Memory

Part I
 Memory Processes
• Encoding--transforming information into a
form that can be entered and retained in the
the memory system
• Storage--retaining information in memory
so that it can be used at a later time
• Retrieval--recovering information stored in
memory so that we are consciously aware of
it
 Three Stages of Memory
• Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity
and duration

Maintenance
Rehearsal

Encodin
Sensory Attention Working or g
Sensory Long-term
Short-term
Memory memory
Input Memory
Retrieva
l
 Sensory Memory
• Function—holds
information long enough
to be processed for basic
Sensory physical characteristics
Input
Sensory • Capacity—large
Memory – can hold many items at once
• Duration—very brief
retention of images
– .3 sec for visual info
– 2 sec for auditory info
 Sensory Memory
• Divided into two types:
– iconic memory–visual
information
Sensory
– echoic memory–
Sensory
Input auditory information
Memory
• George Sperling proved
iconic memory
 Sensory Memory

• Sensory memory forms

Sensory
automatically, without
Sensory attention or interpretation
Input
Memory • Attention is needed to
transfer information to
working memory
 Sensory Memory
• Visual sensory memory—brief memory of
an image or icon. Also called iconic
memory.
• Auditory sensory memory—brief memory
of a sound or echo. Also called echoic
memory.
• Auditory sensory memories may last a bit
longer than visual sensory memories
Short Term or Working Memory

Sensory Attention Working or

Sensory Short-term
Input Memory Memory
 Short-Term Memory
• Function—conscious processing of information
– where information is actively worked on
• Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items)
• Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)

Sensory Attention Working or

Sensory Short-term
Input Memory Memory
 STM exercise
• ‘You are going to listen to a series of
numbers. When I raise my hand it signals the
end of the list and you should immediately
write down the digits in order. The number
of digits in the list will increase with each
trial. If you lose track of the digits please
stay silent so that it doesn’t affect the recall
of others.’
 Short-term memory
• Early sign of dementia is disability in the
short-term memory
 Maintenance Rehearsal

• Mental or verbal repetition of information allows

information to remain in working memory longer
than the usual 30 seconds

Maintenance
Rehearsal

Sensory Attention Working or

Sensory
Short-term
Memory
Input Memory
 Chunking
• Grouping small bits of information into
larger units of information
– expands working memory load
• Example: Listen and write down the letters
when I say “Go” afterward
 Long-Term Memory
• Once information passes from sensory to working
memory, it can be encoded into
long-term memory

Maintenance
Rehearsal

Encodin
Sensory Attention Working or g
Sensory Long-term
Short-term
Memory memory
Input Memory
Retrieva
l
 Long-Term Memory
• Function—organizes and stores information
– more passive form of storage than working memory
• Unlimited capacity
• Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Maintenance
Rehearsal

Encodin
Sensory Attention Working or g
Sensory Long-term
Short-term
Memory memory
Input Memory
Retrieva
l
 Long-Term Memory
• Encoding—process that controls movement from
working to long-term memory store
• Retrieval—process that controls flow of information
from long-term to working memory store
Maintenance
Rehearsal

Encodin
Sensory Attention Working or g
Sensory Long-term
Short-term
Memory memory
Input Memory
Retrieva
l
 Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding

• Automatic processing
– Unconscious encoding of information
– Examples:
• What did you eat for breakfast today?
• Was the last time you studied?
• You know the meanings of these very words you are
reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of
the words?
 Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
• Effortful processing
– Requires attention and conscious effort
– Examples:
• Memorizing your notes for your upcoming
Introduction to Psychology exams
• Repeating a phone number in your head until
you can write it down
 Types of Long-Term Memory
• Explicit memory—memory with
awareness; information can be consciously
recollected; also called declarative memory
• Implicit memory—memory without
awareness; memory that affects behavior
but cannot consciously be recalled; also
called nondeclarative memory
 Explicit Memory
• Declarative or conscious memory
• Memory consciously recalled or
declared
• Can use explicit memory to directly
respond to a question
• Two subtypes of explicit memory
 Explicit Memory

• Episodic information—information about

events or “episodes”
• Semantic information—information about
facts, general knowledge, school work
 Episodic Memory
• Memory tied to your own personal experiences
• Examples:
– What month is your birthday?
– Do you like to eat caramel apples?
• Q: Why are these explicit memories?
• A: Because you can actively declare your
answers to these questions
 Semantic Memory
• Memory not tied to personal events
• General facts and definitions about
the world
• Examples:
– How many tires on a car?
– What is a cloud?
– What color is a banana?
 Semantic Memory
• Q: Why are these explicit memories?
• A: Because you can actively declare your
answers
• Important note: Though you may have
personal experience with these items,
your ability to answer does NOT depend
on tying the item to your past
– i.e., Do not have to recall the time last week when
you ate a banana to say that bananas are yellow
 Implicit Memory
• Nondeclarative memory
• Influences your thoughts or behavior,
but does not enter consciousness
 Procedural Memory
• Memory that enables you to perform specific
learned skills or habitual responses
• Examples:
– Riding a bike
– Using the shift stick while driving
– Tying your shoe laces
• Q: Why are these procedural memories implicit?
• A: Don’t have to consciously remember the steps
involved in these actions to perform them
– Try to explain to someone how to tie a shoelace
 How are memories organized?

Clustering--organizing items into

related groups during recall from
long-term memory
Difference between clustering and
chunking?
 Semantic Network Model

• Mental links between concepts

– common properties provide basis for mental link
• Shorter path between two concepts =
stronger association in memory
• Activation of a concept starts decremental
spread of activity to nearby concepts
 Semantic Network Model

Car Bus
Truck
Fire House
Engine
Ambulance Fire
Red Hot Stove
Rose
Apple Cherry Pot Pan
Violet
Flower
Pear Pie
 Review of Long-term Memory
• Retrieval transfers data from LTM to STM
• Forgetting—inability to retrieve previously
available information
• Why do people forget?
Maintenance
Rehearsal

Attention Encodin
Sensory Working or g
Sensory Long-term
Short-term
Input Memory memory
Memory
Retrieva
l
 Why do we forget?
Sensory memory
The senses momentarily register
amazing detail
• Forgetting
Short-term memory can occur at
A few items are both noticed
and encoded any
memory
Long-term storage
Some items are altered or lost
stage
Retrieval from long-term memory
Depending on interference, retrieval
cues, moods, and motives, some
things get retrieved, some don’t
 Forgetting as retrieval failure
• Retrieval—process of accessing stored information
• Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t
retrieve it
Encodin
Short-term g
Long-term
memory memory

X
Retrieval

Retrieval failure
leads to
forgetting
 Tip of the tongue phenomenon

• TOT—involves the sensation of knowing

that specific information is stored in
long-term memory but being unable to
retrieve it
• Can’t retrieve info that you absolutely
know is stored in your LTM
 Experiment
"This is an experiment in memory in which I
am going to read you a series of unrelated
nouns. Try to recall as many of those words as
you can, regardless of the order in which I
read them. Please begin to write them down
only after I have read the entire list and have
given you the signal, 'Go."
 Measures of Retrieval
• Recall—test of LTM that involves retrieving memories
without cues, also termed free recall
• Cued recall—test of LTM that involves remembering
an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
• Recognition—test of LTM that involves identifying
correct information from a series of possible choices
• Serial position effect—tendency to remember items at
the beginning and end of a list better than items in the
middle
 Encoding Specificity
– When conditions of retrieval are similar to
conditions of encoding, retrieval is more
likely to be successful
– You are more likely to remember things if
the conditions under which you recall them
are similar to the conditions under which
you learned them
 Encoding Specificity
• Context effects—environmental cues to
recall
• State dependent retrieval—physical, internal
factors
• Mood Congruence—factors related to mood
or emotions
 Flashbulb Memories
• Recall of very specific images or details
about a vivid, rare, or significant event
• May seem very vivid and specific, but they
are not more accurate than ordinary
memories