International Journal of

Molecular Sciences

Article
Pereskia aculeata Muller (Cactaceae) Leaves:
Chemical Composition and Biological Activities
Lucèia Fàtima Souza 1,2 , Lucia Caputo 1 , Ingrid Bergman Inchausti De Barros 2 ,
Florinda Fratianni 3 , Filomena Nazzaro 3 and Vincenzo De Feo 1, *
1 Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (Salerno), Italy;
[email protected] (L.F.S.); [email protected] (L.C.)
2 Department of Agronomy, University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), 91501-970 Porto Alegre, Brazil;
[email protected]
3 Istituto di Scienze dell’Alimentazione, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISA-CNR), 83100 Avellino, Italy;
[email protected] (F.F.); [email protected] (F.N.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-089-969-751

Academic Editor: Maurizio Battino

Received: 22 July 2016; Accepted: 23 August 2016; Published: 3 September 2016
Abstract: The aims of this work were to study the chemical composition of the essential oil from the
leaves of Pereskia aculeata and to evaluate some biological activities of three leaf extracts. The phenolic
content, antioxidant activity, and in vitro antimicrobial and antifungal activities were determined.
The methanol extract showed antioxidant activity (EC50 7.09 mg/mL) and high polyphenols content
(15.04 ± 0.31 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g). The petroleum ether extract exhibited potent
antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, whereas the chloroform extract showed inhibitory activity
against Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus. The petroleum ether and methanol extracts were
more effective in inhibiting the growth of Aspergillus versicolor. The possible cytotoxicity of extracts on
neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cancer cell line and the influence on adenylate cyclase (ADCY) expression
was also studied. P. aculeata chloroform extract showed antiproliferative activity with an IC50 value
of 262.83 µg/mL. Treatments of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with 100 µg/mL of methanol extract
significantly reduced ADCY1 expression.

Keywords: Pereskia aculeata; essential oil; leaf extracts; antioxidant activity; antibacterial activity;
antifungal activity; cytotoxicity; adenylate cyclase (ADCY)

1. Introduction
The genus Pereskia is considered the least advanced from Cactaceae family, possessing succulent
leaves and terminal flowers gathered in cymes. These plants are generally climbing species native
to South America, adapted to low altitudes and naturally distributed from south to northeast of
Brazil [1,2].
The plant is popularly known as “ora pro nobis” and is used in cooking because of its high
nutritional content. The leaves of P. aculeata contain high levels of proteins when compared to other
plants commonly used for human food [3,4] and they also contain high levels of minerals, dietary fiber,
vitamins A and C, and folic acid [5].
In folk medicine, the leaves of P. aculeata are used as emollients, due to their high mucilaginous
content, in skin wound healing, and to treat inflammation [1,2].
Only a little information is available in the literature about the biological activities of P. aculeata.
Pinto and coworkers [6] reported that some extracts of P. aculeata inhibited the breast cancer cell line
MCF-7 and proliferation human promyelocytic leukemia cells HL60 cell, and that phenolic compounds
are the major antioxidant components in P. aculeata leaves. Sitosterol, stigmasterol, flavonoids, and
phenols are reported to be in the leaves of P. aculeata [1].

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478; doi:10.3390/ijms17091478 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 2 of 12

Some Pereskia species are reported to be used as natural remedies for headache, inflammation,
gastric pain, for pain relief, and as tonics [7]. P. bleo DC. and P. grandifolia hort. ex Peiff. showed
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities [1,7,8].
In this work, we studied the chemical composition of the essential oil from leaves of P. aculeata
and the polyphenol composition of three leaf extracts. Moreover, the extracts have been evaluated for
their in vitro antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal activities. Additionally, their cytotoxicity and
the possible effects on central nervous system have been studied.

2. Results

2.1. Essential Oil Yield and Composition

Hydrodistillation of the aerial part of P. aculeata yielded 0.02% (on a dry mass basis) of a pale
yellow essential oil. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the essential oil; compounds are
listed according to their elution order on an HP-5 MS column. In all, 24 compounds were identified,
accounting for 91.03% of the total oil. Oxygenated sesquiterpenes were the main constituents of
the oil (44.92%), the main compound being acorone (30.0%). Other important compounds are
(Z,Z)-methyl-4,6-hexadecadiene (16.34%), 1-nonadecen-ol (6.18%) and (5E,9E)-farnesyl acetone (5.70%).

Table 1. Essential oil composition of Pereskia aculeata.

No. Compound % Ki a Ki b Identification c

1 (E)-β-Ionone 0.75 1488 1476 1,2
2 Dihydro-β-agarofuran 0.57 1519 1503 1,2
3 cis-Dihydro-mayurone 0.17 1551 1595 1,2
4 Caryophyllene oxide 0.51 1575 1583 1,2
5 α-Muurolol 0.22 1643 1642 1,2,3
6 ar-Tumerone 1.10 1654 1668 1,3
7 14-Hydroxy-(Z)-caryophyllene 0.29 1661 1667 1,2
8 (Z)-3-Hexenyl salicylate 0.17 1664 1669 1,2
9 14-Hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-caryophyllene 0.28 1668 1669 1,2
10 2-hexyl-(E)-cinnamaldehyde 0.60 1734 1749 1,2
11 1-Octadecene 0.62 1783 1790 1,2,3
12 2-Ethylhexyl salicylate 1.73 1789 1807 1,2
13 Acorone 30.0 1824 1820 1,2
14 Cyclopentadecanolide 5.48 1830 1833 1,2
15 1-Nonadecen-ol 6.18 1848 1,2
16 (Z,Z)-Methyl-4,6-hexadecadiene 16.34 1866 1,2
18 (5E,9E)-Farnesyl acetone 5.70 1903 1913 1,2
19 Methyl hexadecanoate 4.92 1910 1921 1,2,3
20 Isopropyl hexadecanoate 0.42 1984 2024 1,2
21 Methyl linoleate 4.44 2075 2085 1,2
22 Methyl octadecanoate 0.69 2107 2125 1,2,3
23 Linoleic acid 4.74 2126 2133 1,2
24 Phytol 5.11 2148 1,2
Total compounds 91.03
Oxygenated monoterpenes 15.96
Monoterpene hydrocarbons 0.62
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes 44.92
Non-terpene 24.42
Diterpene hydrocarbons 5.11
a Kovats retention index on HP-5 MS column; b Kovats retention index on HP Innowax; c 1 = Kovats retention
index, 2 = mass spectrum, 3 = coinjection with authentic compound.

2.2. Free Radical-Scavenging Capacity

The antioxidant activity of P. aculeata extracts was assessed by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) assay, evaluating the H-donating or radical-scavenging ability of the oils using the stable
radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) as a reagent. Figure 1 shows the antioxidant activity
of the three extracts of P. aculeata. Methanolic extract shows the highest percentage of inhibition of
DPPH (73.71%) at a concentration of 10 mg/mL. The EC50 values demonstrate that methanol and
2.2. Free Radical-Scavenging Capacity
The antioxidant activity of P. aculeata extracts was assessed by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
assay, evaluating the H-donating or radical-scavenging ability of the oils using the stable radical
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) as a reagent. Figure 1 shows the antioxidant activity of
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 3 of 12
the three extracts of P. aculeata. Methanolic extract shows the highest percentage of inhibition of
DPPH (73.71%) at a concentration of 10 mg/mL. The EC 50 values demonstrate that methanol and
petroleum
petroleum ether ether extracts
extracts showed
showed high
high antioxidant
antioxidant activity
activity (EC
(EC5050 values
values of
of 7.09
7.09 and 18.27 mg/mL,
mg/mL,
respectively).
respectively). The The chloroform exhibited low
chloroform extract exhibited lowDPPH
DPPHscavenging
scavengingactivity,
activity,with
withanan
ECEC 50 value
50 value of
of the 81.09 mg/mL (Table 2). Ascorbic acid was used as a standard
the 81.09 mg/mL (Table 2). Ascorbic acid was used as a standard antioxidant. antioxidant.

Figure 1. Antioxidant
Antioxidant activity
activity (percent
(percent of
of inhibition)
inhibition)of
ofPereskia
Pereskiaaculeata
aculeataextracts.
extracts.

Table 2.
Table 2. Straight
Straight equation
equation used
used to
to calculate
calculate EC 50 antioxidant
EC50 antioxidantactivity
activityof
ofPereskia
Pereskiaaculeata
aculeataextracts.
extracts.

Sample Equation R2 EC 50
Sample Equation R2 EC50
Petroleum ether y = 0.3072x − 6.1561 0.9811 18.27 mg/mL
Petroleum ether y = 0.3072x − 6.1561 0.9811 18.27 mg/mL
Chloroform y = 0.6346x − 1.0909 0.8999 81.09 mg/mL
Chloroform y = 0.6346x − 1.0909 0.8999 81.09 mg/mL
Methanol
Methanol y y==7.8743x
7.8743x −−5.8489
5.8489 0.9938
0.9938 7.09
7.09 mg/mL
mg/mL
Antioxidant activityactivity
Antioxidant is expressed as the
is expressed asEC mg/mL
the50EC of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
mg/mL (DPPH).
of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH).
50

2.3.
2.3. Total
Total Phenolic
Phenolic Compounds
Compounds
The totalpolyphenols
The total polyphenolscontent
content in the
in the threethree extracts
extracts is presented
is presented in Tablein
3. Table
Methanol3. Methanol and
and petroleum
petroleum ether extracts showed the highest amounts of polyphenols (15.04 ± 0.67 and 11.78
ether extracts showed the highest amounts of polyphenols (15.04 ± 0.67 and 11.78 ± 0.23 mg gallic ± 0.23 mg
gallic acid equivalents
acid equivalents (GAE)/g,
(GAE)/g, respectively).
respectively). TheThe chloroform
chloroform extract
extract contains
contains 5.17
5.17 ± ±0.41
0.41mg
mgGAE/g.
GAE/g.

Table 3. Content
Table 3. Content of
of polyphenols
polyphenols in
in their
their extracts
extracts of
of Pereskia
Pereskia aculeata.
aculeata.
Ether Extract mg GAE/g Chloroform Extract mg GAE/g Methanol Extract mg GAE/g
Ether Extract mg GAE/g Chloroform Extract mg GAE/g Methanol Extract mg GAE/g
Total polyphenols 11.78 ± 0.23 5.17 ± 0.41 15.04 ± 0.67
Total polyphenols 11.78 ± 0.23 5.17 ± 0.41 15.04 ± 0.67
The data are mean values and standard deviations.
The data are mean values and standard deviations.

2.4. Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

2.4. Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
In Tables 4 and 5 we report the widths (mm) of the inhibition halos of the three extracts tested at
In Tables 4 and 5 we report the widths (mm) of the inhibition halos of the three extracts tested
1–4 µg, using different bacteria and molds. The petroleum ether extract inhibited the growth of all
at 1–4 µg, using different bacteria and molds. The petroleum ether extract inhibited the growth of all
tested strains and exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. The chloroform
tested strains and exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. The chloroform extract
showed inhibitory activity against the Gram-positive pathogens, Bacillus cereus DSM 4313, B. cereus
DSM 4384, and Staphylococcus aureus. The chloroform and methanol extracts did not have significant
activity against Escherichia coli. The antimicrobial activity appears to be dose-dependent. The methanol
extract was inactive at 1 µg/mL against Bacillus cereus DSM 4313 and Staphylococcus aureus, but at
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 4 of 12

a concentration of 4 µg/mL, the inhibition of these strains was superior to tetracycline against the
same microorganisms.

Table 4. Antibacterial activity of petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extracts of P. aculeata.

Extract B. cereus 4313 B. cereus 4384 S. aureus P. aeruginosa E. coli 8579

Petroleum ether
1 µg/mL 7.60 ± 0.47 *** 3.66 ± 0.47 **** 13.00 ± 1.41 **** 4.0± 00 **** 10.66 ± 0.47 ****
2 µg/mL 11.33 ± 0.94 5.66 ± 0.47 **** 16.66 ± 1.24 **** 7.33 ± 0.94 *** 18.33 ± 1.59 ****
4 µg/mL 14.66 ± 0.47 **** 10.0 ± 00 20.33 ± 00 **** 10.66 ± 1.24 20.66 ± 0.94 ****
Chloroform
1 µg/mL 2.00 ± 00 **** 7.66 ± 0.94 **** 5.66 ± 0.47 8.66 ± 0.47 *** 0
2 µg/mL 4.33 ± 0.47 **** 9.33 ± 0.47 * 8.33 ± 1.24 **** 8.66 ± 0.47 *** 0
4 µg/mL 6.33 ± 0.47 **** 9.33 ± 0.47 * 10.33 ± 0.47 **** 10.33 ± 0.47 0
Methanol
1 µg/mL 0 7.66 ± 0.47 **** 0 6.33 ± 0.47 **** 0
2 µg/mL 5.33 ± 0.47 **** 8.66 ± 0.47 ** 7.6 ± 1.88 * 10.66 ± 0.47 0
4 µg/mL 10.66 ± 00 8.66 ± 0.47 ** 8.33 ± 1.24 *** 13.33 ± 1.24 **** 0
DMSO
Control 10.5 ± 0.5 10.5 ± 0.5 6.0 ± 0.5 10.5 ± 0.5 6.0 ± 0.5
Dunnett’s test vs. Tetracycline 7 µg. **** p < 0.001; *** p < 0.01; ** p < 0.1; * p < 0.5.

Table 5. Antifungal activity of petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol extracts of P. aculeata.

Extract P. expansum P. citrinum A. niger A. versicolor

Petroleum ether
1 µg/mL – – – 2.33 ± 0.47
2 µg/mL – – – 6.66 ± 0.47
4 µg/mL 5.33 ± 0.47 5.33 ± 0.47 2.00 ± 00 9.33 ± 0.47
Chloroform
1 µg/mL – – – –
2 µg/mL – – – –
4 µg/mL – 2.66 ± 0.47 – 5.00 ± 00
Methanol
1 µg/mL – – – 2.33 ± 0.47
2 µg/mL 2.70 ± 0.47 – – 5.00 ± 00
4 µg/mL 5.33 ± 0.47 4.66 ± 00 – 6.66 ± 00

A difference in antifungal activity of the three extracts against four fungal strains was observed:
Penicillium expansum, P. citrinum, and Aspergillus niger were not susceptible to the concentration of the 1
and 2 µg/mL for petroleum ether and chloroform extracts, whereas petroleum ether and methanol
extracts were more effective in inhibiting the growth of Aspergillus versicolor.

2.5. Cytotoxicity of Pereskia aculeata Extracts

The treatment of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with 0.01–100 µg/mL of the three extracts
for 24 h resulted in a low cytotoxic activity. Petroleum ether and methanol extracts showed an
IC50 > 2000 µg/mL and IC50 > 1600 µg/mL, respectively. However, the treatment with chloroform
extract resulted in a stronger cytotoxicity (IC50 < 300 µg/mL) (Figure 2).
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of 12
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of 12
(A) (B) (C)
(A)
(A) (B)
(B) (C)
(C)

Figure
Figure2. 2.2.Cell viability
Cellviability calculated
viability calculated
calculated asas percentageafter
afterMTT
MTTassay.
assay. Cells were treated with different
Figure
Figure 2.Cell
Cell viability calculated as percentage
percentage
percentage after MTT assay.Cells
after MTT Cells
Cellswere
were
were treated
treated
treated with different
with
with different
different
concentrations (0.01–100
concentrations (0.01–100µg/mL) µg/mL) of petroleum
µg/mL) petroleum ether ether (A), chloroform (B), and methanol (C) extracts of
concentrations
concentrations(0.01–100(0.01–100 µg/mL) of petroleum ether ether(A),
(A),chloroform
(A), chloroform
chloroform
(B), and
(B),
(B),
methanol
and
and methanol
methanol
(C)(C)
extracts of of
extracts
(C) extracts of
P.P.aculeata,
aculeata,forfor 24
24 hh and
and solvent
solvent (DMSO, 0.1%)
(DMSO, 0.1%)alone.
alone.Data
Dataare
arethe
themean
mean ± SD of three experiments
P.P. aculeata,
aculeata,for 2424
for h and
h andsolvent (DMSO,
solvent (DMSO,0.1%) alone.
0.1%) Data
alone. are are
Data the the
meanmean± ±SD
SD ofofthree
± SD
three experiments
experiments
of three *p<
experiments
*0.05,
p* p< <0.05,
0.05,****pp<<0.01,
p < **
0.01,vs.
vs. DMSO.
DMSO.
* p <**0.05, 0.01,
p < vs. DMSO.
0.01, vs. DMSO.

2.6. AdenylateCyclase
2.6. Cyclase 1 (ADCY1): Western Western Blot Analysis
2.6.Adenylate
2.6. Adenylate Cyclase111(ADCY1):
AdenylateCyclase (ADCY1): Western Blot
(ADCY1): Blot Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
WeWe investigated
investigated the
the effects
effects of
of three
three P.
P. aculeata
aculeata extracts
extractsinin
inSH-SY5Y
SH-SY5Y human
human neuroblastoma
neuroblastoma cells.
cells.
Weinvestigated
We investigatedthe the effects
effects of
of three
three P.
P. aculeata
aculeata extracts SH-SY5Y
SH-SY5Y human
human neuroblastoma
neuroblastoma cells.
cells.
RepresentativeWestern
Representative Westernblots blots and
and quantitative
quantitative densitometric
densitometric analysis
analysis forfor
adenylate
adenylatecyclase 1 (ADCY1)
cyclase 1 (ADCY1)
RepresentativeWestern
Representative Westernblots blotsand
andquantitative
quantitative densitometric
densitometric analysis
analysis for
for adenylate
adenylate cyclase
cyclase 11(ADCY1)
(ADCY1)
proteinexpression
protein expression in SH-SY5Y
SH-SY5Y following
following exposure totodifferent
differentconcentrations of of
thethe
extracts are are
protein expressioninin
proteinexpression inSH-SY5Y
SH-SY5Y following
following
exposure
exposure
exposure to different
to different
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations of the ofextractsextracts
the extracts
are are
shown
shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 3. Treatments
3.3.Treatments of
of SH-SY5Y
SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma
neuroblastoma cells with
cells with 100
with 100 µg/mL
100µg/mL of
µg/mLof methanol
ofmethanol extract
methanolextract
extract
shown
inofFigure in Figure
3. Treatments
P. aculeata Treatments
for 24 h significantly of
of SH-SY5Y SH-SY5Y
reduced neuroblastoma
neuroblastoma
ADCY1 expression cells
cells with 1004C),
(Figure µg/mL of methanol
however, petroleumextract
ether of
of P.P.aculeata for 24 hhsignificantly reduced ADCY1 expression (Figure
(Figure 4C),
4C),however,
however,petroleum
petroleumether
ether
P.of
and aculeata
aculeata
chloroform forh
for 24 24 significantly
significantly
extracts showed noreduced
reduced effects ADCY1
ADCY1
on ADCY1 expression
expression (Figure
expression 4C), however,
(Figure 4A,B). petroleum ether and
and chloroform
and chloroform extracts
extracts showed
showed no effects
no effects on ADCY1
on ADCY1 expression
expression (Figure
(Figure 4A,B).
4A,B).
chloroform extracts showed no effects on ADCY1 expression (Figure 4A,B).

Figure 3. Representative Western blot of adenylate cyclase 1 (ADCY1) protein in SH-SY5Y cells
Figure
treated3.
Figure Representative
3.3. Representative
with Western
Representative (A);blot
Western
Western
petroleum ether of adenylate
blot
blot
chloroform cyclase
of adenylate
(B); and 1 (ADCY1)
cyclase
methanol 11(C) protein
(ADCY1)
(ADCY1)
extracts inaculeata.
protein
protein
of P. SH-SY5Y cells treated
in SH-SY5Y
in SH-SY5Y cells
cells
with petroleum
treated with ether
petroleum(A); chloroform
ether (A); (B); and
chloroform
treated with petroleum ether (A); chloroform methanol
(B); and (C) extracts
methanol (C) of P. aculeata.
extracts of P. aculeata.
methanol (C) extracts of P. aculeata.

Figure 4. Relative expression levels of the ADCY1 protein in SH-SY5Y cells treated with petroleum
ether 4.
(A), chloroform (B), methanol of(C)
theextracts.
ADCY1Each panel shows thecells
densitometric analysis of
Figure
Figure
Figure 4.4.Relative
Relative
Relative expression
expression
expression levels
levels of
levels the ADCY1
ADCY1 protein
protein
protein in SH-SY5Y
in
in SH-SY5Y
SH-SY5Y cells
cells treated
treated with
treatedwith petroleum
withpetroleum
petroleum
bands
ether in the treated groups and control. Values are the mean ± SD in each group (n = 3). * p < 0.05,
ether(A),
ether (A),chloroform
(A), chloroform(B),
chloroform methanol
(B),
(B), methanol
methanol (C)(C)
extracts.
(C) Each
extracts.
extracts. panel
Each
Each shows
panel
panel the densitometric
shows
shows the
the densitometricanalysis
densitometric of bands
analysis
analysis ofof
compared to control (ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparison test).
in the
bands treated
in the groups
treated and control.
groups and Values
control.are the
Values mean
are ±
theSD in
mean each
± SD group
in (n
each = 3).
group
bands in the treated groups and control. Values are the mean ± SD in each group (n = 3). * p < 0.05, * p
(n<=0.05,
3). *compared
p < 0.05,
to control (ANOVA
compared
compared to controlfollowed
tocontrol (ANOVA
(ANOVA by Dunnett’s
followed
followed by multiple
by Dunnett’scomparison
Dunnett’s multiple test).
multiple comparison
comparison test).
test).
3. Discussion

3.3.Discussion
Discussion
Very few reports are available in the literature about the essential oils obtained both from
Discussion
Pereskia species and other Cactaceae. In a previous research, Souza and coworkers [9] reported the
Veryfew
Very fewreports
reportsare are available
available in literature
in the the literature
literature
aboutabout the
theleaves essential
essential oils
oilsInobtained both from
Pereskia
Very
chemical few reports
composition are
of theavailable
essential in
oil the
obtained from about
the the of P.oils
essential obtained
aculeata. both
obtained
this oil,from
both
the mainfrom
Pereskiaand
species
Pereskia species
other and other Cactaceae.
Cactaceae. Cactaceae.
In a In aa previous
previous previous
research, research,
Souza andSouza and
coworkers coworkers
[9] reported[9] reported
the the
chemical
compounds were phytol (29.4%), hexadecanoid acid (17.4%), and linoleic acid (12.7%). Our data the
species and other In research, Souza and coworkers [9] reported
chemical
composition composition
of the of
essential the
of theoilessential
obtained oil obtained
oilfrom from the leaves
P. are of
aculeata. P. aculeata. In this oil, the main
chemical
showed composition
that in P. aculeata essential
essential oil, thesethecompounds
obtained leaves
fromof the leaves of In
present P. this oil, the
aculeata.
in minor main
Inamounts, compounds
this oil, the
withmain
compounds
were were phytol
phytol (29.4%), phytol (29.4%), hexadecanoid
hexadecanoid hexadecanoid
acid (17.4%), acidlinoleic
and (17.4%), and linoleic acid (12.7%). Our data
compounds
differences were
in the relative (29.4%),
proportion of the acid
constituents. These acid
(17.4%), and(12.7%).
linoleic
variations may Our
be data
acid showed
(12.7%).
attributed Our that
mainly in
data
showed
P. aculeata
showed that in
essential P. aculeata
oil, these
that in P.conditions, essential
compounds
aculeata essential oil,
oil,arethese compounds
present
these in minor
compounds are present
amounts,
are present with in minor
differences
in minor amounts,
in the
amounts, with
relative
with
to environmental age of the plant, method of harvesting, and method used to isolate the
differences
proportion ofinthe
the relative proportion of the constituents. These variations
mainly tomay be attributed mainly
essential oil
differences theconstituents.
in[10]. These variations
relative proportion may be attributed
of the constituents. These variations environmental
may be attributed conditions,
mainly
to environmental
age of the plant, methodconditions, age of the plant,
of harvesting, method of to
harvesting,
isolate theand method oilused
[10].to isolate the
to environmental conditions, age of theand
plant,method
methodusedof harvesting, essential
and method used to isolate the
essential oil [10].
essential oil [10].
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 6 of 12

The stronger scavenging activity showed by methanol and petroleum ether extracts than in the
chloroform extract was probably due to the concentration of antioxidant compounds. Our data disagree
from those reported in literature about antioxidant activities of Pereskia species. Recently, Pinto and
coworkers reported the antioxidant activity of different fractions from the methanol extract of P. aculeata
by DPPH bioautographic analysis [6]. An interesting activity was observed in the hexane fraction
due to the presence of phenolic compounds. Wahab and coworkers reported a hexane extract as the
most powerful antioxidant if compared to ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, and methanol extracts [11].
Sim and coworkers [7] found a hexane extract of P. bleo with lowest EC50 value (210 µg/mL) among
different extracts in DPPH assay; the same authors reported an ethyl acetate extract of P. grandifolia as
the best DPPH-scavenging activity, followed by hexane and methanol extracts [12].
The results of Table 4 show that there is a correlation between higher DPPH-scavenging activity
and the content of total phenolics. This agrees with previous reports showing that phenolic compounds
generally correlate with antioxidant activities measured by DPPH assay [7,13]. Our results suggest
that P. aculeata can be considered as a source of polyphenols compared to other plants such as
Hypericum perforatum that showed a percentage of total polyphenols of the 2.12 mg GAE/g for
methanolic extract and 0.79 mg GAE/g for chloroform extract [14]. In literature, little is known
about the phenolic content of species of Pereskia: Sim and coworkers found that ethyl acetate extracts
of P. bleo and P. grandifolia possessed high total phenolic content (40.12 and 45.99 mg GAEs/g,
respectively) [7,12].
Different types of microorganisms were chosen to investigate the antimicrobial activity using
the inhibition halo technique. This test is often used to assess antibacterial activity of vegetal
extracts and essential oils [15,16]. Nevertheless, several limitations should be noted, such as lack
of standardization of inoculum density, adequate culture medium, agar viscosity, and size and
number of specimens per plate. Other disadvantages are that this method is relatively insensitive
and semiquantitative and does not distinguish between bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties of the
substances tested. In addition, the results of this test do not depend on only the toxicity of the material
for the particular microorganism, but are also influenced by the diffusibility of the material across the
medium. A material that diffuses more easily will probably provide larger zones of inhibition [17].
However, each susceptibility test has inherent advantages and limitations and agar-based methods
like E-test and agar disk diffusion represent valid methods compared, for example, to the broth
microdilution method [18].
The antimicrobial activity exhibited by P. aculeata extracts against both Gram-positive (B. cereus
and S. aureus) and Gram-negative (E. coli and P. aeruginosa) bacteria may indicate the presence of a
broad spectrum of compounds with antibiotic activity. The crude extracts of plants tend to contain a
mixture of molecules that vary in chemical structure and composition, which in turn may influence
the biological actions [19]. In literature, the antimicrobial activities of crude extracts of some Pereskia
species are reported only for crude extracts of some Pereskia species. Philip and coworkers evaluated
the antimicrobial activity of different extracts of P. bleo and P. Haw [20]. An ethyl acetate extract of
P. grandifolia showed antimicrobial activity against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and B. subtilis; methanol
and ethyl acetate extracts of P. bleo were effective against P. aeruginosa, and the ethyl acetate extract
was also active against B. subtilis. In our study, the methanol extract from P. aculeata demonstrated
strong antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa. These results are comparable with those reported
by Wahab and coworkers, which showed high and moderate activity against P. aeruginosa and
Salmonella choleraesuis, exerted by hexane and methanol extracts from P. bleo [11].
The extracts from P. aculeata showed different antifungal activity (Table 5). Petroleum ether and
methanol extracts were effective against Aspergillus versicolor, producing halos ranging from 2.33 to
9.33 mm and 2.33 to 6.66 mm, respectively. On the other hand, the first extract, at a concentration
of 4 µg/mL, was effective against P. citrinum and A. versicolor. The presence of sterols, such as
sitosterol [8,11,21], probably determined the ability of such extracts to inhibit the antifungal activity.
Phytosterols are reported for their antibacterial and antifungal activities [22].
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 7 of 12

The cytotoxic activity of the extracts from P. aculeata were evaluated in human neuroblastoma cell
line (SH-SY5Y). The IC50 values of the tested extracts were >200 µg/mL, indicating that the extract
was not cytotoxic, as judged by the criterion set by the National Cancer Institute which stated that the
extracts with IC50 < 20 µg/mL were considered cytotoxic against the treated cells [23]. Instead, hexane,
dichloromethane and ethyl acetate fractions of a P. aculeata extract showed cytotoxicity against MCF-7
cells and HL60 cells [6]. Moreover, P. bleo methanol extract has been reported for its cytotoxicity on
T47-D breast carcinoma cells [24] and a methanol extract of P. grandifolia exhibited cytotoxicity against
human SAOS-2 osteosarcoma cells [25].
Many plant species are used as sedatives, hypnotics, tranquilizers, treatments for disorders
of the central nervous system (CNS) [26]. Previous studies have shown that some extracts of
cactaceous species can affect the CNS. Kim and coworkers [27] revealed that the expression levels
of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, phosphorylated cyclic AMP (cAMP) response element binding
protein, and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (pERK) were significantly increased
in hippocampal tissue after 7 days of the administration of a methanol extract of O. ficus-indica var.
saboten administration. Extracts and isolated compounds from P. bleo leaf showed antinociceptive
activity [28,29]; P. bleo fractions had the isolated sitosterol and vitexin which possessed a central
antinociceptive effect [29]. Part of this effect is mediated by opioid receptors and the nitrergic
pathway. Adenylyl cyclase is involved in the production of the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP)
in response to various stimuli such as synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory [30,31]. In this
perspective, we carried out experiments to determine whether exposure to methanol, petroleum ether
and chloroform extracts of P. aculeata can affect this pathway in SH-SY5Y cells. Our results showed that
high concentration of methanol extracts (100 µg/mL) inhibited ADCY1 expression in SH-SY5Y cell and
consequently the intracellular production of cAMP. Clinical and epidemiologic research suggest that
reduction of ADCY1 expression has well-documented benefits, including benefits for heart disease
and pain [32].

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Plant Materials

Leaves of Pereskia aculeata were collected in the campus of the Universidade Federal do Rio
Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre, Brazil) in October 2015. The plant was identified by Mara Rejane Ritter.
A voucher specimen (ICN 155346) was deposited at the Herbarium of the Botanic at the Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.

4.2. Extraction Procedure

One kilogram of leaves were air-dried and then extracted, at room temperature, successively
with solvents of increasing polarity (petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol). Finally, each extract
was evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure. The extracts yield was 1.5%, 0.9%, and 2.1% for
petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol, respectively.

4.3. Isolation of the Volatile Oil

One hundred grams of dried leaves of P. aculeata was ground in a Waring blender and
then subjected to hydrodistillation for 3 h according to the standard procedure described in the
European Pharmacopoeia (2004) [33]. The oil was solubilized in n-hexane, filtered over anhydrous
sodium sulphate and stored under N2 at +4 ◦ C in the dark, until tested and analyzed.

4.4. GC-FID Analysis

Analytical gas chromatography (GC) was carried out on a Perkin-Elmer sigma-115 gas
chromatograph (Pelkin-Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID)
and a data handling processor. The separation was achieved using a HP-5 MS fused-silica capillary
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 8 of 12

column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm film thickness) (Agilent, Roma, Italy). Column temperature:
40 ◦ C, with 5 min initial hold, and then to 270 ◦ C at 2 ◦ C/min, 270 ◦ C (20 min); injection mode splitless
(1 µL of a 1:1000 n-hexane solution). Injector and detector temperatures were 250 ◦ C and 290 ◦ C,
respectively. Analysis was also run by using a fused silica HP Innowax polyethylenglycol capillary
column (50 m × 0.20 mm i.d., 0.25 µm film thickness) (Agilent). In both cases, helium was used as
carrier gas (1.0 mL/min).

4.5. GC/MS Analysis

Analysis was performed on an Agilent 6850 Ser. II apparatus (Agilent), fitted with a fused silica
DB-5 capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d., 0.33 µm film thickness) (Agilent), coupled to an Agilent
Mass Selective Detector MSD 5973 (Agilent); ionization energy voltage 70 eV; electron multiplier
voltage energy 2000 V.
Mass spectra were scanned in the range 40–500 amu, scan time 5 scans/s. Gas chromatographic
conditions were as reported in the previous paragraph; transfer line temperature, 295 ◦ C.

4.6. Identification of the Essential Oil Components

Most constituents were identified by gas chromatography by comparison of their Kovats retention
indices (Ri) (determined relative to the tR of n-alkanes (C10–C35)), with either those of the literature [34–37]
and mass spectra or both columns with those of authentic compounds available in our laboratories by
means NIST 02 and Wiley 275 libraries [38]. The components’ relative concentrations were obtained by
peak area normalization. No response factors were calculated.

4.7. Free Radical-Scavenging Capacity

4.7.1. Sample Preparations

Aliquots of three extracts were solubilized in methanol to obtain a final concentration ranging
from 10 to 0.4 mg/mL.

4.7.2. DPPH Radical

The methodology based on sequestering the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical was
used to determine the antioxidant activity of the extracts [39]. A 0.1 mL aliquot of each dilution
of the extract was reacted with 3.9 mL of DPPH radical (0.06 mM). The readings were made in a
spectrophotometer Thermo scientific Multiskan GO at 515 nm after 45 min. For preparation of the
standard curve, different concentrations of DPPH methanol solutions (0–60 µM) were used. The DPPH
concentration (EC50 of µM) in the reaction medium was calculated from the following calibration
curve, determined by linear regression: (R2 : 0.9937).
The scavenging capability of test extracts was calculated using the following Equation (1):

DPPH scavenging activity (%) = 100 × [(absorbance control−absorbance sample)/absorbance control] (1)

Ascorbic acid (5 µg/mL) was used as reference drug. The experiments were performed in
triplicate and averaged.

4.8. Total Phenolic Compounds

The total phenolic content was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, described by
Singleton and Rossi (1965) [40]. Eight hundred microliters of deionized water and 50 µL of the
Folin–Ciocalteu reagent were added to 50 µL of the suitably diluted extract. The mixture was kept
for 6 min, then 100 µL of a 7% aqueous Na2 CO3 solution was added. After 120 min, the absorption was
measured at 760 nm against water as a blank, using a Cary UV–Vis spectrophotometer (Varian, Palo
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 9 of 12

Alto, CA, USA). The amount of total phenolics was expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g
of extract.

4.9. Antimicrobial Assays

The antibacterial activity was evaluated in vitro, by means of the test of the inhibition halo
on the plate [16]. The activity of P. aculeata extracts was tested on five species of bacteria:
Staphylococcus aureus (DMS 25923), Bacillus cereus (DSM 4313), and Bacillus cereus (DSM 4384),
representative of the Gram-positives; Escherichia coli (DMS 857) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(ATCC 50071) for Gram-negatives. Bacteria were purchased from DSMZ, Braunschweig, Germany.
Microbial strains were previously grown in Nutrient Broth (Sigma, Milano, Italy), at 37 ◦ C for 18 h.
The microbial suspensions (1 × 107 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL) were uniformly distributed
on nutrient agar plates in sterile conditions. Different amounts of extracts (1, 2, and 4 µg/mL) were
spotted on the inoculated plates. After 10 min, plates were incubated at 37 ◦ C for 24–48 h depending
on the strain, under sterile conditions. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated by measuring the
diameter (in mm) of the zone of inhibition. A disk treated with DMSO alone served as the negative
control, tetracycline (7 µg/disc; Sigma Aldrich Italy, Milano, Italy) was used as a positive control. The
experiments were performed in triplicate and averaged.

4.10. Antifungal Activity

Some fungal strains of agro-food interest, Penicillium citrinum (DSM 1997), P. expansum (DSM 1994)
and Aspergillus versicolor (DSM1943), were used for antifungal activity. The strains were purchased
from DSMZ. Sterile Whatman No.1 paper filter disks (Ø = 5 mm) were individually placed on the
inoculated plates (Ø = 90 mm dishes) and impregnated with different amounts of the extracts (1, 2,
and 4 µg/mL, corresponding to 4–16 µL), were used. A cell suspension of fungi was prepared in
sterile distilled water, adjusted to contain 106 CFU/mL, and 50 µL were plated onto potato dextrose
agar (PDA) (Sigma Aldrich Italy). After 20 min under sterile conditions at room temperature, plates
were incubated at 28 ◦ C until the mycelium of fungi reached the edges of the control plate (negative
control without the extracts) [16]. The resulting clear zones of inhibition were measured in mm. DMSO
(10 µL) was used as a negative control. Samples were tested in triplicate and the results are expressed
as mean ± standard deviation.

4.11. Cell Cultures

Human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cancer cells were cultured in Roswell Park Memorial Institute
Medium (RPMI) supplemented with 1% L-glutamine, 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS),
1% penicillin/streptomycin (all from Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) at 37 ◦ C in an atmosphere
of 95% O2 and 5% CO2 .

4.12. MTT Assay

Cells were plated (5 × 103 ) in 96-well culture plates in 150 µL of culture medium and incubated
at 37 ◦ C in humidified 5% CO2 . The day after, a 150 µL aliquot of serial dilutions of the three extracts
(0.01–100 µg/mL) was added to the cells and incubated for 24 h. DMSO alone was used as control. Cell
viability was assessed through MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide)
assay. Briefly, 30 µL of MTT (5 mg/mL) was added and the cells incubated for additional 3 h. Thereafter,
cells were lysed and the dark blue crystals solubilized with 30 µL of a solution containing 50%, v/v,
N,N-dimethylformamide, 20%, w/v, SDS with an adjusted pH of 4.5. The optical density (OD) of each
well was measured with a microplate spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific Multiskan GO) equipped
with a 520 nm filter. Cell viability in response to treatment was calculated as a percentage of control
cells treated with DMSO at the final concentration 0.1% viable cells = (100 × OD treated cells)/OD
control cells [41].
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1478 10 of 12

4.13. Extraction Proteins and Western Blotting

Cells were treated with different concentrations (0.01–100 µg/mL) of the three extracts and,
after 24 h, were collected and lysed using Laemmli buffer to extract total proteins. For Western blot
analysis, an aliquot of total protein was run on 8% SDS-PAGE gels and transferred to nitrocellulose.
Nitrocellulose blots were blocked with 10% nonfat dry milk in Tris buffer saline 0.1% Tween-20 over
night at 4 ◦ C and incubated with primary anti-ADCY1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA,
USA) for 3 h at room temperature. Immunoreactivity was detected by sequential incubation with
horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (Amersham Biosciences, Pittsburgh, PA, USA)
and enhanced chemiluminescence reagents (ImmunoCruz, Santa Cruz Biotechnology) [42].

4.14. Statistical Analysis

All experiments were carried out in triplicate. Data of each experiment were statistically analyzed
using GraphPad Prism 6.0 software (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) followed by
comparison of means (two-way ANOVA) using Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test, at the significance
level of p < 0.05.

Author Contributions: Vincenzo De Feo and Ingrid Bergman Inchausti De Barros conceived and designed the
experiments; Lucia Caputo, Lucèia Fàtima Souza performed the experiments; Florinda Fratianni and Filomena
Nazzaro analyzed the data; Florinda Fratianni and Filomena Nazzaro contributed reagents/materials/analysis
tools; Lucia Caputo and Lucèia Fàtima Souza and Vincenzo De Feo wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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