JPE Prab 2023

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Hydrogels in Agriculture: Prospects and Challenges
Article in Journal of Polymers and the Environment · April 2023

DOI: 10.1007/s10924-023-02859-1
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Journal of Polymers and the Environment
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-023-02859-1
REVIEW
Hydrogels in Agriculture: Prospects and Challenges

Prabhpreet Kaur1 · Ruchi Agrawal1 · Frederick M. Pfeffer2 · Richard Williams3 · Himadri B. Bohidar1
Accepted: 29 March 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023
Abstract
Hydrogels retain substantial quantities of both water and nutrients within their three dimensional polymeric network. As
such they have the ability to modify the local micro-environment of seeds/seedlings to enhance their growth outcomes.
In terms of both safety and sustainability, the use of natural biopolymer based hydrogels is more advantageous. The
network structure of hydrogels is typically formed by physical interaction and/or chemical crosslinking between polymer
chains. The nature, strength and extent of crosslinking can be tailored to customize gel properties (such as mechanical
strength, porosity and swelling behaviour) to suit a given type of application. This review highlights the use of hydrogels
in agriculture where they (i) provide drought resistance to crops, (ii) act as reservoirs for critical nutrients, (iii) function
as seed coating agents and (iv) improve transplantation success rate. The biodegradability and environmental compatibil-
ity of hydrogels for a range of applications in the farming sector is also discussed. Finally, the challenges of modifying
hydrogels to suit specific agricultural applications are elaborated including issues that need to be overcome to exploit the
full potential of these novel soft materials in sustainable farming practices of the future.
Keywords Hydrogels · Sustainable agriculture · Nutrient release · Seed coating
Introduction withdrawal is used for irrigation in agricultural farms [2].

With the predicted increase in population, the amount of crop
There is a real and pressing need to produce more food, at water consumption in 2050 is set to increase by 70–90% [3].
higher efficiency, without degrading the soil or destroying Unfortunately, water resources are already depleting at a
the natural flora and fauna. According to the recent projec- much faster rate than their natural rate of replenishment and
tions made by the United Nations, the world’s population any shortage in water availability is bound to have a pro-
is expected to increase from 7.7 to 9.7 billion by 2050, and found effect on crop yields. For example, the global water
is expected to peak at nearly 11 billion by around 2100 [1]. shortage from 1980 to 2015 resulted in an estimated loss in
This scenario would lead to a significant increase in the yield of 21% for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and 40% for
demand for all types of resources, especially the agricultural maize (Zea mays L.) [4].
products, subsequently increasing the demand for more irri- Therefore, there is a growing need for new, simple and
gation water. Currently, ca. 70% of the global freshwater innovative farming practices designed for efficient use of
the available water resources. In this regard, one of the most
promising developments is the use of hydrogels in agricul-
Himadri B. Bohidar ture. A hydrogel can be defined as a highly hydrated polymer
[email protected]; [email protected] matrix, with large amounts of immobilized water (~ 99%)
1
per unit volume. The water absorption capacity of hydro-
National Center for Excellence in Agriculture
Nanotechnology, TERI-Deakin Nanobiotechnology Center, gel mainly arises due to the presence of specific hydrophilic
Gwal Pahari, Gurugram, NCR 122001, India groups (such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, amide and others) in
2
School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin its polymer network [5]. The 3-D structure of hydrogel is
University, Geelong Waurn Ponds Campus, Melbourne, held on by physical and covalent crosslinks, which help to
VIC 3216, Australia prevent the dissolution of hydrogel in solvent. The swelling
3
The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical kinetics, mechanical properties, porosity are generally influ-
Translation, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong enced by the nature of crosslinking (physical or chemical).
Waurn Ponds Campus, Melbourne, VIC 3216, Australia
13
A wide range of non-toxic and safe hydrogels have found the polymer chains (Fig. 1a-f). For instance, cellulose based
widespread applications in various fields such as drug deliv- hydrogels can be prepared from a pure cellulose solution
ery, tissue engineering, biosensing, water treatment, optics through physical crosslinking due to the presence of numer-
(contact lenses), personal care and wound dressing products ous hydroxyl groups, which can interlink polymer network
[6]. From agricultural perspective, hydrogel can act as an through hydrogen bonding [15]. For chemical cross linking
immediate water source that is readily available to seeds or of cellulose chains, free radical polymerization method is
seedlings when soil conditions in the proximity start to dry frequently used by adding appropriate initiators for genera-
up [7]. Studies have reported that the use of hydrogel can tion of free radicals (potassium persulphate, UV radiation,
lower the irrigation frequency and improve the water use γ-radiation) and cross linking agents (such as N,N-methy-
efficiency as the soil remains moist for longer time period lene bisacrylamine, diallyltartardiamide and (poly)ethyl-
[8]. eneglycol dimethyl-ether.
Also, the robust structure of some hydrogels can help pre- Ross-Murphy and McEvoy in 1986 [16] described the
vent fertilizer losses caused by leaching to the underground mechanism of gelation as crosslinking between the reac-
water tables, thereby lowering the overall fertilizer demand tive sites present on the gelator molecules. As the selective
and limiting collateral environmental pollution. The use of ‘aggregation of aggregates’ proceeds in a structured man-
hydrogels has also been shown to significantly increase soil ner, a critical point is reached where one aggregate yields
porosity. Upon absorption of water molecules, the hydrogel effectively an infinite network, called incipient gel. During
particles swell and increase in size, thereby decreasing the the gelation process, the critical point where the gel starts
overall bulk density. This facilitates essential ventilation/ to form is called “gel point” [17]. Beyond this point, the
oxygenation to the seed and plant roots [9, 10]. The effect of system consists of the infinite molecule and finite branched
hydrogel addition on soil porosity is influenced by the type molecules. Later, the incipient gel percolates through the
of soil. Womack et al. [11] observed an increase in specific entire system to transform the sol state into gel network.
porosity of soil by an average of 4, 10 and 19% in clay, sand Theories that describe the mechanism of gelation use
and sandy loam soil, respectively indicating a difference in this concept of percolation of bonds across the entire sys-
the interaction of hydrogel particles according to the differ- tem to form gel network. Traditional quantitative descrip-
ent physical properties of soil. tion of gelation, which rely on mean-field approaches, was
In this review, we specifically focus on the development developed in the 1940s by Flory and Stockmayer [18, 19].
and use of hydrogels pertaining to the challenges in the An alternative theory is the lattice percolation model [20]
field of conventional agriculture such as insufficient water where monomers are thought to occupy the sites of a peri-
resources, high fertilizer requirements and soil degradation. odic lattice and bonds between these lattice sites are formed
Prior to the discussion on agricultural applications, the basic randomly.
concepts of gelation are discussed by taking examples from The gel point of polymers can be determined by two
the previous literature. This review provides an overview major types of rheological measurements: Steady Shear
and perspective to the current applications of hydrogels Test and Oscillatory Shear Test [21]. Initially, the measure
in agriculture as a soil conditioner to alleviate the drought of storage modulus (G’, this is an elastic property) is smaller
stress, as nutrient carrier, seed coating agent, and to increase than the loss modulus (G’’, this is related to energy dissipa-
the success rate of transplantation. Considering the nascent tion) at different range of frequencies. As gelation proceeds,
stage of these deliverables, an overall perspective of this G’ increases more rapidly than G’’ at low frequencies. The
field is called for which constitutes the aim of this review. point at which G’ crosses G’’ is marked as the point of gela-
tion. However, this is valid only under certain conditions
for few polymers with stoichiometric balance, an excess of
Concept of Gelation cross linker and at temperatures much above the glass tran-
sition temperatures [22]. At higher frequencies, G’ exceeds
From a structural viewpoint, a hydrogel is an intercon- G’’ and becomes independent of the frequency depicted by
nected network formed as a result of self-assembly of a plateau, which indicates the formation of a stable gel [23].
polymer chains [12]. Gelation or solution to gel (sol-gel) The gelation process of many biopolymers is explained
transition is the formation of these polymeric networks in a as a volume phase transition (VPT) from random coil to an
solution of polydispersed monomers or polymers by physi- ordered secondary structure (Fig. 1g). The helix formation
cal or chemical crosslinking [13, 14]. Physical crosslinking leads to association and branching (or aggregation) of the
occurs due to the presence of hydrogen bonds, ionic inter- polymer strands to form an infinite 3-D network i.e. gel
actions, hydrophobic interactions while the chemical cross- in these systems. This VPT between phases can occur in
linking involves the formation of covalent bonds between response to various stimuli such as temperature, pH, ionic
13
Fig. 1 (a) Intermolecular H bonding between the carboxylic groups cross linker, and (e) Free radical polymerization of polymer chains
present on polymer chains, (b) Network formation due to hydrophobic caused by an initiator molecule or radiation (f) Enzyme mediated cross
interactions in the polymer chains, (c) Ionic interactions between diva- linking of polymer chains (g) Volume phase transition of random coil
lent cations and anionic functional groups present on polymer chains, formed by biopolymer chains into gel network
(d) Cross linking of polymer chains in the presence of bifunctional
environment [24]. For instance, ĸ-carrageenan in hot solu- Biodegradability

tion above the melting temperature is present as random
coil, which transforms to helical rods upon cooling. Further, To mitigate concerns about the impact of altered agricul-
in the presence of monovalent cations (K+, Na+) double heli- ture practices on the environment any new approach should
ces assemble to form stable gels [25]. Similarly, gelatin and be benign. As such a key feature of new hydrogel system
agar exhibit random coil conformation in hot aqueous sol, should be its innate biodegradability. It is advantageous
but on cooling these transform into triple and double helix that depending on the gelator biocompatibility, a typical gel
conformation, respectively following a kinetic pathway, can be ‘designed in’ for custom use in the field of agricul-
which concomitantly self-organize to generate an intercon- ture. Ideally, the final products from biodegradation should
nected network structure, and eventually gel [26, 27]. be water, carbon dioxide and compostable organic matter.
The superabsorbent polymer poly(2-acrylamide 2-methyl
13
propane sulfonic acid (PAMPS) hydrogel synthesized by The nature of the material used to create the hydrogel
Guan et al. [7] was claimed to be environmental friendly as can lead to an environment specific response. For example,
about one third part of polymer degraded to nitrogen diox- crosslinked cellulose based hydrogels are sensitive to cel-
ide, water, ammonia nitrogen and sodium ions in the soil. lulose producing microorganisms in the soil, hence biode-
Ideally, the products released after biodegradation of hydro- gradable. Yoshimura et al. [35] synthesized cotton cellulose
gel should enhance soil properties such as fertility, morphol- and succinic anhydride based hydrogel in the presence of
ogy and porosity. To this end, Saruchi et al. [28] reported 4-dimethylaminopyridine as a catalyst. This superabsorbent
slight increase in the carbon content from 0.24 to 0.29% hydrogel absorbed water about 400 times its dry weight
following biodegradation of a Gum tragacanth-acrylic acid which was comparable to traditional sodium polyacrylate
based hydrogel. Similarly, the phosphorous and potassium hydrogel. Additionally, this hydrogel showed excellent bio-
content increased from 60 to 61 g/m2 and 13.9 to 14.3 g/m2, degradability with almost complete biodegradation after 25
respectively. This increase in soil nutrient content was also days. Also, previous studies show that some of these hydro-
clearly reflected by enhanced plant growth. gels are sensitive to UV rays and degrade to their monomers
The degradation rate of hydrogel depends on factors such [36]. The degradation of a hydrogel is also dependent on the
as temperature, pH, oxygen content, humidity and the avail- degree of crosslinking. High crosslinking density prevents
ability of nutrient content, all of which indirectly influence the entry of microorganisms and enzymes [37].
the growth rate of microorganisms [29]. The degradation of Certain soil types also favour the rate of biodegradation,
hydrogels is primarily mediated by microorganisms. The for example the aerated nature of sandy soil allows faster
amount of water present in the directly adjacent environ- hydrogel degradation especially when compared to clay
ment also affects the degree of degradation as an increase in based soils [37]. The degradation rate of a Gum tragacanth-
water content, swells the hydrogel and increases in surface acrylic acid based hydrogel was reported to be better in
area, thereby providing more accessibility to the microbes. compost as compared to soil because of the rich diversity
In the initial stage of biodegradation studies, high swell- of microbial population required for decomposition in com-
ing ratio of hydrogel increases the surface area for micro- post [28].
bial attack. In the second phase, the increased water content Thus, the authors discuss how the biodegradation of
forms anaerobic conditions to hinder microbial growth and hydrogels is mainly carried out by the soil microbes and
thus impede biodegradation. In the later stages, the hydrogel is dependent on various factors such as the nature of the
structure opens up and many points for microorganism entry polymer, cross linking density, soil temperature, pH, oxygen
enhance further degradation [30]. Thombare et al. [30] stud- content, humidity. The rate of biodegradation of hydrogels
ied the biodegradability of an acrylic acid grafted guar gum can thus be influenced by the varying these factors such as
hydrogel on the basis of degradation and weight loss in soil. the type of substrate and cross linking density. The hydro-
The weight loss rates were highest in the first 56 days (~ 40% gels synthesized from biopolymers such as starch and cel-
hydrogel decomposition) whereas from 56 to 100 days only lulose have faster rate of biodegradation in comparison to
11% weight loss was observed and a further 30% weight the hydrogels synthesized from synthetic substrates like
loss recorded from 100 to 180 days. Another study Tanan polyacrylamide. Table 1 shows the rate of biodegradation of
et al. [31] reported that the biodegradation rate increased hydrogels reported in the recent studies.
linearly with time, such that the extent of the degradation
of semi interpenetrating hydrogel network (cassava starch-
g-polyacrylic acid/natural rubber/polyvinyl alcohol blends) Commercially Available Hydrogels for
after 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 days were approximately 8, 17, Agriculture
32, 55 and 73%, respectively. This biodegradation occurred
as a result of both water and microorganisms which infil- There are few commercially available hydrogel products
trate and collapse the network structure of the hydrogel. capable of absorbing and retaining water molecules for
Indeed, studies have reported an increase in the microbial use in agriculture. PUSA (Indian Agricultural Research
population in the soil where hydrogels have been used [32, Institute, India) hydrogel is a semi-synthetic, cross-linked,
33]. This increase was attributed to the hydrogel-amended derivatized cellulose-graft-anionic polyacrylate superabsor-
soil providing a more humid environment favorable for the bent polymer. It exhibits absorbency at relatively high tem-
growth of microorganisms. Hydrogels containing metaboli- peratures (40–50 °C suitable for arid and semi-arid regions).
cally less stable groups (such as polyaniline) easily degrade In addition to high water absorbency, there are a number of
in soil leaving voids in the structure that allow bacteria and other positive features associated with this hydrogel such as
other microorganisms increased access [34]. the low levels required when applying (1-1.5 kg/acre), no
effect on soil pH and negligible levels of residual monomers
13
Table 1 Rate of biodegradation of some reported hydrogels

Hydrogel Synthesis technique Rate of biodegradation Remarks Refer-
substrate ences
Cotton cellulose Reaction of cotton cellulose Almost complete biodegradation within 25 Good biodegradability which was [35]
and succinic anhydride days at 25˚C in activated sludge comparable to natural cotton degra-
dation rate
Cellulose from Celluloses dissolved in LiCl After 7 days, hydrogel feed ratios of 0.5 and Good biodegradation capac- [121]
hardwood pulp and N-methyl-2-pyrrolid- 1 exhibited 95% and 87% degradability, ity. Increase in cross linker ratio
inone crosslinked using respectively with cellulase enzyme at 40˚C in decreased the rate of biodegradation
1,2,3,4-butanetetracarbox- acetate buffer
ylic dianhydride
Pure polyacrylate Commercial 0.45% degradation after 24 weeks in natural Polyacrylamide hydrogels degraded [122]
gel soil in soil, if at all, very slowly
Guar gum based Grafting guar gum with 50% of dry weight of hydrogel degraded after Half-life of hydrogel = 77 days indi- [30]
polysaccharides acrylic acid and cross- 100 days of incubation in 60 mesh nylon sieve cating a modestly fast decay in soil
linking with ethylene glycol bag buried inside soil 6–8 cm deep
di methacrylic acid.
Cellulose from Crosslinking cellulose using Hydrogel buried ~ 10 cm deep in natural soil Good biodegradability of natural [123]
Okara epichlorohydrin. degraded completely after 28 days at 25˚C polymer based hydrogel
Lignosulfonate, Interaction between konjac Hydrogel buried in soil in 60-mesh nylon bags Slow degradation of lignin could be [124]
sodium alginate and sodium alginate. at depth of 6 ~ 8 cm showed 20% degradation used to prolong the use duration of
and konjaku flour in 4 months hydrogel
in the finished product. During dry periods, sodium poly- hydrogels which has made it a favorable option for large
acrylate has a tendency to gather and form crosslinks that scale field applications. Also, another commercial hydrogel,
repress re-swelling when re-wetted. With a limited num- Alsta hydrogel is sold at even lower unit cost of US$ 8–9/
ber of wet/dry cycles, sodium polyacrylate hinders plant kg which is used at the application rate of 3.75–7.5 kg/ha
development. Another polymer of potassium cation and has found applications in arboriculture, bare root dipping,
acrylate, ALSTA hydrogel, has been developed to enhance hydroponics etc.
plant growth by providing water and nutrients right at the While the recent research in the area of polymer science
root zone of plants, thus reducing wastage and has shown to has improved the hydrogel design and synthetic approaches,
reduce fertilizer use by 15–30%. Another soil conditioner, the prospect of their commercialization still remains chal-
commercially available in India by the names Stockosorb/ lenging [40] due to high cost of production and complex
Agrosorb/ Raindrop is a crosslinked polymer of acrylamide manufacturing processes. Therefore, a real and urgent need
and sodium/potassium acrylate. Pattanaik et al. [38] con- is to develop green protocols for development of hydrogels
ducted a study in which the addition of Stockosorb granules with substantially decreased cost and well-defined benefits.
increased the productivity of Citrus limon plant by 43%.
The irrigation intervals and water holding capacity of soil
also increased. Table 2 lists other hydrogel products used in Applications of Hydrogel in Agriculture
agriculture.
Most of the studies on hydrogels were performed in So far, the most convincing roles of hydrogels in agriculture
controlled environments such as laboratories or green- have been as water reservoirs in soil [41, 42], seed coat-
houses, without much consideration to the production and ing agents to aid in germination and seedling establishment
application economics at large scale in agricultural fields. [43], and for immobilizing nutrients, plant growth regula-
Krilium was amongst the hydrogel products that were ini- tors or protectants for controlled release [44].
tially introduced in the market. It was mixed to the soil at Hydrogels prevent drainage or evaporation of rainfall or
rates of about 0.1% by mass, which translated into amounts irrigation water due to interaction between the polymer and
of 1000 to 4000 kg/ha [39]. Initially, Krilium was sold at water molecules. Figure 2 illustrates that as the soil around
US$ 4–5/kg in 1950s, which translated to very high overall roots tends to dry up, the water from hydrogel is released for
costs; therefore, its application was limited to high value plant uptake by a simple diffusion process. This absorption /
crops, ornamental plants and home gardens. However, later desorption process helps in sustained use of available water
on this product was withdrawn from market due to its high resources. Also, hydrogel application to soil favors the
cost. In contrast, the PUSA hydrogel has low application uptake of soil nutrients, delays their dissolution and holds
levels (2.5-3 kg/ha) and is reasonably affordable (US$ them tightly for slow and controlled release [45]. Further-
14–18/kg) as compared to other contemporary commercial more, the incorporation of hydrogel helps to improve the
13
Table 2 List of commercially available hydrogel products used in agriculture

Commercial hydrogel Composition Properties Manufacturer Reference
Aqualic TM Sodium acrylate and acrylic White powder or granules, Nippon Shokubai, Osaka, https://www.shokubai.
acid High molecular weight, Japan co.jp/en/products/
less environmental impact detail/aqualick-ca.
than phosphorus-based html
hydrogel products
Luquasorb TM Potassium acrylate and White granules with BASF SE, Ludwigshafen, https://docplayer.
acrylic acid crosslinked with faint odour, pH 6.0, Bulk Germany net/30711033-
0.3% Pentaerythritol triallyl density approx. 650– Safety-data-sheet-
ether. 790 kg/m3, Insoluble in luquasorb-fp-
water, capable of swelling substance-pre-
paration-and-com-
pany-identification-
2-composition-infor-
mation-on-ingredients.
html
Stockosorb TM Acrylamide and sodium/ White granules, pH 7.0– Creavis, Krefeld, Germany http://www.
potassium acrylate. 8.0, Bulk density approx. essemmchem.com/
500–600 g/L, Insoluble in catalogue/evonik/
water and organic solu- super-absorbant/
tions, capable of swelling Stockosorb_660%20
in aqueous fluids pdf.pdf
Krilium TM Copolymer consisting of White or pale yellow pow- Withdrawn from the market Nelson, S. D. (2020)
vinyl acetate and maleic der that forms extremely due to high cost, complexity [125]
anhydride (VAMA) sticky gum when wet, of application and poor distri-
physical properties similar bution in the soil (originally
to polyuronides by Monsanto, US)
PUSA hydrogel Cellulose-graft-anionic White granules IARI – PUSA, New Delhi, https://www.iari.res.
polyacrylate superabsorbent India in/files/Pusa_Hydro-
polymer gel.pdf
Alsta hydrogel Potassium polyacrylate Dry white granules or Chemtex Speciality Limited, https://www.hydroge-
powder, Biodegradable, Kotkata, India lagriculture.com/
absorb water 500 times its
own weight
Agrogel Hydrolyzed gelatin Possess properties of a ILSA, Arzignano, Italy https://www.ilsagroup.
natural colloid com/upload/reposi-
tory/phpi9EDYO_
Dossier%20
Agrogel_en.pdf
soil properties such as porosity, texture, permeability etc. The ability of hydrogels to maintain a continuously regu-
Upon absorption of water molecules, the hydrogel granules lated supply of water is particularly beneficial in such water
increase in size and thereby loosen the compact soil struc- stress conditions especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
ture. This improves the exchange of gases by plant roots Montesano et al. [49] showed that the water holding capac-
[46]. The true uptake of hydrogels by the agricultural sec- ity of sandy soil increased dramatically in the presence of
tor will be driven by multifunctional benefits to farmers. a cellulose based hydrogel. With hydrogel dosage of 0.5%
Here, we discuss the four major applications of hydrogel in (w/w), the moisture content of soil was doubled. Remark-
agriculture. ably, with 2% (w/w) hydrogel dosage, the water content
reached 50%, which is even higher than the water content of
Enhanced Drought Resistance in Crops clay soil. These results showed beneficial effects on water
retention properties of a sandy soil and perlite (soilless sub-
Drought is one of the major stress conditions that limit the strate) and are suitable for potential use in agriculture. Like-
potential of seed industry and crop production. Continuous wise, Demitri et al. [50] developed carboxymethylcellulose
water stress reduces CO2 assimilation and inhibits the plant (CMC)- sodium hydroxyethylcellulose (Na/HEC) hydro-
growth [47]. Especially the plants with C3 photosynthetic gels cross-linked by means of a water-soluble carbodiimide,
pathways (including major cereal crops like wheat, rice, bar- for the sustainable release of water (and nutrients) to plant
ley, oats) have lower water-use efficiency, leaf photosynthe- root.
sis and chlorophyll content under drought conditions [48].
13
Fig. 2 Improved moisture and nutrient availability to plant roots in the hydrogel amended soil
Addition of 0.4% Stockosorb hydrogel increased the showed an increase in the biomass and phosphorous content
soil water content from 2.2 to 7.2 kg and lowered the rate upon the addition of lignin hydrogel and sodium polyacry-
of water evaporation from soil [51]. Similarly, another late hydrogel [57].
study established that the water retention capacity of soil Due to the localized increase in soil moisture content in
increased from 44.84 to 60.33% upon addition of 10% vicinity of root system, certain changes are observed in root
hydrogel to soil, moreover, the rate of soil moisture loss morphology. Luo et al. [58] observed that the main roots of
was also lowered [52]. It was suggested that, due to the hin- plants in hydrogel altered soil were thicker in diameter and
drance in evaporation of water from the network structure the root tips were blunt, in contrast to the sharp root tips of
of hydrogel, the duration for which soil remains moist is plants grown in soils without hydrogel. Similarly, growth
increased [53]. Even 72 h after irrigation, the soil containing parameters such as leaf water potential, leaf number, root
hydrogel was shown to retain the moisture [54]. The appli- biomass, CO2 assimilation and stomatal conductance were
cation of 25% carbonyl amide polymer to soil, improved the improved in the citrus plants grown in Stockosorb Agro
soil moisture content, and in turn the number of germinated amended substrate than control under drought stress condi-
seeds and the yield of rice [55]. tions [59].
The water absorbed by hydrogel is made available to Under drought conditions, the concentration of antioxi-
plant roots by diffusion, thereby, inducing drought stress dants such as proline, peroxidase, and malondialdehyde;
tolerance in plants (Fig. 3). Several such studies have been usually increase in response to the stress conditions. How-
conducted to investigate the effects of drought stress on ever, the concentration of these antioxidant species was
plants when the growth substrate was pretreated with a lower during the germination of hydrogel coated Caragana
hydrogel. The addition of Super-AB-A-300 (tripolymer of korshinskii seeds compared to uncoated seeds. The results
acrylamide, acrylic acid and acrylate potassium) lengthened indicated that the seeds could absorb moisture from the
the duration of water supply to the Eucalyptus saligna plants hydrogel coating even under induced drought stress con-
and consequently decreased the damage caused by high soil ditions [43]. Similarly, the proline content was highest in
Cl− and Na+ under drought and salinity conditions [53]. The maize plants grown under simulated drought conditions and
use of hydrogel was shown to effectively counteract the loss decreased exponentially (by 8 times) with addition of lignin
in yields caused by water stress. The application of HyC and hydrogel to soil [57]. In this way, hydrogels present a great
Polim-Agro hydrogels at concentration of 6 g/pot resulted potential in reducing the damage caused by drought stress
in a higher number of pods (7.4 and 7.0 pods/plant) and and improving the crop yield.
yield (15.43 and 16.68 g/ plant) under water stress in green
house [56]. Maize plants grown in water deficit conditions,
13
Fig. 3 Drought resistance induced by addition of a hydrogel to the soil
Yet another approach for the synthesis of a fertilizer

Hydrogels as Localized Nutrient Carriers hydrogel is by the intercalation of liquid fertilizer contents
in the homogenous reaction mixture containing hydrogel
Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs)/slow-release fertilizers components prior to crosslinking [64, 65]. This approach
(SRFs) are gaining significant research attention as they can greatly simplifies the preparation procedure and eliminates
be designed for nutrient release at a rate that matches the the milling, filtering and coating steps required in the prepa-
nutritional requirements of the plant while simultaneously ration of the CRFs. For hydrogels manufactured using this
reducing fertilizer loss by volatilization and leaching. In strategy the release of the fertilizer depends on the biodeg-
turn both the labor and the fuel costs required for fertilizer radation pattern of the polymer coating.
application are decreased [60]. For these reasons, different The appropriate ratio of crosslinker and fertilizer are
organic matrix [61], inorganic compounds such as metal very important for both the formation of the CRFs and the
ammonium phosphates, hydrophobic matrices such as poly- subsequent fertilizer release. An extensively crosslinked
olefins and rubber, and gel-forming polymers (hydrogels) polymer network leads to slow release of fertilizer due to
have been synthesized for sustained fertilizer release [62]. reduced diffusion rate. Sarkar et al. [66] showed that the
Most commonly, the fertilizer pellets are immobilized in a presence of higher concentrations of borax and a N,N′-
polymer coating, which helps in accurate and uniform appli- Methylenebisacrylamide crosslinker, slowed the release rate
cation of chemicals with minimum wastage [63]. of BO33−. Also, it was found that as the fertilizer concentra-
Another method for synthesis of hydrogel based CRFs tion increased, the initial burst release of fertilizer increased
is by soaking the pre-dried hydrogels over time in contain- but the release was less sustained as compared to lower fer-
ers with the required fertilizer solution. The hydrogel swells tilizer loading levels [65]. At high fertilizer concentrations,
and absorbs the nutrients; the nutrient loading capacity of the presence of chelators in the fertilizer weakens the bond
hydrogel can be subsequently determined [52]. The dis- strength of the polymer crosslinks [67].
solved fertilizer diffuses from the hydrogel network and The release of nutrients from the hydrogel network is pri-
releases into the soil by the dynamic exchange of free water marily achieved by diffusion. The diffusion of solutes from
between swollen hydrogel and soil. The rate of fertilizer hydrogel network can be generally explained by one of the
release increases with the increase in swelling. Eventu- following three theoretical models (i) hydrodynamic theory
ally when the hydrogel swelling reaches equilibrium the [68], which considers friction between the solute and the
fertilizer release rate also becomes constant [64]. Figure 4 surrounding hydrogel matrix; (ii) free volume theory [69],
depicts the slow release of nutrient molecules from a hydro- which assumes that the solute is transported via dynamic
gel network. empty spaces between molecules; and (iii) obstruction
13
Fig. 4 Slow release of nutrient molecules from the hydrogel network
theory [70], which assumes the polymer net as a barrier for release rate of urea loaded hydrogel in sandy soil keeping
the diffusion of the solute with the liquid. Recently, Axpe et urea pellets as control.
al. [71] presented a Multiscale Diffusion Model (MSDM) Previous reports suggest the slow release observed with
combining these three models to explain the diffusion of polymer fertilizers is due to the interactions between the
solutes from hydrogel network. Similar to the traditional hydrogel network and the trapped fertilizer. Li et al. [74]
models, the diffusivity of solutes predicted in the MSDM reported the controlled release of herbicide mimic aceto-
model decreases monotonically with increasing solute chlor from CMC hydrogel by a diffusion process. Similar
radius. When the solute radius is similar to the free volume results were observed in another study [75] in which the
void radius formed by hydrogel network, the solute diffuses NPK fertilizer released slowly from cellulose-chitosan
via dynamic free volume voids. Here, the probability of hybrid hydrogel grafted with polyacrylic acid by free radi-
finding a free volume void decreases with an increase in the cal polymerization. The total cumulative nutrients released
solute size. So, for larger solute molecules, the diffusion via from hydrogel was below 15% after 3 days and did not
free voids becomes unlikely. exceed 75% even after 30 days. However, most of the
There is no standard method for determining the rate of nutrients were lost within first 5 days from free NPK fer-
nutrient release from CRFs. Most commonly, the fertilizer tilizer. Likewise, Olad et al. [64] showed that the fertilizer
loaded hydrogels are placed in distilled water without stir- release rate of untreated NPK fertilizer increased sharply
ring. The quantity of fertilizer released is determined by tak- (more than 98% fertilizer released within 6 h), in contrast
ing the absorbance (from UV-Vis spectroscopy) of aliquots the fertilizer release rate from a hydrogel/NPK formulation
at specific time intervals. The amount of aliquots withdrawn were lower (67.44% fertilizer release within 1 month). The
is replaced by equal amount of distilled water. However, this hydrogel derived from cellulose acetate and ethylenediami-
release rate is different from that in actual soil conditions. netetraacetic dianhydride was loaded with 120.5 ± 1.5 mg
For the purpose of studying release rates in soil conditions, of potassium/g, 104.3 ± 1.1 mg of phosphate/g, and
Islam et al. [72] invented a lysimeter, consisting of a poly 84.0 ± 1.5 mg of ammonium/g [76]. As the irrigation water
(vinyl chloride) (PVC) cylinder (35 cm internal diameter passed through the hydrogel, it elutes the ions of NPK. The
and 150 cm in depth) filled with soil monolith. The fertilizer elution rate was controlled by the interactions between the
loaded hydrogel granule was applied to 20 cm depth into the loaded ions and hydrogel molecules. Similarly, hydrogels
lysimeter during seed sowing. Leachate samples were col- synthesized from other cellulose derivatives have been
lected after specific intervals of time and the nutrient quan- tested for slow release of fertilizers [77] and herbicides [78].
tity was measured using UV-Vis spectroscopy. Similarly, Li et al. [79] studied the slow and controlled release rate of
Laftah and Hashim [73] suggested another method to study herbicide 2,4-D in water and soil encapsulated in CMC gel.
13
The incorporation of such hydrogel fertilizer systems 1.29 to 1.5), ear length (21.5 to 24.3 cm) and grain weight
in soil should, however, be carefully regulated consider- (12.51 to 15.42 g) in pearl millet. Guan et al. [7] developed
ing the soil nutrient profile, crop variety demand, residues hydrogel formulation consisting of superabsorbent polymer,
of the polymer introduced in soil and their results on soil poly (2-acryamide-2-methyl propane sulphonic acid) and a
microflora. drought resistance agent, salicylic acid for coating tobacco
seeds to provide resistance against drought conditions. The
Hydrogel Seed Coating results indicated improvement in seed germination and
seedling growth of hydrogel coated seeds as compared to
One of the most critical stages in plant life cycle is between uncoated seeds. It was suggested that the moisture absorbed
sowing of seed and its germination. Amongst the envi- from soil by the miniature reservoir of polymer could be
ronmental factors such as light, temperature and soil pH, used gradually at different stages of seedling growth and
the moisture content of the surrounding media is the most salicylic acid improved germination by scavenging free
important factor influencing the seed germination rate. radicals and reactive oxygen. Likewise, a superabsorbent
Unfavourable soil moisture conditions at the time of sow- hydrogel coating of succinate modified starch improved the
ing severely affect the seed germination leading to irregular emergence of corn seeds by absorbing water from nearby
seedling emergence and crop stand, resulting in negative soil and ensuring a consistent supply of water to the seeds
effects on crop yield [80]. This problem is acutely preva- [83]. Amirkhani et al. [84] reported that coating broc-
lent in arid and semi-arid regions where the soil surface is coli seeds with formulations composed of mixtures of soy
wetted infrequently and rate of evaporation is high [81]. flour, cellulose, and diatomaceous earth lead to a significant
The application of a hydrogel coating on seeds can provide improvement in 10-day-old seedling root and shoot growth
the necessary moisture required during the initial stages of compared with controls. Zvinavashe et al. [85] developed
germination and a protective microenvironment under any novel seed coating technology in the form of two layers: the
unfavorable conditions, thereby increasing overall crop pro- first was the silk trehalose layer inoculated with nitrogen-
duction (Fig. 5). The Caragana korshinskii pelleted seeds fixing rhizobacteria. The second was the pectin/carboxy-
with superabsorbent polymer coating had better germination methylcellulose hydrogel that serves as a carbon source for
ability than the control seeds and the survival rate of seed- the nitrogen-fixing bacteria and a reservoir for water that
lings was higher than control seedlings in water deprived can be drawn from surrounding soils.
conditions [43]. Additionally, hydrogels can provide room for includ-
Singh [82] revealed that the seed treatment with hydrogel ing the beneficial compounds such as protectants, growth
significantly increased the number of effective tillers (from promoters and nutrients in close proximity to the seed. For
Fig. 5 Hydrogel seed coating for sustained moisture availability during the germination stage
13
instance, coating seeds with polymers containing insec- roots, which may function similar to the natural polymeric
ticides and fungicides can provide protection at juvenile mucilages produced by healthy roots.
stages, as well as improving seedling vigour at later stages. Hydrogel root dips can reduce the drop in water potential
This outcome was evident in a study conducted by Ovalesha around the root soil interface, thus increasing the water con-
et al. [86] where cowpea seeds coated with polymer contain- ductivity into roots [90]. Apostol et al. [91] observed that
ing imidachloprid (insecticide), mancozeb (fungicide) and Terra-sorb hydrogel root dipped seedlings had 80% greater
phosphate solubilizing bacteria showed better field perfor- root moisture content than non-root dipped control seed-
mance than uncoated seeds. Additionally, the polymer coat- lings of northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.). Compared
ing provided protection against attack by pest, fungus and with control seedlings the use of a hydrogel reduced root
diseases during storage. This reduced the stress imposed by membrane leakiness by 31%, although seedlings did not
aging and prolonged the seed shelf life [86]. Ren et al. [87] show greater differences in shoot length, plant dry mass,
developed a polyacrylamide and carboxymethyl cellulose root volume, net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance.
based seed coat containing various fungicides such as thi- In contrast, another study conducted by Sarvaš [92], showed
fluzamide, fludioxonil, pyraclostrobin and difenoconazole. increase in shoot height (13.2 to 18.3 cm) and root collar
The inclusion of 6% azoxystrobin and fludioxonil formu- diameter (2.3 to 3.4 mm) of Norway spruce (Picea abies
lation was effective in controlling the severity of wheat L) upon dipping bareroot seedlings in hydrogel Stockosorb,
sharp eyespot by about 98.52%. Therefore, including suit- prior to mechanical transplantation. Thomas, [93] observed
able active compounds in the hydrogel network can assist that the proportion of seedling death after 5 months was
to induce disease resistance and enhance overall crop yield. reduced from 26 to 12% in eucalyptus and from 14 to 5%
In comparison to the above mentioned advantages of seed in Corymbia citriodora subsp. Variegata upon treatment of
coating, few studies have also reported otherwise. Mangold root plug in an anionic copolymeric hydrogel of acrylamide
and Sheley [88] showed that the coated seeds of wheatgrass and potassium acrylate immediately prior to planting.
(Agropyron cristatum) had 1.6 times lesser seedling density Apart from the purpose for root dipping, the hydrogel
than uncoated seeds. It was suggested that the seed coating can also be added to the soil bed before transplantation.
may hinder the seedling emergence and may not be effec- The mode of application is mostly determined by the type
tive for restoration of plantation. Pathak and Ambrose [83] of hydrogel used. For instance, fine-textured products are
showed that the seed coating with their synthesized hydro- best for root dips, whereas coarser grades are better for soil
gel proved beneficial only under water supply of 77% field incorporation. Using hydrogel with dry particle sizes from
capacity, with minor difference in germination of coated 0.2 to 0.3 mm covered roots much better than larger grades
and uncoated seed at both lower and higher water capac- which “clumped” and fell off the roots [92].
ity. So, according to their study, the hydrogel could absorb The addition of hydrogel to soil media adds water hold-
and release moisture at an intermediate amount of soil water ing capacity and water use efficiency which increases the
content, to ensure a consistent supply of water for coated seedling growth and transplantation performance. Günes
seed. dos Santos and Fernandes [89] reported that coating [94] showed that the addition of polymer to sand prevented
with hydroxy-ethyl-cellulose in the spouted bed did not water stress in the root zone and increased the survival
alter broccoli seeds physiologic quality. rate of transplanted tomato seedlings by up to 170%. The
Other issues related to hydrogel seed coating will be dis- polyaspartic acid hydrogel (with water absorption rate of
cussed in Sect. 6.4. Certainly the concept of hydrogel seed 300–350 g/g hydrogel) was used for transplanting Xantho-
coating is an emerging one and the ideal hydrogel type and ceras sorbifolia seedlings in semi-arid continental climate.
loading on seeds needs more investigation. It was found to increase the survival rate of seedlings by
8–12% and decrease the rate of chlorophyll degradation
Role in Transplantation under drought stress conditions [95].
Another approach to ensure greater contact of root plug
Root dipping technique, a process of coating the root system with hydrogel is by pouring the hydrogel-water mixture in
of bareroot seedlings with sphagnum moss, soil slurries etc., a pit after seedling plantation, and then covering with soil.
has been practiced to improve the success rate of transplant- The addition of Aqua Matrix Forestry hydrogel by this tech-
ing conifer seedlings. The seedlings are at high risk of des- nique showed an increase in seedling survival rate by 34%
iccation during a number of transplantation stages such as during the mid-dry season when amount of rainfall was
lifting, handling and re-planting. Their fine roots are easily lower [96].
damaged by direct air exposure which leads to loss of mois-
ture and membrane leakage. In order to prevent the root des-
iccation, a fine coating of hydrogel can be applied on the
13
Design Challenges in practice, the water absorption capacity of hydrogels in

soil is much less as the polymers under pressure are unable
Previous research studies have made it evident that hydro- to swell and take up water. A significant reduction in water
gels have great potential in agriculture. However, there are absorption capacity of acrylamide and potassium acrylate
certain challenges that need to be addressed for the full real- copolymer hydrogel was observed upon application of
ization of their commercial potential (Fig. 6). external pressure due to soil layers. For a 30 cm deep layer
of soil, water absorption capacity was observed to be 5 g/g,
Water Absorption Capacity in comparison to 200 g/g water absorption without external
pressure. Similarly, Misiewicz et al. [98] studied the water
Hydrogels can absorb 10–100 g liquid per g of their dry absorption capacity of superabsorbent polymer (a cross-
mass. Some hydrogels termed as smart hydrogels can even linked copolymer of acrylamide and potassium acrylate) in
absorb up to 1000 g water per g of their dry mass [97]. Most soil. The results clearly indicated that the pressure applied
of these studies to determine the water absorption capacity due to soil had a significant influence on water absorption.
of hydrogel are performed using distilled water. However, For instance, under 5.89 kPa pressure (corresponding to
Fig. 6 Challenges related to hydrogel application in agriculture: (a) gel network, and (d) Compromised oxygen supply to the embryo in
Reduced water absorption capacity of hydrogels under soil load, (b) hydrogel coated seeds
Limited mechanical strength, (c) Leaching of constituents from hydro-
13
topsoil layer thickness of 40 cm); water absorption values modifications e.g. graft polymerization (modification of
were 24% (71.40 g/g) and 18% (52.70 g/g) for coarse sand the backbone chain through the formation of branches or
and sandy loam respectively, in comparison to the water grafts of synthetic polymers that impart specific properties,
absorption without soil or pressure. Pathak and Ambrose without destroying the intrinsic properties). It was reported
[83] showed that the water absorption capacity of succinate- that the mechanical properties of carboxymethyl cellulose
modified starch based hydrogel was very low (7 g/g) under based hydrogel films can be improved by self-crosslinking
a mechanical load. [105], or mixing with other polymers such as starch [106],
The water absorption capacity of a hydrogel in soil hydroxyethylcellulose [107], chitosan [108] or cross link-
depends on factors such as the soil structure, saline con- ing initiated with cross linkers such as divinylsulphone
tent, temperature, pH, moisture content and presence of [109]. Wang et al. [110], in 2017 synthesized polyacrylic
microorganisms, as well as soil wetting and drying cycles acid-grafted quaternized cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol
[99]. A reduction in the water holding capacity of succi- copolymer hydrogels by UV-initiated copolymerization.
nate modified starch hydrogel was observed with increas- The hydrogel network showed remarkable mechanical per-
ing soil salinity. The absorption capacity decreased from formance, excellent antibacterial properties and high self-
> 200 g/g to 30 g/g in 0.9% NaCl solution, probably due healing efficiency. With the rising shift from synthetic to
to loss of osmotic potential [83]. Additionally, it has been biopolymer based hydrogels, it is necessary to incorporate
reported that the water absorption in soil decreases further such strategies to increase the mechanical strength. A num-
by the formation of additional crosslinks with certain ions ber of recent studies have focused on the enhancement of
like Ca2+ and Al3+ present in the soil [45]. Mineral com- mechanical strength using approaches ranging from design
pounds dissolved in water limit the water retention capacity of various microstructures (such as double-network hydro-
of superabsorbent polymers significantly [100]. Monovalent gels, nanocomposite hydrogels, macromolecular micro-
ions reduce absorption by 75%, while bivalent and triva- sphere composite hydrogels, and supramolecular hydrogels)
lent ions may reduce it by 90% [101]. This is due to the to adjustment of compositions in hydrogel [111, 112].
additional crosslinks formed by the multivalent ions with
the oppositely charged moieties on the polymer chains. Leaching of Hydrogel Constituents
The additional crosslinks decrease the network elasticity
and thus restrict the water uptake and swelling ratio. Li Hydrogel polymers are too large to be absorbed by the plant
and Wang [102] suggested that addition of inorganic clay tissue and no cases related to their entry in food chain or
mineral-attapulgite in polymerization process of the acrylic bioaccumulation have been reported so far [36]. However, it
polymer, helped to decrease the sensitivity towards ions and is possible that the leaching of constituents from a hydrogel
increased the absorption capacity of hydrogel. might take place that could have adverse effects on the soil
In conclusion, the swelling of hydrogel is driven by pH and microflora. For instance, the leaching of nanopar-
osmotic pressure, which needs to counteract the interior ticles from nanocomposite hydrogels is observed especially
network elasticity of hydrogel and the external pressure if the cross linking density is low. This is usually observed
[103]. Consequently, the increase of crosslink density and in nanocomposite hydrogels synthesized by the gelation of
the presence of external load due to soil, will reduce the hydrogel forming monomer solution in the presence of pre-
swelling capacity of a given hydrogel. Using hydrogels of formed nanoparticles [113]. While the nanostructured forms
higher osmotic pressure (e.g. charged polymer backbone, of cellulose are reported to facilitate controlled release, a
hydrophilic polymers) and hydrogels with higher porosity certain level of hydrophobicity can be introduced in the
and lower stiffness; and reducing the characteristic size of carrier molecule via cross-linking [114]. More recently,
hydrogels are beneficial for swelling. leaching of components from hydrogel has, however, been
exploited for release of nutrients for soil conditioning.
Mechanical Strength
Hydrogel Seed Coating
Another specific limitation of hydrogels, in particular bio-
polymer based hydrogels, is the low mechanical strength. Another major complication is associated with using a
Hydrogels show a significant decrease in mechanical strength hydrogel as a seed coating agent. It was hypothesised that
upon swelling. Swelling has a major effect on the amount due to the presence of excess water near the seed, the dif-
of stress and strain that the hydrogel sample can withstand fusion of air may be hindered and as such the rate of emer-
[104]. This limitation can be overcome by incorporation gence of embryo may be impaired [115, 116]. Cereal grains
of specific crosslinkers and inorganic nanoparticles dur- coated with Stockosorb (proportion of coat greater than
ing the synthesis of hydrogels [44] or by different chemical 75% of the total mass) showed lesser oxygen saturation in
13
the embryos than uncoated grains [117]. According to the [119] fabricated such a sensor by attaching the hydrogel to
authors, the use of macroporous hydrogels for seed coating the circuit. In the presence of water, hydrogel underwent
could possibly resolve the problem of air diffusion to the swelling and turned off the NFC switch and vice versa. This
seed embryo, however it might lead to other complications. circuit system could be attached to soil system to test its
Assuming that the macroporous hydrogel has a robust struc- performance in keeping soil moist.
ture and stability of hydrogel structure in swollen state is However, for the utilization of maximum potential of
not an issue; even then the presence of such macropores in hydrogels in agriculture, certain characteristics such as tol-
the hydrogel network would increase the water imbibition erance to osmotic and mechanical stress, high durability,
and this high moisture content could lead to the growth of good biodegradability, low cost etc. need to be considered.
mold, fungi eventually rotting the seed. This is often termed The methods for hydrogel synthesis and application need to
as damping off. However, exploring the effect of macropo- be optimized. The use of contaminating reagents or toxic
rous hydrogel on seed coating could be a prospective area cross linkers should be fully avoided in hydrogel formula-
of study in the future. tions. These formulations should be subjected to rigorous
Sometimes, the polymer coating may act as a physical cytotoxicity tests, dosage assessment to overcome various
barrier for leaching of certain inhibitors from the seed coat barriers and seek approval from regulatory bodies for com-
[118]. In addition to this, the mobilization efficiency of cer- mercialization [120]. The dosage of hydrogels applied in
tain reserve metabolites like starch and sucrose from storage agriculture need to be optimized according to the soil type
tissues during the germination phase is strongly affected in and crop variety. The economic aspect of hydrogel synthesis
coated seeds. This affects the seed metabolism required for and use in the market needs to be considered, affordability
fulfilling the energy demands for germination, thus reducing is a crucial factor for farmers. The application of deriva-
the rate of germination [117]. Therefore, the hydrogel type, tives of lignocellulosic materials: cellulose for hydrogel
dosage, seed coating method (pelleting, film coating, slurry synthesis and application in agriculture can be explored to
coating, seed dressing) needs to be carefully optimised to exploit the inexpensive and sustainable nature of these natu-
obtain favourable results. rally available resources. Among the existing biopolymer
The addition of fertilizer to hydrogel network may also based hydrogel approaches, development of cellulose based
cause the “salt effect” or “fertilizer burn”, which occurs hydrogel technology is a milestone in the development of
when fertilizer is located with or near a germinating seed biodegradable matrices for sustainable crop protection.
resulting in injury or death of the seedling. Injury is caused While it is a challenge for a single hydrogel to achieve gold-
when the concentration of salts in the fertilizer is greater standard performance in all possible areas, nevertheless as
than the concentration of salts within the plant cells, result- research and innovation continues, we will undoubtedly
ing in higher osmotic pressure in the soil versus the seed. see significant advances in hydrogel mediated sustainable
The concentration of fertilizer added to the hydrogel net- agriculture.
work needs to be carefully optimized.
In addition to these seed related complications, hydrogel Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Deakin University,
Geelong, Australia for providing all infrastructural and analytical
coated seeds require careful packaging, storage and trans- support as an incubation centre at TERI-Deakin Nanobiotechnology
portation. Extreme care has to be taken to ensure that coated Center (TDNBC), TERI, India. The Science and Engineering Research
seeds are not consumed by humans or livestock. Board and Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and
Technology, Govt. of India is duly acknowledged for providing neces-
sary financial support.
Conclusion and Prospects Authors’ Contributions All authors contributed to the conceptualiza-
tion of the study. Prabhpreet Kaur prepared the first draft and Ruchi
It is clear from the above discussion that hydrogels offer Agrawal, Himadri B. Bohidar, Frederick M. Pfeffer and Richard Wil-
considerable value to the field of agriculture, in particular liams critically reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors have
read the manuscript and provided feedback for scientific and gram-
for the release of water and fertilizers, and to increase soil matical revisions.
porosity, improve seed emergence and seedling establish-
ment. They are a green solution to alleviate agricultural Funding The authors declare that no grants were received during the
problems especially related to water scarcity. Apart from preparation of this manuscript.
these traditional applications of hydrogel in agriculture,
Demitri et al. [50] suggested that a hydrogel based sensor Declarations
could be developed for investigating the soil moisture and
Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-
integrating with software for automated release of water
financial interests to disclose.
when a critically low moisture level was reached. Ali et al.
13
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Hydrogels in Agriculture: Prospects and Challenges

Article in Journal of Polymers and the Environment · April 2023

Prabhpreet Kaur Ruchi Agrawal

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Richard J. Williams Himadri Bohidar

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Hydrogels in Agriculture: Prospects and Challenges

Accepted: 29 March 2023

Keywords Hydrogels · Sustainable agriculture · Nutrient release · Seed coating

Introduction withdrawal is used for irrigation in agricultural farms [2].

environment [24]. For instance, ĸ-carrageenan in hot solu- Biodegradability

Table 1 Rate of biodegradation of some reported hydrogels

Table 2 List of commercially available hydrogel products used in agriculture

Fig. 3 Drought resistance induced by addition of a hydrogel to the soil

Yet another approach for the synthesis of a fertilizer

Fig. 4 Slow release of nutrient molecules from the hydrogel network

Design Challenges in practice, the water absorption capacity of hydrogels in

References 22. Dörr D, Kuhn U, Altstädt V (2020) Rheological study of gelation

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