Taxonomy:

Numerical Taxonomy is based on all the observable characteristics. In this,

numbers and codes are assigned to all the characters and then data is processed
by using computers and each character is given equal importance where
hundreds of characters are considered at the same time.

Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosome number,

structure, and behaviour. Chemotaxonomy uses the chemical constituents of the
organism to classify them.

ALGAE

They are simple, thalloid, autotrophic and mostly aquatic organisms.

They are found in different types of habitats like moist stones, soils and wood.
Some of them are found in association with fungi (lichens) and animals (e.g., on
sloth bear).

Algae show variation in form and size. Some of them are microscopic unicellular
(like Chlamydomonas), some are colonial (like Volvox) while some are
filamentous (like Ulothrix and Spirogyra). Some marine algae like kelps have
massive plant bodies.

All modes of reproduction, i.e., vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction are
found in algae.

Fragmentation: Very common among filamentous algae. In this mode of

reproduction, each fragment develops into a thallus.
Asexual reproduction involves the production of different types of spores.
Zoospores are the most common type of asexual spores. Due to presence of
flagella, they are motile. They germinate to give rise to new plants.

Sexual reproduction involves fusion of two gametes. On the basis of nature of

gamete involved, sexual reproduction is of following three types:

Isogamous reproduction: In this type of reproduction, gametes are similar in size.

Gametes may be flagellated as in Chlamydomonas or non-flagellated as in
Spirogyra.

Anisogamous reproduction: This type of reproduction involves fusion of two

gametes which are dissimilar in size as in some species of Chlamydomonas.

Oogamous reproduction: This type of reproduction involves fusion between one

large, non-motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete.
Volvox and Fucus exhibit oogamous reproduction.

Algae are economically important for us. About half of the total carbon dioxide
fixation on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis.

Some marine brown and red algae produce hydrocolloids (like algin and
carrageen). These colloids are used commercially.Agar is one of the commercial
products. It is used to grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and
jellies. It is also obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria.

Some unicellular algae like Chlorella and Spirullina are rich in proteins and hence
they are used as food supplements.
The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and
Rhodophyceae.

(i) Chlorophyceae (Green algae)

Chlorophyceae are mainly freshwater algae, although some species can also be
found in marine or terrestrial habitats.

The members of this class are commonly known as green algae. They possess
pigments chlorophyll a and b in chloroplasts.

Each chloroplast contains one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids. In

addition to starch, pyrenoids also contain protein. In some algae, food may be
stored in the form of oil droplets.

Members of chlorophyceae have a rigid cell wall consisting of an inner layer of

cellulose and an outer layer of pectose.

Common examples of green algae are Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix,

Spirogyra and Chara.

(ii) Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)

The members of this class are found chiefly in marine habitats which may be
simple branched, filamentous forms (like Ectocarpus) or profusely branched
reaching a height of 100 metres.

They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.

They store food in the form of complex carbohydrates (either laminarin or

mannitol).
The vegetative cells are covered with a wall consisting of cellulose. On the outer
side of the wall a gelatinous coating of algin is present.

The plant body is differentiated into a holdfast, a stalk called the stipe and leaf
like photosynthetic organ– the frond. Holdfast keeps the plant attached to the
substratum.

Common members of class phaeophyceae are Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria,

Sargassum and Fucus.

(iii) Rhodophyceae (Red algae)

Most of the members of this class are marine and are found in well-lighted
regions and also at the great depths in oceans where only a little amount of light
reaches.

They contain a red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body and hence they appear
red.

Most of the red algae have multicellular thallus with complex body organisation.

They store food in the form of floridean starch which is very similar to
amylopectin and glycogen in structure.

The common members of class Rhodophyceae are Polysiphonia, Porphyra,

Gracilaria and Gelidium.
 BRYOPHYTES

They are usually found in moist and shaded areas in the hills, marshy ground,
damp soil, bark of trees, etc. Bryophytes can live in soil but they are dependent on
water for sexual reproduction. Hence, they are also known as "Amphibians of the
plant kingdom".

Bryophytes have thallus-like plant body which may grow either prostrate or erect.
Plant body is attached to the substratum with the help of unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids. They do not possess true roots, stem or leaves but they may
have root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.

The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid which produces gametes.
Because of this, plant body is called a gametophyte.

Bryophytes possess multicellular sex organs. The antheridium represents the male
sex organ while archegonium is flask shaped and represents the female sex organ.
Inside the antheridium, biflagellate antherozoids are developed and in
archegonium, a single egg is developed. Mature antherozoids are released from
antheridium and with the help of water they reach to archegonium. In
archegonium, antherozoid fuses with the egg to produce the zygote.

After fertilisation, zygote undergoes a resting period and thereafter it undergoes

reduction division. As a result a multicellular body called a sporophyte develops.
The sporophyte is attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and derives
nourishment from it. (i.e., sporophyte is not free-living )

Some specialised cells of the sporophyte, called sporogenous cells, undergo

reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid spores. Each spore germinates to
produce gametophyte.

Bryophytes are of slightly less economic importance. Some mosses are the source
of food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.

A moss, named Sphagnum, provides peat that is used as fuel and as packing
material for trans-shipment of living material.

Some bryophytes are ecologically important. Mosses along with lichens are the
first organisms to colonise rocks. They also prevent soil erosion.

The bryophytes are further divided into liverworts and mosses:

(i) Liverworts

The plant body is thalloid which is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the
substrate. Some of the liverworts are leafy. Such forms have tiny leaf-like
appendages in two rows on the stem-like structures.

Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation of thalli or by formation of gemmae.

The gemmae are specialized structures which develop in small cup-shaped
receptacles on the thalli. These receptacles are called gemma cups.

The gemmae after detaching from the parent body germinate and form new
individuals.
The male and female organs associated with the sexual reproduction may be
produced on the same thalli or on the different thalli.

The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule. In capsule,

development of haploid spores takes place. The spores germinate to form free-
living gametophytes. For e.g., Marchantia.

(ii) Mosses

The life cycle of a moss involves both gametophytic phase and sporophytic phase,
but the gametophytic phase is predominant one. Gametophytic phase consists of
two stages - the first stage is the protonema stage and the second stage is leafy
stage.

Protonema stage develops directly from a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched

and filamentous stage.

Leafy stage develops from the secondary protonema. It consists of upright,

slender axis bearing spirally arranged leaves. It bears multicellular and branched
rhizoids which help the plant body to attach the soil. Leafy stage bears the sex
organs.

Common examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum.

The mosses exhibit following modes of reproduction:

1. Vegetative reproduction in mosses takes place by fragmentation and budding

in the secondary protonema.
2. The sex organs i.e., antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the
leafy shoots. After fertilisation, zygote is formed which develops into sporophyte.

Sporophyte consists of a foot, seta and capsule. The sporophyte in mosses is more
elaborate than that in liverworts. Inside the capsule, development of haploid
spores takes place. Development of spores involves meiosis.

PTERIDOPHYTES

They are the first terrestrial plants which possess vascular tissues – xylem and
phloem. They are mostly found in cool, damp and shady places.

The main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem
and leaves. Each organ has well-differentiated vascular tissues. Some
pteridophytes such as Selaginella bear small leaves (microphylls) while some
other such as ferns bear large leaves (macrophylls).

The sporophytic plant bears sporangia on the ventral side of leaf-like appendages
called sporophylls. In some pteridophytes such as Selaginella and Equisetum,
sporophylls form compact structures each called cone or strobilus.

In sporangia, haploid spores are produced by meiotic division in spore mother

cells. Each spore germinates and gives rise to inconspicuous, multicellular, thalloid
gametophyte called prothallus. This prothallus is free-living, mostly
photosynthetic and requires cool, damp, shady places to grow.

The gametophyte bears male (antheridia) and female sex organs (archegonia).
The transfer of antherozoids from the antheridia to the mouth of archegonium
requires water. Fusion of male gamete with the egg leads to the formation of
zygote. Later on, zygote develops into a multicellular well-differentiated
sporophyte which is the dominant phase in the life cycle of the pteridophytes.

Most of the pteridophytes bear same kind of spores. Such plants are called
homosporous. Some pteridophytes such as Selaginella and Salvinia bear two kinds
of spores – macrospore which are large in size and microspores which are small in
size. Such pteridophytes are known as heterosporous. The megaspores and
microspores germinate and give rise to female and male gametophytes,
respectively.

The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:

Psilopsida e.g., Psilotum

Lycopsida e.g., Selaginella and Lycopodium

Sphenopsida e.g., Equisetum

Pteropsida e.g., Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum

GYMNOSPERMS

In gymnosperms, ovules are naked without any covering and hence remain
exposed. The seeds, which develop after fertilisation, are also naked.

Gymnosperms are either shrub or tree. In some genera, e.g., in Pinus, roots are in
association with fungi in the form of mycorrhiza. In some other genera of
gymnosperms like Cycas, roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria
which are called coralloid roots.

In some genera such as Cycas, stems are unbranched whereas in some other
genera like Pinus, Cedrus, etc., stem is branched.

The leaves may be simple or compound. Cycas has pinnately compound leaves
which persist for a few years. Conifers such as Pinus, Deodar, etc., have needle-
like leaves with thick cuticle and sunken stomata. All these features help to
reduce water loss.

The gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce haploid microspores and

megaspores within sporangia. Sporangia are formed on sporophylls which are
arranged spirally along an axis to form compact strobili or cones. The strobili are
of two types– male strobili/cones and female strobili/cones. Male cones bear
microsporophylls with microsporangia while female cones bear megasporophylls
with ovules or megasporangia. The male or female cones may be borne on the
same tree as in Pinus or on different trees as in Cycas.

The microspore or pollen grain represents reduced gametophyte. The

development of pollen grains take place within the microsporangia.

In ovule, one of the cells of the nucellus differentiates into megaspore mother cell
(2n). The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four megaspores (n).
One of the megaspores develops into a female gametophyte or embryo sac after
nuclear division. The female gametophyte is retained within megasporangium.
Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in gymnosperms the male and the female
gametophytes do not have an independent free-living existence. They remain
within the sporangia retained on the sporophytes.

After the release of pollen grains from the microsporangium, they are carried in
air currents. When they come in contact with the opening of the ovules borne on
megasporophylls, pollen tube carrying the male gametes grows towards
archegonia in the ovules. The pollen tube discharge their contents near the
mouth of the archegonia. Subsequently, fertilisation takes place and a zygote is
formed. Zygote develops into an embryo and the ovules into seeds. These seeds
are not covered