Introduction to Psychology

Week 7

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

IQRA UNIVERSITY KARACHI CAMPUS.
Welcome!!
MEMORY AND
FORGETTING
 LEARNING OUTCOME
After studying this topic students will be able to:
What is memory and its process

To enable students to learn about stages of memory

To enable students to learn various reasons of memory failure

Students will be able to learn various techniques to improve memory

To enable students to learn about causes of forgetfulness

Last class quick revision
Memory and Its Process
 What is Memory?
“Memory is the process of maintaining information over time”
(Matlin, 2005)

“Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences

in order to use this information in the present”
(Sternberg, 1999)

Memory and its Process 6

 Human Memory is Good at
• Information on which attention is focused
• Information in which we are interested
• Information that arouses us emotionally
• Information that fits with our previous experiences
• Information that we rehearse

Memory and its Process 7

 The Process of Memory

“Memory is a mental capacity to store, recall or recognize the events that

were previously experienced”.

Memory and its Process 8

 Processes of Memory

Memory and its Process 9

 Processes of Memory
Access and
Encoding Storage
Retrieval

Involves modification
of information to fit
the preferred format
of the memory sys-
tem

Memory and its Process 1

 Processes of Memory
Access and
Encoding Storage
Retrieval

Involves retention
of encoded mate-
rial over time

Memory and its Process 1

 Processes of Memory
Access and
Encoding Storage
Retrieval

Involves the loca-

tion and recovery of
information from
memory

Memory and its Process 1

Stages of Memory
 Stages of Memory

“Memory is a mental capacity to store, recall or recognize the events that

were previously experienced”.

Stages of Memory 14
 Stages of Memory

Sensory Working Long-term

Memory Memory Memory

Stages of Memory 1
 Stages of Memory
Sensory Working Long-term
Memory Memory Memory

Preserves brief
sensory impressions
of stimuli, also called
sensory register

Stages of Memory 1
 Sensory Memory
• The very first stage of memory. The point at which information enters the ner-
vous system through the sensory system
• Duration
– ¼ to ½ second
• Capacity
– all sensory experience (limited capacity)
• Encoding
– sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)
• Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of nerve
impulses

Stages of Memory 1
 Stages of Memory
Sensory Working Long-term
Memory Memory Memory

Preserves recently perceived

events or experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal, also called
short-term memory or STM

Stages of Memory 18
 Working Memory/Short-Term Memory
• The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time
while being used
• Duration
– 15-18 seconds
• Capacity
– 7 +/- 2 items
STM is susceptible to interference
– e.g., if counting is interrupted, have to start over

Stages of Memory 19
Encoding & Storage in Working Memory
• Chunking
– Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
• Maintenance rehearsal
– Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while
in working memory
• Elaborative rehearsal
– Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in
LTM

Stages of Memory 20
 Stages of Memory
Sensory Working Long-term
Memory Memory Memory

Stores material
organized according
to meaning, also
called LTM

Stages of Memory 21
 Long-Term Memory
• The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept
more or less permanently.
• Duration
– Unlimited
• Capacity
– Unlimited

Stages of Memory 22
Types of LTM
• Procedural memory
– Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done
• Declarative memory
– Division of LTM that stores explicit information
(also known as fact memory)

Stages of Memory 23
• Declarative Memory
Episodic memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes”
Semantic memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of
words and concepts

Stages of Memory 24
 Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory

Semantic memory Episodic memory Includes memory

for:
Includes memory Includes memory motor skills,
for: for: operant and
language, facts events, personal classical
general knowledge experiences conditioning

Stages of Memory 25
 RETRIEVAL
RETRIEVAL

Stages of Memory 26
 How do we Retrieve Memories
Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how
they were encoded and how they are cued
Implicit memory
Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness
Explicit memory
Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled

Stages of Memory 27
Causes of Memory Failure
 Causes of Retrieval Failure
Interference:
• The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
i.e., retroactive & proactive interference
Anxiety:
• During exam, students were unable to recall a specific name or date and recalled it just after the
exam.
Poor psychological / physical state:
• Depression, anxiety, poor concentration, headache, stress etc.
Age Factor:
• Dementia
Decay:
Non use of information for a longer period of time

Causes of Memory Failure 2

How to Improve Memory
 How to Improve Memory

“Memory is a mental capacity to store, recall or recognize the events that

were previously experienced”.

How to Improve Memory 31

 Mnemonics
Mnemonics are the techniques in which new information is
associated with something familiar and previously encoded”

How to Improve Memory 3

 • Chunking
– Bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that
more information can be held in STM.
• Elaborative Rehearsals
– A method of transferring information form STM into LTM by making that in-
formation meaningful in some way.
• Study repeatedly ( over learning)
• Organize material

How to Improve Memory 3

• Think and be sure that you understand the meaning of the material to be
memorized
• Establish memory cues (imagery can be useful) by narration
• PQRST
– P= Preview
– Q= Question
– R= Read
– S= Self recitation
– T= Test

How to Improve Memory 3

Forgetfulness and its Causes
 Forgetting

“Forgetting refers to the loss of information that was previously stored in memory”

Forgetting and its causes 36

 Why do we Forget?
• Brain tumor
• Diseases of the nervous system
• Old age
• Accidental injuries
• Organic Decay
– Those traces which do not get reinforced by training and practice, will fade away
with time.
• Retroactive Interference
• Proactive Interference