KINGDOM PLANTS

⁃ Plants are autotrophic organisms made up of photosynthetic cells.

Animals and humans depend on plants for oxygen and food.
⁃ Plant cells contain chlorophylls (photosynthetic,pigments) and
carotenoids (helping pigments)
⁃ Plants are divided into two major groups: Seed plants and seedless
plants.
⁃ Seedless plants do not have seeds, flowers or fruits.
⁃ Alternation of generations (metagenesis) is observed in reproduction:
Asexual reproduction with spores alternating with various forms of sexual repro-
duction according to group.
⁃ Seed plants have true leaves, stems and roots. Flowers serve as sexual
organs and pollination is followed by development of embryo, seed and fruit.

A. SEEDLESS PLANTS
⁃ These are studied in two groups: Ferns and mosses.
1. Bryophyta (Land Mosses) They are called the "amphibians" of the plant world.
⁃ They attach themselves to the ground using rhizoids. These root- like
extensions absorb water from the soil, while hair-liken structures on other parts
of the plant absorb water via osmosis.

a. Hepaticae (Liverworts)
b. Musci (Leafy Mosses)

2. Pteridophyta (Ferns) The greatest differentiation of organs in spore

bearing plants is seen in ferns. Found worldwide, fens have vascular systems but
lack flowers and seeds, A vascular system and stomata are first observed in
⁃ Their vascular system is formed by tracheids. They have rhizoids
(primitive roots) stems and leaves. Rhizoids absorb water and minerals from the
soil.
⁃ Leaves are connected to the stem by stalks.
⁃ a. Lycopodiinae (Club Mosses). Leaves lack stalks and are needle-
like.True roots are first observed in this group,
⁃ Fern sporophytes are large and usually have pinnate leaves. Usually
spore production and photosynthesis are carried out by the same leaf. Reproduction
is by metagenesis.
⁃ Equisetum (Horsetail) These are found mostly in swampy and moist
places.
⁃ B. SEED PLANTS
⁃ Seed plants have true roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Pollen grains
are produced in large amounts on anthers. When one reaches an ovum (egg), a zygote
is formed (sexual reproduction). Fertilization and development of gametophytes
occur inside a flower. The gametophyte is the embryo inside the seed.
⁃ If a flower has both male and female organs, then it is called a
hermaphrodite. If the male and female organs are found in the same plant but in
different flowers, the plant is called monoecious, Pines are an example of monoic
plants. In some plant species, like Wilow and mulberry trees, male and female
flowers are found on different plants, and these are called dipecious plants.
⁃ Seed plants are divided into two groups depending on whether the seed
carpels are closed or not Gymnospermae. Angiospermae
⁃ Gymnospermae. Mostly closely branched trees and rarely bushes.
gymnosperms have seeds that are not closed inside. carpels, hence, the name
gymnosperms. Gumnosperms are woody plants with secondary growth.
⁃ Gumnosperm flowers are single sexed; either maleor female, Pollen is
transferred by the wind, or rarely by insects. Flowers are cones. Seeds spread when
the cones open.
⁃ Coniferophyta (Conifers) Conifers' leaves are needle shaped.They are
used in the production of wood, paper, resins, naphtha oil, etc.
 ⁃ a. Fir (Abies). b. Spruce (Picea). c. Cedar (Cedrus) d.
Pine (Pinus). e. Cypress (Cupressus). f. Juniper (juniperus)
⁃ Angiospermae (Flowering plants)
⁃ Seeds are contained inside ovaria formed by carpelles. Ovaria form
fruit.
⁃ Pollen can not reach the ovary directly.
⁃ The pollen reaches the ovum (egg) through the pollen tube and
fertilizes the egg
⁃ Double fertilization occurs.
⁃ May be herbaceous plants as well as woody plants.
⁃ Flowers have different colors and fragrances to attract insects.
⁃ Angiosperms are grouped into two classes (Monocotyledanae and
Dicotyledanae) according to the number of cotyledons.
⁃ Venation of leaves: Dicot leaves have a network of veins, while
parallel venation is observed in monocot plants.
⁃ Flowers: 4 or 5 in dicots .Monocot flower organs are usually found in
series of 3.
⁃ Root: Dicots have one primary root. Monocots have adventitious roots
⁃ Stein: The dicot vascular system dicots have cambium tissue in veins,
monocots do not.
⁃ Cotyledon; Dicots have two cotyledons, but monocots have only one.
⁃ 2.1 Monocotyledon
⁃ a.Couch grass (Agropyrum repens). b. Garlic (Allium sativum) C. Onion
(Allium cepe). d. Purple Iris (Iris germanica)
⁃ 2.2. Dicotyledons
a. Walnut (luglans regia). b. Lemon (Citrus medica limonia)
c. White willow (Salix alba). d. Linden (Tilia spp.). e. Mulberry (Morus nigra).
f. Olive (Olea europea).
g. Tea (Thea cinensis). h. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)

KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMALS)

⁃ Animals are some of the most common organisms found from the oceans to
the high mountains,
⁃ All animals are eukaryotes
⁃ All animas are heterotrophs
⁃ Most animals are motile during at least a certain period of their life
⁃ Many animals have a well - developed nervous system and sensory organs
⁃ Most animals reproduce sexually
⁃ Animals possess organs for respiration, excretion, and circulation.
⁃ A. CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
⁃ a, Cellular Organization. All animals are made up of cells. Organized
groups of cells form tissues, organs and systems. Organ systems form the organism
and work in harmony.
⁃ b. Symmetry Except for a few groups, the majority of animals exhibit
bilateral symmetry and can be divided into parts e.g. head, torso and limbs.
⁃ Symmetry is the presence of one or more planes that divide an organism
into identical sections.
⁃ Organisms with radial symmetry can be divided into equal pieces by any
number of planes passing through the main body axis. Bilaterally symmetric animals
can be divided into two pieces by a single longitudinal medial plane.
⁃ c. Embryonic Layers Two layers (ecto- and endoderm) are seen in sponges
and cnidarians. All higher animals have an additional intermediate layer.
⁃ d. Body Cavity. In many metazoan groups there is a single body cavity
with a combined mouth/anus (like hydra). Higher animals have two body cavites; a
true coelom, and a digestive cavity with separate oral and anal openings.
⁃ Segmentation. Some animals are segmented (annelids, etc.)
⁃ f. Skeleton. These structures differ in their chemical composition,
e.g. bone, cartilage, or structures made of silica, calcium carbonate, keratin or
chitin.
⁃ Circulatory System. The circulatory system of animals may be one of
two types; open or closed.
⁃ h. Nervous System. Primitive invertebrates (sponges) have no nervous
system.
⁃ Respiration Respiration mechanisms vary among animal groups.
⁃ Excretory System. According to the level of organization, animals have
different excretory systems.
⁃ B. ANIMAL KINGDOM
⁃ There are millions of diferent animal specie around the world.
⁃ 1. Porifera (Sponges)
⁃ Porifera means "having pores", which describes their perforated, sac-
like bodies. There are about 10,000 species alive today. They may be yellow, grey,
red, blue or even black in color. Cell differentiation in this group is incomplete,
⁃ There is no tissue organization or sensory; nervous of muscular system,
bilayered, symmetric or asymmetric. The mesohyl includes amoebocytes which
transport food or funcion in digestion. Sponges differ on the basis of the type of
skeleton they secrete. In Porifera, reproduction is sexual or asexual. Budding or
regeneration are asexual forms of reproduction. Most sponges are hermaphroditic:
male and female gametes are produced by the same sponge.
⁃ 2. Cnidaria (Coelenterates). Coelenterate means "hollow (animal)" in
Greek. There are over 10,000 species in this group.
⁃ Polyp: These are sessile forms, and thus fixed to
⁃ the ground. Around the "mouth" there are many stinging tentacles.
⁃ Medusa: These swim freely in the water and have a flat, umbrella like
body. Their body is jelly-like.
⁃ There are 3 classes in the phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata). These are
Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa and Anthozoa.
⁃ a. Hydrozoa (Hydra). The mouth is positioned on the upper tip. There
are 6-8 tentacles around the mouth active in movement and feeding.
⁃ Flagellated cells lining the body cavity circulate water inside the
cavity and function in digestion and absorytion of food.
⁃ Digestion begins in the cavity and is completed inside the cells. But
there is no respiratory, circulatory or excretory system in hydrae. These functions
are carried out via diffusion. Although sessile they are able to move short
distances.
⁃ They reproduce asexually by budding or regeneration but they can also
reproduce sexually.
⁃ b. Scyphozoa. All are umbrella-shaped marine organisms.. The jellyfish
(Aurelia aurita) is an example of this group. Coloration is translucent bluish or
even pinkish. They live near the water surface. In the center, there is a mouth and
reproductive organs arranged around it.
⁃ C. Anthozoa (Sea Anemones and Corals). Sea anemones and the colonial
coral groups are anthozoans. Radial symmetry is seen in some members (sea
anemones). Most are colonial and sessile. Tentacles encircling the mouth are
present in general and they capture small plankton, and even fish and sea
invertebrates. They usually reproduce sexually.
⁃ 3. Ctenophora (Comb jellies). These are all very delicate and often
luminescent marine organisms. They acquire their names because of their
apperarence:
⁃ 4. Platyhelminthes (Flat-worms, Helminths) These are flattened, soft-
bodied organisms, and are the first animals with bilateral symmetry. They are
mostly aquatic (marine or freshwater), but there are some terrestrial species of
moist soil, and many parasitic species are
⁃ There are 3 main classes:
⁃ 1. Turbellaria-Turbellarians
⁃ 2. Trematoda-Flukes
⁃ 3. Cestoda-Tapeworms
⁃ Planaria are found under stones in streams. They feed on plant material
and small animals. They are so flat that there is no need for a respiratory system,
and gas exchange is by diffusion. They move by means of cilia. There are two nerve
cords in a ladder system. Thev may reproduce sexually or asexually. Planaria are
hermaphroditic.
⁃ Trematoda (Flukes) Flukes are found as parasites of vertebrates and
humans. In humans they live in
⁃ hepatic veins and bile ducts. The parasites destroy the liver, but
therapy is possible. They are either hermaphroditic or have separate sexes.
⁃ Cestoda (Tapeworms )About 1000 species are exclusively endoparasites of
vertebrates or humans. Their body is flat. These are all hermaphroditic animals and
reproduce with cross-fertilization.
⁃ 5. Nemertea (Nemertins). This small phylum consists of 900 species.
Except for a few species living in moist soil or freshwater, they are completely
marine. They are the first in the animal kingdom to have separate anus and mouth.
Also there is a simple, closed circulatory system, but no heart.
⁃ 6. Nematoda (Roundworms). Nematodes are very important ecologically
and are abundant in soil. Their importance comes from their major role as
decomposers. Sense organs are not developed and they have separate sexes. Although
there are many free-living species, some species are plant or animal parasites.
Examples of parasitic nematodes (in humans) are pinworm, hookworm, ascaid worms,
trichinae worms, and whipworm.
⁃ Rotifera (Rotifers: Wheel animals). Rotifer are microscopic
multicellular organisms that live in water. Nervous system consists of a brain and
some sensory organs (eye spot). Most live in freshwater.
⁃ Mollusca. About 50,000 living and 35,000 fossil species of molluscs are
known. Examples of the group include mussels, octopuses, snails, slugs, oysters and
squid. Their soft bodies are usually covered dorsally with a hard shell made of
CaCO,. Digestive system consists of a mouth buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach,
intestine and anus. Many species have an open circulatory system and gills
⁃ 9. Annelida (Annelids). There are about 15,000 species in this group.
Segments are divided internally by septa. Digestive tract and nerve fibers are
continuous throughout the segments. The segmented body provides agility, and
elasticity results from the separate coelom and muscles of each segment. Typical
examples are medicinal leech and earthworm.
⁃ 10. Arthropoda. There are about 1,000,000 species of arthropods found
in all habitats. Arthro means joint, pod means pot. The exoskeleton is armor-like
in crustaceans in which CaCO, is a component.
⁃ General characteristics of arthropods:
⁃ 1 Bilateral symmetry.
⁃ Joined legs develop on each segment
⁃ Exoskeleton is chitinous and molting occurs.
⁃ Digestive system is complete; mouth structures
⁃ differ according to diet.
⁃ Open circulatory system.
⁃ Respiration takes place through trachea, book lungs, gills and skin.
⁃ Nerve system is ladder-like.
⁃ There are separate sexes, Direct development or metamorphosis are seen.
⁃ There are four classes of arthropods:
⁃ Crustacea (crustaceans)
⁃ Arachnida (spider and allies)
⁃ Insecta (Insects)
⁃ Chilopoda - Diplopoda (Centipedes and Millipedes)
⁃ b. Crustacea. They live in seas, freshwater and on land. Examples are
crab, shrimp, lobster and Daphnia
⁃ Their soft bodies are usually covered dorsally with a hard shell made
of CaCOg:
⁃ c. Arachnida. All are terrestrial examples are scorpion, spider, tick
and scabies mite.
⁃ d. Insecta. Insects, the largest terrestrial animal group, are common
throughout the world.
⁃ e. Chilopoda - Diplopoda. All are terrestrial, but restricted to moist
places. Millipedes are detritus feeders, while centipedes are predators
⁃ 11. Echinodermata (Spiny-skinned). All are marine. They are radially
symmetric. The digestive system includes a mouth and anus. Respiratory organs are
small gills. There is no heart and an open circulatory system is observed. They
have separate sexes,
⁃ Asexual reproduction is by regeneration, Examples are sea star, brittle
star, sea cucumber, sea urchin and sea lily.
⁃ 12. Chordata (Chordates)
⁃ a. Chordate characteristics. A more or less developed dorsal
endoskeleton and notochord is present.
⁃ A brain develops as an extension of the anterior tip of the notochord.
⁃ Ventral to the notochord lies the digestive tract. Aquatic species have
gills but terrestrial ones have lungs. Heart is positioned ventrally.
⁃ Urochordata (Tunicates). All are marine. Notochord and nerve cord are
found only in the caudal part of larvae. Adults have only a small node as a
remainder of the nerve cord.
⁃ c. Cephalochordata (Lancelets)
⁃ d. Vertebrata (Vertebrates). All vertebrates have developed brains and
skulls (crania).
⁃ d1. Vertebrate Characteristics
⁃ Epidermis is multi-layered.
⁃ Skeleton is jointed, either cartilaginous (in
⁃ sharks and jawless fishes) or bony (all others).
⁃ There are two pairs of extremites. Skeletal muscles function in
movement.
⁃ Digestive tract begins at the mouth, which opens to a stomach, followed
by intestines, and ends in the anus.
⁃ Circulatory system is closed. Hemoglobin is the pigment that carries
CO, and O in the blood.
⁃ Kidneys are the urinary organs.
⁃ Most have separate seres;
⁃ Anamniota (These lack an amniotic sag)
⁃ Class: Pisces (Fishes)
⁃ Class: Amphibia (Amphibians)
⁃ Amniota
⁃ Class Reptilia (Reptiles)
⁃ Class Aves (Birds)
⁃ Class Mammalia (Mammals)
⁃ d.3. Pisces (Fishes)
⁃ Cartilaginous(Chondrichthyes) and bony(Osteichthyes) fishes are the two
classes in this group.The skeleton may be cartilaginous (shark) or bon (many
fishes, e.g. carp) . Epidermis may have scales or not
⁃ Gills are the respiratory organs. In cartilaginous fishes, there are 5-
7 gill pairs, but 4 in bony fishes.
⁃ In fish, the eyes are focused at a shorter distance while resting and
are able to see 1 m at most.
⁃ Eggs are released and fertilization is external, except in sharks.
⁃ d.4. Amphibia (Frogs and Salamanders) Anurans (frogs) live both in
water and on land. Amphibia means double life.
⁃ Mucus glands and poision glands are found under the skin.
⁃ Respiration Occurs partially through the skin. Eggs hatch in water.
Tadpoles(larvae) are tailed and respire with gills (some sala-manders remain in
this form). Metamorphosis follows and larvae become adults. Adult frogs lose their
gills, tails and caudal fins. They respire with lungs and their heart has 1 atrium
and 2 ventricles
⁃ d.5. Reptilia (Reptiles)
⁃ Many reptiles are terrestrial. Their thick, dry skin is covered with
scales and plates. A reptile's internal organs are contained within a rib cage. The
heart and lungs are well-developed. Internal fertilization is a remarkable feature
of reptiles.
⁃ As in birds, reptilian eggs are rich in yolk, but the shell is more
flexible. Reptiles are cold-blooded animals like fish and frogs.
⁃ d.6. Aves (Birds)
⁃ The bird body is remarkably covered with feathers. Feathers provide
insulation and prevent water loss,and function in flight as well. Hollow bones and
air sacs also facilitate Night. Their tongues are hard and they have bills without
teeth.
⁃ Birds are warm-blooded. Their heart consists of two atria and two
ventricles. Respiration is well-developed. Development and reproduction is similar
to that of reptiles. Eyelids are movable. Kidneys are of metanephric. Urine and
feces are expelled through the cloaca.
⁃ d.7. Mammalia (Mammals)
⁃ Mammary glands (in females) and hair covered bodies are characteristics
of mammals.
⁃ Hair covers the skin.
⁃ They are warm-blooded and their hearts have 2 atria and 2 ventricles.
Except camels, the erythrocytes lack nuclei.
⁃ Teeth are developed,
⁃ Respiratory system is well-developed.
⁃ Most have a placenta and give birth to live young.
⁃ Brain function and mobility are developed.
⁃ Monotremata (Egg-laying mammals):
⁃ These organisms do not have a placenta. These are egg-laying animals,
but they feed their young with milk produced by mammary glands. Examples are the
duck-
⁃ billed platypus (Ornithorhynhus anatonus)
⁃ Marsupialia (Pouched Mammals); The pouched mammals do not have a
placenta. They give birth to underdeveloped embryos. Many species are found
exclusively in America and Australia. Examples of the group are the kangaroo, sugar
glider, wombat, and opossum.
⁃ Placentalia (Placental mammals); Nearly 95% of mammal species found
today are in this group. The placenta plays an important role in embryonic
development, functioning in excretion, respiration, and the transfer of nutrients
from the mother to the embryo.
⁃