Materials Chemistry and Mechanics 2023 1(3) 8-15

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Materials Chemistry and Mechanics

Materials Chemistry and Mechanics
journal homepage: www.matchemmech.com

A review of the application of photovoltaic panels in water desalination

Negin Mirzaei , Mokhtar Bidi *
Department of Renewable Energy, Faculty of Mechanics and Energy, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

The scarcity of freshwater resources has emerged as a critical issue in recent decades.
Keywords: Currently, the only nearly inexhaustible source of water is the saline water found in oceans and
seas, requiring desalination for usability. Desalination of seawater has become a hopeful
Water desalination solution in regions with limited access to freshwater. However, the high energy consumption,
Reverse osmosis often reliant on fossil fuels, restricts the widespread implementation of desalination systems. In
Renewable energies light of global concerns about climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
Photovoltaic
various studies have explored the potential of supplying the energy required for desalination
systems through renewable energy sources. This review surveys the existing literature on
desalination using renewable energy sources. The research suggests that among renewable
energy options, solar energy stands out as a dependable source for powering desalination plants
and the combination of photovoltaic solar panels and reverse osmosis desalination systems has
gained considerable attention due to its optimal conditions.

Introduction based on the total dissolved solids (salinity) and is

typically assessed in grams per liter. In general, water
Numerous human activities directly or indirectly
with a salinity value of less than 1 g/L is considered
involve the use of water. Water is essential for all
potable. Water with a salinity value between 1 to 30 g/L
industrial, agricultural, and domestic purposes. The
is brackish, and water with a salinity value exceeding 30
World Health Organization has set a minimum daily
g/L is considered seawater [4]. Given the ever-
water requirement of 15-20 liters per person, which
increasing global population and the scarcity of
includes basic needs such as drinking, food preparation,
freshwater resources, the use of desalination processes
personal hygiene, and laundry. To ensure additional
has become a necessity.
needs beyond individual requirements, such as those
Desalination offers numerous benefits, including the
related to hospitals and schools, this minimum amount
utilization of available water sources and ensuring
increases to 50 liters per person per day [1].
access to freshwater in arid and coastal regions. The
Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered
desalination process has become a primary method for
by water. About 97% of this water is saline, found in the
providing freshwater in most parts of the world and is
oceans, and 3% (approximately 36 million km 3) is
particularly prominent in coastal areas due to the
freshwater found in lakes, rivers, Polar Regions, and
abundance of water. Until 2016, there were 18, 983
groundwater, which largely meets the needs of humans,
commercial-scale desalination plants with a total
animals, and plants. Nearly 70% of the world's 3%
capacity of over 95 million m3/day, supplying the water
freshwater is in the form of natural ice, glaciers, and
needs of cities worldwide. The desalination process
snow, while the remaining 30% is present in
employs various methods, with saline water as the
underground aquifers. The amount in lakes and rivers
constant input, resulting in two streams one of which is
accounts for about 0.25% of the total freshwater [2,3].
freshwater and the other is brine discharge. Figure 1
The only almost inexhaustible sources of water are
illustrates the general schematic of input and output in a
oceans and seas, but to use this water, we must
desalination system [2,5–8].
significantly reduce its salinity. Saline water is measured

*Corresponding author: M. Bidi ([email protected])

https://doi.org/10.22034/mcm.2023.3.2
Received: 14 May 2023; Revised: 20 July 2023; Accepted: 05 August 2023
© 2023 Pigeon publishing
 N. Mirzaei & M. Bidi Materials Chemistry and Mechanics 2023 1(3) 8-15

combination is the combination of reverse osmosis with

photovoltaic and multi-effect distillation (MED) using
solar collectors [16–18]. According to Figure 2, in the
combination of various desalination technologies with
renewable energy sources, photovoltaic-powered
reverse osmosis desalination plants have gained more
Figure 1. schematic of input and output in a popularity [19].
desalination system [4].

Providing the Required Power for Desalination

Plants

Traditionally, fossil fuels are used to meet the energy

requirements of desalination systems. However, aside
from the high costs, this approach generates significant
greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in severe
environmental impacts. It is projected that by 2050,
emissions from desalination systems using fossil fuels
may reach 400 million tons of carbon per year globally. Figure 2. Combining different water desalination
Therefore, adoption of renewable energy sources in technologies with renewable energy sources around the
desalination plants enhances environmental world until 2015 [19].
sustainability [6,9–11].
The use of renewable energy for desalination has Eltawil [20] presented the prominent points in
increased from 2% in 1998 to 23% in 2016. Solar desalination through renewable energies in recent years
energy, with a 51% share of global renewable worldwide, focusing on technology and economics. He
desalination capacity, holds the majority, followed by found that connecting photovoltaic cells to membrane
wind energy, accounting for 30%. For instance, Saudi processes is an interesting option for independent
Arabia is building a photovoltaic-powered reverse desalination systems in remote areas. Alsheghri et al.
osmosis desalination system with a capacity of 60,000 [21] analyzed the project costs of a reverse osmosis-
cubic meters per day in Al Khafji. Australia possesses a photovoltaic desalination system and revealed that the
26 MW reverse osmosis desalination system powered by water production costs have reduced by 16% compared
48 wind turbines with a maximum output of 80 MW. It to conventional treatment methods. Furthermore, annual
is predicted that a significant portion of desalination greenhouse gas emissions have decreased by 1035 tons
plants using fossil fuels will be replaced with renewable of CO2, making the system more sustainable and
energy sources, at an average cost of $0.9/m 3 by 2050 economical. Rezaei et al. [22] investigated the use of
[6,10,12–14]. wind and solar energy for seawater desalination in the
A comprehensive review of freshwater production southern coastal regions of Iran, assessing five potential
using a combination of renewable energy sources in areas: Mahshahr, Jask Port, Chabahar, and the islands of
desalination plants was presented in [15] and revealed Kish and Hormoz. They found that Kish offers the best
the current status of solar, wind, ocean, nuclear, and wind power density, while Jask has the highest solar
geothermal energy in various desalination technologies. energy density among the studied areas.
Various systems utilizing wind and solar energy as the
energy source and hydrogen as an energy storage The Potential of Using Solar Energy in Water
method for desalination by reverse osmosis were Desalination in Iran
proposed. The use of wind energy in water desalination
in Algeria has been a significant success. Wind energy, The energy received from solar radiation that reaches
wherever available, is likely cheaper than photovoltaic the Earth every day is 100,000 times the total energy
energy. Coastal areas typically benefit from abundant generated by all power plants worldwide. It is predicted
wind energy resources. On the other hand, arid or dry that by 2075, 50-75% of the total human energy needs
areas, with ample solar radiation, make the economic can be met by solar energy. Solar energy can be used for
use of solar resources more competitive than wind water desalination directly, by producing the required
resources. In summary, the most promising technology thermal energy for thermal desalination processes, or by
9
 N. Mirzaei & M. Bidi Materials Chemistry and Mechanics 2023 1(3) 8-15

generating the necessary electricity for membrane cos𝛿⁡sin𝜔

sin𝜃 = (4)
cos 𝛼
processes [23,24].
The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth is
estimated to be about 13.68 × 1023 MJ, and only a tiny
fraction, equivalent to 6.12 × 1014 MJ, impacts the
atmosphere of the Earth. According to studies, the
highest average annual radiation density on a horizontal
surface on Earth is around 300 w/m 2. Iran is
exceptionally rich in terms of receiving solar energy,
with an average annual radiation density of 250 w/m2 in
its central regions. The total solar energy received in
Iran, considering its area and the average number of
sunlight hours per year (over 2800 hours), is
Figure 4. Solar Declination Angle [25].
approximately 1016 MJ/year, equivalent to 1634 billion
barrels of crude oil [24, 25].
The first step in modeling solar energy systems is
estimating solar radiation, which depends on the
Solar Radiation Modeling
seasonal and hourly variations of the position of the sun.
The solar constant, Gsc, represents the amount of energy
As shown in Figure 3, the position of the Sun is
received from the Sun per unit of time and is generally
determined by two angles: solar altitude angle (α) and
suggested to be 1367 w/m2. The extraterrestrial radiation
solar azimuth angle (θs). The solar altitude angle is
varies due to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun and is
measured relative to the horizon and can be calculated
expressed using Equation 5. To calculate the total
using Equation 1, where L is the latitude of the location,
radiation over a day, Equation 5 is integrated from
δ is the solar declination angle, and ω is the solar hour
sunrise to sunset, as expressed in Equation 6 [27,28].
angle, all of which can be calculated using Equations 2
360×𝑛
and 3. 𝐺𝑒𝑥 = 𝐺𝑠𝑐 [1 + 0.0333 cos (
365
)](sin𝐿sin𝛿 + cos𝐿cos𝛿cos𝜔) (5)
sin𝛼 = sin𝐿sin𝛿 + cos𝐿cos𝛿cos𝜔 (1) 𝑇𝑠𝑠
360×𝑛
𝐻𝑒𝑥 = ∫𝑇 𝐺𝑒𝑥 dt (6)
𝑠𝑟
𝛿 = 23.45∘ sin⁡( ) (2)
365
ω = 15∘ (𝑡 − 12) (3) The total radiation on a horizontal surface includes
two components: direct radiation (GB) and diffuse
radiation (GD). Direct radiation is the direct sunlight
received from the Sun, while diffuse radiation is the
sunlight scattered by clouds and other particles in the
atmosphere [27,28].

Figure 3. solar altitude and solar azimuth angles [25].

The solar declination angle, as shown in Figure 4, is Figure 5. Total Radiation on a Horizontal Surface [25].
the angle between the Earth-Sun vector and the plane of
To determine solar radiation on the surface of the
the equator and is dependent on the day number in the
Earth, equations 7 to 12 are defined. K̅T is the monthly
solar calendar. The solar hour angle is dependent on
average clearness index, which is the ratio of the
local time and represents the angle of solar displacement
monthly average daily solar radiation on the surface of
from the south direction. It can be calculated using
the Earth to the average daily solar radiation outside the
Equation 4 [26,27].
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 N. Mirzaei & M. Bidi Materials Chemistry and Mechanics 2023 1(3) 8-15

atmosphere of the Earth. kt is the hourly clearness index, 6, the average cost of completed photovoltaic systems
ωs is the solar hour angle at sunrise and sunset, and a and has decreased by about 90% over the past decade,
b are empirical coefficients. Equation 13 is used to making solar energy more cost-effective than ever
calculate diffuse radiation, and ultimately, direct [24,27,29,30].
radiation can be calculated from Equation 7 [27,28]. Photovoltaic systems have many advantages. Their
operational lifespan is approximately 25 years, and they
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺𝐵 + 𝐺𝐷 (7)
𝐺𝑇 require minimal periodic inspection and maintenance
𝑘𝑡 = (8) costs within this period. These systems are stationary, so
𝐺𝑒𝑥
̅𝑇
𝑘𝑡 = [a + b cos 15(𝑡 − 12)] K (9) there is no friction-related loss, and they operate silently.
Photovoltaic systems can generate electricity from early
𝑎 = 0.404 + 0.5016 sin(𝜔𝑠 − 60) (10)
morning hours to sunset, even in cloudy weather, with
𝑏 = 0.6606 + 0.4767 sin(𝜔𝑠 − 60) (11) their peak output usually during the afternoon. However,
1
the main drawback is the high installation costs, but in
𝜔𝑠 = cos −1 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐿) (12) the long term, it will be cost-effective [24,27].
15
Photovoltaic systems are classified into on-grid and
1 − 0.249𝑘𝑡 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡; 𝑘𝑡 ≤ 0.35
𝐺𝐷 off-grid systems in terms of connection to the power
= { 1.557 − 1.84𝑘𝑡 ⁡⁡; 0.35 < 𝑘𝑡 < 0.75 (13)
𝐺𝑇 grid. In on-grid systems, the photovoltaic system
0.177⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡;⁡𝑘𝑡 ≥ 0.75
operates synchronously with the power grid to supply
Use of Photovoltaic Panels in Desalination electrical power. These systems work in a way that the
electricity generated by the solar panels is directly
The phenomenon of generating electricity due to converted into AC power and supplemented into the
exposure to light without the use of mechanical or local electricity grid. In fact, they use grid electricity in
chemical mechanisms is called the photovoltaic case of an electricity shortage and supplement excess
phenomenon, and any system that utilizes this power to the grid when available. On the other hand, in
phenomenon is called a photovoltaic system. In 1839 off-grid systems, the electrical energy needed is supplied
French physicist Edmond Becquerel first discovered using photovoltaic panels and energy storage systems.
that some materials produce electricity when exposed to Batteries and supercapacitors store electricity for use at
light to some extent. In 1954, the first silicon solar cell night or during periods when sunlight does not provide
with an efficiency of 4% was produced and used in a sufficient power, which can increase operational costs
rural telecommunications station in the state of Georgia. significantly [24,27,31].
In the mid-1970s, due to the oil crisis, photovoltaic cells In general, a photovoltaic system consists of
gained attention, and further investments were made in photovoltaic arrays, charge controllers, and inverters.
their use. With the scale-up of production and the use of Photovoltaic cells are thin square pieces, discs, or films
new materials, the cost of photovoltaic technology has made of semiconductor material, and they produce
significantly reduced. According to the chart in Figure voltage and current when exposed to sunlight. As

Figure 6. Investment in solar energy in the last decade [29].

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 N. Mirzaei & M. Bidi Materials Chemistry and Mechanics 2023 1(3) 8-15

photovoltaic cells are small, brittle and produce only a Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant with
small amount of electricity, they are assembled into Photovoltaic Power Source
modules. These modules consist of several photovoltaic
cells and are enclosed in a glass casing. To reach the Given that the operation of photovoltaic systems is
desired voltage and current, multiple modules are limited to daylight hours; it is possible to obtain
interconnected to prepare the photovoltaic panel, and continuous operation of a reverse osmosis desalination
ultimately, a set of panels connected with wiring to a unit by storing the photovoltaic power. Batteries are
certain voltage constitutes an array [27]. Cells, modules, usually used in conjunction with photovoltaic systems to
panels, and arrays are visible in Figure 7. supply energy at night or during periods of low sunlight
intensity. However, the high cost and short lifespan of
batteries, especially in hot areas, increase the operational
costs of the desalination process and can reach 17-23
$/m3. In some cases, hybrid diesel-photovoltaic systems
are used. The initial capital cost of an independent
photovoltaic-powered reverse osmosis desalination unit
is approximately double that of a hybrid system, but the
production cost is about one-third of a hybrid system.
Additionally, independent photovoltaic-powered
reverse osmosis systems have fewer environmental
Figure 7. Solar cell, module, panel and array [32]. impacts than hybrid systems [6,33–39].
In photovoltaic-powered reverse osmosis
The selection of the installation location for desalination plants, the cost of producing each cubic
photovoltaic panels should be in a place that is exposed meter of water is influenced by many factors, including
to sunlight and has the necessary space for installing the recovery ratio, equipment cost, interest rate, and labor
panels. The closer the installation location is to the cost. The reported cost of independent photovoltaic-
consumption location, the less loss there will be in the powered reverse osmosis systems for seawater with
wiring. The angle of installation of photovoltaic panels capacities ranging from 12 to 120 m 3/day varies from
is determined based on the geographical latitude, $7.95 to $29 per cubic meter. For brackish water with
location slope, hours of sunlight, and the required the same capacity, the cost ranges from $6.5 to $9.1 per
consumer power. To install solar panels in multiple cubic meter and is variable. The costs related to initial
rows, the distance between rows must be calculated capital investment, operation, and maintenance of the
using Equation 14. If the distance between the rows is photovoltaic-powered reverse osmosis system can be
too large, it will require a very large space to build the reduced by considering the following factors [19,40–
power plant, and if it is too small, each panel will shade 43]:
the one behind it. It is necessary to prevent shading on 1. Increasing the efficiency of photovoltaic power
the panels as even if one cell is in the shade, the output sources, adding solar trackers, adjusting the tilt
of the entire panel will be significantly reduced. The angle, and improving the layout of photovoltaic
main parameters for calculating the distance between arrays.
rows are shown in Figure 8 [31]. 2. Using input water for cooling the photovoltaic
panels because the temperature of the solar
cos 𝛼
D = L cos 𝛽 + 𝐿 sin 𝛽 (14) panels increases during electricity production.
sin 𝛼
3. Avoiding the use of batteries in the
photovoltaic system.
4. Using pretreatment systems in desalination.
5. Employing energy recovery systems in the
reverse osmosis system.

Conclusions

Environmental issues, including the depletion of

groundwater and lake desiccation, have led to lack of
Figure 8. The main parameters for calculating the
access to fresh water in many regions, and as a result,
distance between rows of photovoltaic panels [31].
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 N. Mirzaei & M. Bidi Materials Chemistry and Mechanics 2023 1(3) 8-15

water desalination has become a promising method. On 5. Schunke, A. J., Hernandez Herrera, G. A., Padhye,
the other hand, concerns about global warming and air L., & Berry, T. A. (2020). Energy recovery in SWRO
pollution have drawn attention to the reduction of desalination: current status and new possibilities.
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Cite this article: Negin Mirzaei, Mokhtar Bidi*. A review of the application of photovoltaic panels in water
desalination. Materials Chemistry and Mechanics, 2023, 1(3), 8-15. https://doi.org/10.22034/mcm.2023.3.2
URL: https://www.matchemmech.com/article_187118.html

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