycorrhizal fungi in rooting substrate influ-
ences the quantity and quality of roots on stem cuttings of hick’s yew.HortTechnol-
ogy 13(1):62-66.
Landis,T.D.; Dreesen, D.R.; Pinto, J.R.; Dumroese, R.K.2006.Propagating native Salicaceae
for riparian restoration on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona. Native Plants Journal
7:52-60.

APPENDIX 9A. PLANTS MENTIONED IN THIS CHAPTER

Alberta penstemon, Penstemon albertinus
antelope bitterbrush, Purshia tridentata
ash, Fraxinus species
blueberry, Vaccinium species
buffaloberry, Shepherdia species
camas, Camassia quamash
cascade mountain-ash, Sorbus scopulina
A
cottonwood, Populus species
cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon
dogbane, Apocynum cannabinum
fourwing saltbush, Atriplex canescens
fritillary, Fritillaria species
jointfir, Ephedra species
juniper, Juniperus species
kinnikinnick, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
lily, Lilium species
maple, Acer species
mariposa lily, Calochortus species
Missouri iris, Iris missouriensis
Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia
quaking aspen, Populus tremuloides
redosier dogwood, Cornus sericea
rhododendron, Rhododendron species
silverberry, Elaeagnus commutata
shooting star, Dodecatheon species
snowberry, Symphoricarpos albus
trout lily, Erythronium species
twinflower, Linnaea borealis
wapato, Sagittaria latifolia B
white-rooted sedge, Carex barbarae
wild strawberry, Fragaria species Figure 9.35—(A) Stolons of twinflower and (B) runners of wild strawberry can be col-
willow, Salix species lected and used to root several plants from one plant. Photos by Tara Luna.
yellowbells, Fritillaria pudica

TARA LUNA 175