Y3IP Biology EOY Core Notes

Biology
Year 3
Integrated Programme
Core Notes
By: Oscar Chiang
By: Oscar Chiang Page 1

Table of Contents
Chapter 2: Cells ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 3: Movement of Substances ..................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 4: Nutrients............................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 5: Enzymes .............................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter 6: Nutrition in Humans ........................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 7: Nutrition in Plants............................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 8: Transport in Humans .......................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 9: Transport in Plants ............................................................................................................. 33
Chapter 10: Respiration in Humans ..................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 11: Excretion in Humans ......................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 12: Homeostasis ..................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 15: Hormones ......................................................................................................................... 55

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 2: CELLS
- Part I: Microscopes
We use microscopes to see things (such as cells) that the naked eye is unable to see.
Light microscope Electron microscope

Magnify objects up to 1000 times Magnify objects up to 200 000 times
Colour images Black-and-white (but they can be artificially
colourised)
• Magnification
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
Magnification = ×
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
• Dissection
Longitudinal section (cutting along the Transverse section (cutting across the
length) length)
- Part II: Measurement Units

Factor Equivalent Prefix Symbol
103 1000 kilo- k
-2
10 0.01 centi- c
10-3 0.001 milli- m
-6
10 0.000001 micro- μ
10-9 0.000000001 nano- n
- Part III: Inside a Cell
Every living cell contains the protoplasm, which includes the cell membrane, cytoplasm and
nucleus.
a. Nucleus (double membrane)

The nucleus controls cell activities. The nucleus has to be present for cell division to occur.
The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus
contains a dense material called the nucleoplasm. It also contains the nucleolus (plays a part
in making of proteins in the cell) and chromatin threads (more in Chapter 16: Cell Division and Chapter 19:
Heredity).
b. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is where most cell activities occur. The cytoplasm also contains specialised
structures called organelles (e.g. mitochondria, centrioles, ribosomes) which can only be
seen under the electron microscope.
ok

c. Cell surface membrane (plasma membrane)
The cell surface membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer. The phosphate head is
polar (hydrophilic) but the fatty acid tails are non-polar (hydrophobic).
It is a partially permeable membrane (there are pores), allowing some substances to enter or
leave the cell.
d. Cell wall (only in plant cells)

The cell wall is made of cellulose. It is a fully permeable membrane. It protects the cell from
injury and gives the plant cell a fixed shape.
- Part IV: Inside the Cytoplasm

Ribosomes
smooth endoplasmic free ribosomes
reticulum
chromatin thread
nucleus
centriole
nucleolus rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body attached ribosome

vesicle
vacuole
mitochondrion
a. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are small round structures. They are needed to synthesize proteins in the cell.
Some ribosomes are attached on the RER and the proteins synthesized are transported out
of the cell.
Some also lie freely in the cytoplasm and the proteins synthesized are to be used within the
cell.
b. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

The RER contains a network of flattened spaces lined with a membrane, with ribosomes
attached to its outer surface, therefore, appearing rough.
It transports proteins to the Golgi body.
c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

The SER does not have ribosomes attached to its membrane, unlike the RER. SER undergoes
lipid synthesis (e.g. phospholipid, steroids). The SER also undergoes detoxification where
harmful substances (e.g. drugs, poisons) into harmless materials.

d. Lysosomes
Lysosomes contains digestive enzymes. Digestion is carried out in membrane-bound
vacuoles when the lysosomes fuse. It also destroys worn-out organelles within the cell
(autolysis).
e. Golgi body / Golgi apparatus

The Golgi body is shaped like a disc (C-shaped). The Golgi body chemically modify substances
made by the RER, stores and packages the substances in vesicles for secretion out of the cell.
① Small vesicles containing substances made by the ER are pinched off from the ER.
② These vesicles then fuse with the Golgi body and release their contents into the Golgi
body. The substances may be modified inside the Golgi body.
③ The secretory vesicles containing the substance are pinched off the Golgi body and move
to the cell surface membrane.
④ The secretory vesicles will then fuse with the cell surface membrane (exocytosis) and
their contents will be released outside the cell.
f. Mitochondria (double membrane)

Mitochondria has a double membrane. Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria. Food
substances are oxidised to release energy.
𝐶! 𝐻"# 𝑂! + 𝑂# → 𝐶𝑂# + 𝐻# 𝑂 + Energy (In ATP)
Additional information
Cristae increases the surface area to
volume ratio to increase rate of
cellular respiration of mitochondria.
g. Chloroplasts (double membrane, only in plant cells)

Chloroplasts contains chlorophyll which is required for photosynthesis. Stacks of
𝐶𝑂! + 𝐻! 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝑂2 ‘disks’
containing
chlorophyll
h. Vacuoles
Animal cells have many small temporary vacuoles that contain water and food substances.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole which contains a liquid called cell sap. The cell sap
contains dissolved substances such as sugars, mineral salts and amino acids. The vacuole is
also enclosed by a partially permeable membrane called the tonoplast.
i. Centrioles (only in animal cells)

Centrioles help facilitate the separation of sister chromatids in mitosis and meiosis. (more in
Chapter 16: Cell Division)
Structures Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Wall Present Absent
Chloroplasts Present Absent
Centrioles Absent Present
Vacuole A large central vacuole Many (temporary) small vacuoles

- Part IV: Adaptations of cells
1. Root hair cell (more in Chapter 9: Transport in Plants)
The root hair cell has a long and narrow root hair. This increases surface area to volume ratio
so that water and mineral salts can be absorbed at a faster rate.
2. Xylem vessels (more in Chapter 9: Transport in Plants)

Xylem vessels are made of adjacent cell walls broken down which forms a long, continuous
thin hollow tube. The walls are heavily lignified to provide mechanical support for the plant.
3. Red blood cell (more in Chapter 8: Transport in Humans)

The red blood cell does not contain a nucleus so that it is able to store more haemoglobins
to carry more oxygen. A red blood cell also has a circular biconcave shape to increase
surface area to volume ratio for faster diffusion of oxygen in and out of the cell.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 3: MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES
- Concepts
a. Concentration Gradient
Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between two regions. The steeper
the concentration gradient is, the faster the particles will move.
b. Surface area to Volume ratio

The rate at which substances move across the membrane is determined by the surface area
to volume ratio. The larger the surface area to volume ratio is, the faster the substances will
move across the membrane.
- Part I: Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a lower
concentration, down a concentration gradient.
It is a passive process and cannot occur in solids. A partially permeable membrane is not
required.
• Factors affecting diffusion

1. Solute concentration (steepness of concentration gradient)
2. Temperature (higher temperature → more kinetic energy → faster)
3. Surface area to volume ratio
- Part II: Osmosis

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to
a region of lower water potential, across a partially permeable membrane.
It is a passive process.
Water potential is the measure of tendency of water. The higher the water potential is, the
steeper the concentration gradient is, and osmosis will occur faster.
When placed in… Animal Cells Plant Cells

Hypotonic solution (lower solute Burst / Lyse Expand and
concentration than cell) becomes turgid
Isotonic solution (equal solute concentration) No change No change
Hypertonic solution (higher solute Shrink and crenate Plasmolysed
concentration than cell)
- Part III: Active Transport

Active transport is the movement of particles from a region of lower solute concentration to
a region of higher concentration which requires energy, in the form of ATP molecules.
It is an active process. An example of active transport is root hair cell absorbing mineral
salts.
Recall!
ATP molecules are produced in the mitochondria in the nucleus of the cell, through
respiration.
A saturated solution is a solution that maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a volume of
solvent.

- Part IV: Facilitated Diffusion (IP Syllabus)
Facilitated diffusion is the movement of specific particles from a region of higher
concentration to a lower concentration, down a concentration gradient, through a transport
protein channel.
A specific molecule will bind to the transport protein channels. Then, the molecule is then
passed to the other side. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process.
- Part V: Endocytosis and Exocytosis (IP Syllabus)

Endocytosis is absorbing exterior materials into the cell. There are two forms of endocytosis,
phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
Exocytosis is the discharge of materials from inside the cell to the outside of the cell.
Both are active processes.
• Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is cell eating, where the cell ingests materials from the exterior of the cell.
① Solid materials are taken into a vesicle.
② Lysosomes will fuse with the vesicle. The lysosomes will
release their digestive enzymes.
③ The enzymes will digest the material and the products will
be absorbed into the cytoplasm.
④ Waste products will be discharged through exocytosis.
• Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis is cell drinking, where the cell ingests extracellular fluid from the exterior of the
cell.
① Liquid materials are taken into the cell and vesicles form.
② Lysosomes will fuse with the vesicle. The lysosomes will
release their digestive enzymes.
③ The enzymes will digest the material and the products will
be absorbed into the cytoplasm.
④ Waste products will be discharged through exocytosis.
• Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis, where the cell releases materials
out of the cell.
① The intracellular vesicle moves toward the cell membrane.
② The vesicle would fuse with the cell’s phospholipid bilayer.
③ Materials inside the vesicle will be released to the exterior of the cell.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 4: NUTRIENTS
- Introduction
Nutrients are required to provide energy for vital activities, cell growth and repair.
Inorganic nutrients are nutrients that do not contain carbon (e.g. water).
Organic nutrients are nutrients that contain carbon (e.g. carbohydrates, fats and proteins).
- Part I: Water
Water is an essential component of all body tissues and is about 70% of our body weight.
• Functions of Water
In Animals In Plants
Solvent for chemical reactions Photosynthesis
e.g. hydrolysis
Formation of protoplasm and body fluids Keeps plant turgid and upright
e.g. digestive juices, blood
Regulate body temperatures Transports mineral salts from the roots to
e.g. production of sweat the leaves through the xylem
Transports dissolved substances within the Transports food substances from the leaves
body to the rest of the plant through the phloem
• Chemical reactions involving water

1. Condensation reaction
Condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which two simple molecules are joined
together to form a larger molecule, with an excess of water.
e.g. Glucose + Glucose → Maltose + Water
2. Hydrolysis
Hydrolytic reaction is a chemical reaction which a water molecule is needed to break up
a complex molecule into smaller molecules.
e.g. Maltose + Water → Glucose + Glucose
- Part II: Carbohydrates

Made up of carbon (𝐶), hydrogen (𝐻) and oxygen (𝑂) elements where H:O = 2:1 ratio.
Excess carbohydrates are converted to glycogen and fats for storage.
• Sources of Carbohydrates
Rice, potato, noodles, bread
• Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Provide energy for cell activities.
2. Formation of nucleic acids such as DNA.
3. Synthesize lubricants (e.g., in the throat) such as mucus. (In flowers, it is needed to
synthesize nectar)

• Types of Carbohydrates
Types Description Examples
Monosaccharides One single sugar. Cannot be Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
further digested into smaller
molecules.
Disaccharides Two single sugars bonded Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
together. Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
Polysaccharides Many sugars are bonded Glycogen
together. Starch (Enzyme: Amylase, Product:
Maltose)
Cellulose
They all are made up of Glucose but

have different arrangements.
Starch Cellulose
Glycogen
- Part III: Fats and Lipids
Made up of carbon (𝐶), hydrogen (𝐻) and oxygen (𝑂) but it contains much less oxygen in
proportion to hydrogen.
• Source of Fats
Butter, cheese, fatty meat, nuts glycerol Fatty acid chains
• Function of Fats
1. Source of energy and storage of energy.
2. Insulate against excessive heat loss, reduce loss of body heat.
3. Act as solvent for fat soluble vitamins (Vitamin A, D, E and K) and hormones.
4. Form parts of cell membrane. (Phospholipid bilayer)
5. Prevent water loss from the skin surface.
• Type of Fats
Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats
Fatty acid chain is straight. Fatty acid chain has a kink.
Solid at room temperature. (e.g. butter) Liquid at room temperature. (e.g. olive oil)

- Part IV: Proteins
Proteins are made up of carbon (𝐶), hydrogen (𝐻), oxygen (𝑂) and nitrogen (𝑁). Sulfur (𝑆)
may also be present in the ‘R’ group. The following shows an amino acid, a building block of
proteins.
Free amino acids Polypeptide Protein
• Source of Proteins
Milk, eggs, lean meat e.g. chicken, tofu
• Function of Proteins
1. Repair and replace worn-out body cells.
2. Make enzymes and some hormones such as insulin.
3. Form antibodies to fight diseases.
• Deficiency of Proteins
The lack of protein in children can cause them to end up with a protein deficiency disease
called kwashiorkor. These children will have swollen stomachs, cracked and scaly skin.
- Part V: Food tests

• Testing for starch
We can test for starch by adding iodine solution (original colour is brown) to the food
sample. If starch is present, the iodine solution turns blue-black. If not, it will remain brown.
Steps:
3
① For 2cm sample, add 1-2 drops of iodine solution.
• Testing for reducing sugars

Reducing sugars: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Maltose, Lactose.
Non-reducing sugars: Sucrose
Steps:
3
① To 2cm of sample solution, add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution.
② Shake the mixture.
③ Place in boiling water bath for 2-3 minutes.
④ Observe formation of precipitate.
Blue colour Green Yellow Brick-red

(not present) precipitate precipitate precipitate
(present in small (present in (present in
quantities) moderate large
quantities) quantities)

• Test for fats (Emulsion test)
We can test for fats by doing the Emulsion test. If lipids are present, a white emulsion will be
present. If not, a homogenous clear solution is formed when water is added.
Steps:
① Add a drop of sample to the test tube.
3
② Add 2cm of ethanol to the test tube. Shake the mixture thoroughly.
3
③ Add 2cm of water to the mixture. Shake the mixture again.
• Test for proteins

We can test for proteins by doing the biuret test using copper(II) sulfate (original colour is
blue) solution. If proteins are present, a lilac colouration is observed. If not, the solution will
remain blue.
Steps:
3 3
① To 2cm of sample solution, add half the amount (in this case 1cm ) of sodium hydroxide
solution.
② Shake the mixture.
③ Add 1% copper(II) sulfate drop by drop, shaking it after each drop.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 5: ENZYMES
- Introduction
Enzymes are proteins which act as biological catalysts (catalysts speed up biochemical
reactions) that remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Enzymes lower the energy needed to start a chemical reaction (called the activation
energy). Enzymes provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy.
- Part I: Characteristics of Enzymes

1. Enzymes speed up chemical changes by lowering the activation energy to start a
reaction.
2. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature and pH changes (because they are proteins).
Every enzyme has an optimal temperature and pH. Enzymes are more sensitive to pH
changes than to temperature changes.
3. Enzymes remain unchanged at the end of a reaction and can be used repeatedly. (so its
required in small amounts)
4. Enzymes are highly specific. Enzyme molecule has specific shape and special site (the
active site) on the molecule can bind only to specific substrate.
- Part II: Models

• Lock-and-Key Hypothesis
The lock-and-key hypothesis believes that only the substrate is nice fitting to the active site.
Substrate
Legend has binded
Substrate = ‘Key’
to the active
Enzyme = ‘Lock’
site
The enzyme has a specific active

site and can only bind to a The enzyme remains unchanged and is
A chemical reaction occurs. ready for another reaction.
specific active substrate.

• Induced-fit hypothesis
The induced-fit hypothesis believes that the enzyme has a flexible active site that changes
shape to best fit the substrate and catalyse the reaction.
The enzyme has a specific A chemical reaction occurs. The enzyme remains
active site and can only bind to unchanged and is ready for
a specific active substrate. another reaction.
Enzymes can also

combine substrates.
(Reversible reactions)
- Part III: Factors affecting enzyme activity

1. Temperature
2. pH
3. Substrate concentration
4. Enzyme concentration
1. Temperature
rate of reaction ① Low temperature à The enzymes and substrates have lesser kinetic
② energy à Lower rate of reaction
1-1
optimum temperature For every 10℃ rise in temperature up to 37℃, the enzyme activity
doubles.
denatur
③ The optimum temperature, 37℃, is the temperature at which

s
②
yme
①
enz
enzymes catalyse a reaction at the maximum rate. Most enzymes in

ed enzy
tive
human have an optimum temperature of about 37℃.

inac
mes
③ Enzymes denature (irreversible) à the active site will change

shape à substrate is unable to bind to enzyme’s active site à rate
37 temperature 1°C of reaction decreases.
2. pH
rate of reaction
①② Extreme pH (on both ends) à enzymes are denatured.
1-
Enzymes are highly sensitive to pH changes. A slight change in pH
most human cells can affect the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions as each enzyme
pepsin trypsin functions optimally at a particular pH.
① ② At very high or very low pH values, ionic bonds within the enzymes
① ② are disrupted and this changes the active site.
① ②
2 7 9 pH

3. Substrate Concentration
rate of reaction ① Increasing substrate concentration after all enzymes are unavailable
Let
will not increase rate of reaction as the rate is already at its maximum as
all enzyme are forming enzyme-substrate complex.
enzyme is
limiting factor! Example:
If an enzyme can bind with 5 substrates per second, and there is one
enzyme and 5 substrates, it will be at the maximum rate of reaction. If
there are 5 more substrates added, the rate of reaction will remain the
same.
substrate concentration
4. Enzyme concentration
As enzyme levels increase, reaction rate will increase till substrate concentration < enzyme
rate is concentration and substrate is the limiting factor.
g factor rate of reaction
It
substrate is
limiting factor!
concentration
enzyme concentration
- Part IV: Enzyme Inhibition (IP Syllabus)

Enzyme inhibition (inhibit means to hinder) can be reversible or irreversible.
In reversible inhibition, the inhibitor can leave and the enzyme will be restored to its
uninhibited state.
In irreversible inhibition, the inhibitor is permanently bounded and the enzyme is
rate of reaction
permanent inhibited.
¥
enzyme is
The inhibition can alsolimiting
be afactor!
competitive inhibitor or non-competitive inhibitor.
Competitive inhibitor Non-competitive inhibitor
Has a similar shape to the substrate Shape does not matter
Binds with the active site Binds to other sites; changes active site
Prevents the substrate from binding to the If active site has been changed, the
active site
substrate concentration substrate will be unable to bind.
*
strate is
ting factor
rate of reaction
no inhibition
competitive inhibition
me concentration Competitive inhibitor rate of reaction can be eventually surpassed at

non-competitive inhibition higher substrate concentrations.
A non-competitive inhibitor will always have a maximum rate lower

than the no inhibition for all substrate concentration.
substrate concentration

- Part V: Application of enzymes
1. Food processing industry
Protease is used to tenderises meat through hydrolysis. (broken into smaller molecules)
Lactase catalyses the hydrolysis of lactose in making lactose free milk or ice cream.
Cellulase catalyses the breakdown of cellulose and the removal of seed coats from cereal
grains.
Recall!
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction which a water molecule is needed to break up a complex
molecule into smaller molecules.
2. Textile industry
Amylase helps remove starch that is used as stiffeners from fabrics.
3. Detergents
Protease, lipase and amylase help dissolve protein, fats and starch stains in clothes
respectively.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 6: NUTRITION IN HUMANS
- Introduction
We digest food as food cannot be absorbed by our bloodstream into the cells through the
partially permeable membrane immediately. Large molecule such as starch must be broken
down into smaller substances like monosaccharides so that it can be absorbed.
- Terms
Ingestion refers to food being taken into the body.
Assimilation refers to absorbed food being converted to new protoplasm or used to provide
energy.
Digestion is the breaking up food into small soluble molecules.
Physical digestion is the breaking up of food into small particles mechanically so that surface
area to volume ratio increases to enable enzymes to act on it more efficiently.
Chemical digestion is the breaking down of large molecules to smaller soluble substances,
involving hydrolytic reactions catalysed by digestive enzymes.
Buccal cavity
- Part I: Mouth (pH ≈7)

Physical Digestion Chemical Digestion
Chewing – The teeth cut and grind the food Salivary amylase in the saliva digests starch
into smaller pieces. to maltose.
The food is rolled into boli (singular – bolus), through the buccal cavity and to the
oesophagus.
- Part II: Oesophagus (pH ≈7)

The oesophagus contains two layers of muscle. The circular muscle (inner layer) and the
longitudinal muscle (outer layer).
✘ ✘ (though salivary amylase from the mouth
may still be acting on the bolus of food)
• Peristalsis
The oesophagus works antagonistically (a pair of muscles that
oppose each other) to pass the food down the oesophagus. Circular muscles contract
Longitudinal muscle relaxes
When the circular muscle contracts, it constricts the lumen. When Circular muscles relaxes
the longitudinal muscle contracts, it shortens the lumen. Longitudinal muscle
contract

Note!
- Part III: Stomach (pH ≈2) Pepsin is a type of
The stomach is a muscle (made up of protein) and contains gastric juice which is protease which digests
proteins to polypeptide.
made of dilute hydrochloric acid, mucus, pepsin and rennin.

Churning – The stomach churns food to The pepsin (protease) in the gastric juice
smaller pieces. breaks down protein into polypeptide.
Note!
• Function of hydrochloric acid (HC𝑙) Pepsin does not break down
Changes pepsinogen (inactive) to pepsin (active). the stomach as
1. There is a thick layer of
Provides an acidic medium which is suitable for the action of rennin and pepsin. mucus on the stomach.
Kills germs and bacteria. 2. The hydrochloric acid will
only change pepsinogen to
pepsin when there is food.
The partially digested food, known as chyme, passes into the duodenum.
- Part IV: Small intestine (pH ≈8)

There are 3 parts of the small intestine – duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Emulsification – break down fats into Pancreatic juice – pancreatic amylase,
smaller fat globules by bile. Emulsification trypsinogen (protease) and pancreatic
increases surface area to volume ratio for lipase.
faster digestion by lipase. Intestinal juice – maltase, sucrase, lactase,
enterokinase, erepsin (protein) and
intestinal lipase.
• Absorption
Amino acids and glucose are absorbed by the blood capillary via diffusion and active
transport. Whereas, fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the lacteal.
Structure Function
Dense capillary This is to ensure absorbed food particles is carried away quickly in
network close to order to maintain concentration gradient between ileum and blood
the epithelium capillaries to aid diffusion.
Lacteal The lacteal absorbs fatty acids and glycerol as they are bigger than
amino acids and glucose and can clog up the blood vessels.
Villi and To increase surface area to volume ratio so that rate of absorption of
microvilli nutrients is faster.
One-cell thick There is a shorter diffusion distance.

- Part V: Large intestine (pH ≈8)
The large intestine is made up of the caecum, appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon and rectum. The large intestine is mainly to absorb water and mineral salts
from undigested food material.

✘ ✘
Absorption of water and mineral salts from undigested food takes place here although most
has been absorbed in the small intestine.
- Part VI: Hepatic Portal Vein

Amino acids and sugars from the small intestine are transported to the liver through the
hepatic portal vein.
The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver.
The hepatic vein carries glucose and amino acids to distribute round the body.
- Part VII: Assimilation of Nutrients

• Glucose
Glucose is used by cells as a source of energy. It is oxidised during tissue respiration (more
under Chapter 9: Respiration in Humans) to release energy for vital activities.
Excess glucose returns back to the liver and is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver.
• Amino acids
Amino acids are converted to new protoplasm that is used for growth and repair of worn-
out parts of the body. It is also used to form enzymes and hormones.
Excess amino acids returns back to the liver and is deaminated.

- Part VIII: Functions of Liver
1. Bile production
Bile is secreted in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
2. Iron storage
Worn out red blood cells are destroyed in the liver and stores the iron that is released in the
process. The iron is used in the synthesis of new red blood cells and bile.
3. Regulation of blood glucose concentration (~70-90mg/100cm3 of blood)

Insulin stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen, and glucagon stimulates conversion
of glycogen back to glucose. (more under Chapter 12: Homeostasis)
4. Deamination
Deamination is the removal of amino groups from amino acids and it is converted to urea.
Urea is removed from the body in the urine. (more under Chapter 11: Excretion in Humans)
5. Detoxification
Detoxification is the process of harmful substances (such as alcohol) are converted to
harmless products.
Memorising Tip!
Mnemonic: BIGDD

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 7: NUTRITION IN PLANTS
- Terms
Limiting factor is the factor that directly affects or limits a process if its quantity or
concentration is altered.
- Part I: Experiments (no need for regurgitations)

• Is sunlight necessary for photosynthesis?
1. A potted plant is de-starched by placing it in the dark for two days.
2. A leaf is removed and tested for the presence of starch.
3. Cover some part of a leaf with black paper and put the plant under strong sunlight.
4. After a few hours, test the leaf for the presence of starch.
*Iodine test is used here. Starch is present in blue-black spots.
• Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

1. A plant with variegated leaves is de-starched by placing it in the dark for two days.
2. Place the plant in strong sunlight for a few hours.
3. A leaf is removed, decolourised and tested for starch.
• Is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

1. Two potted plants are de-starched by placing it in the dark for two days.
2. Enclose both pots in a glass box. In the first set-up, place potassium hydroxide solution
beside the plant. Potassium hydroxide removes carbon dioxide. The second set-up
should be the experimental set-up.
3. The pots of plants are enclosed in polythene bags and placed under strong sunlight.
4. After a few hours, a leaf is removed from each pot of the plant and tested for the
presence of starch.
• Why destarch?
To ensure all stored up starch in the leaves is removed before the experiment, such that any
starch present at the end of the experiment has been produced during the experiment.
- Part II: Factors affecting rate of Photosynthesis

Light intensity 𝐶𝑂! concentration Temperature
The reaction in photosynthesis are

enzyme-dependent.

- Part III: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy are absorbed by chlorophyll and
transformed into chemical energy. The chemical energy is used to synthesise carbohydrates
from water and carbon dioxide. Water and carbon dioxide are raw materials for
photosynthesis. Oxygen is released during this process.
1. Light-dependent stage
The following processes occur in the light-dependent stage: absorption of light energy
by chlorophyll and photolysis of water. The light-dependent reaction occurs in the
thylakoids of chloroplast.
Photolysis means to use light energy (‘photo’) to split up (‘lysis’) the water molecule.
chlorophyll
12𝐻! 𝑂 → 24𝐻 + 6𝑂!
ATP and NADPH are also produced at this stage.
The hydrogen atoms obtained will be used in the next stage while the oxygen gas will be
released as a by-product.
2. Light-independent stage / Calvin cycle

It is important to note that though it is a light-independent reaction, it does not need to
be in the dark, more importantly, it still needs products from the light-dependent stage.
The light-independent reaction occurs in the stroma of chloroplast.
At this stage, carbon dioxide enters (taken in through the stomata). Carbon dioxide is
fixed (process is called carbon fixation) with the hydrogen atoms, ATP and NADPH from
the light-dependent stage to provide reducing power, forming glucose with the use of
enzyme (Rubisco).
Enzyme-controlled reaction
6𝐶𝑂! + 24𝐻 → 𝐶" 𝐻#! 𝑂" + 6𝐻! 𝑂
Combining both equations from the light-dependent stage and light-independent stage will
give us the following equation: 6
6𝐶𝑂! + 12𝐻! 𝑂 → 𝐶" 𝐻#! 𝑂" + 6𝑂! + 6𝐻! 𝑂
chlorophyll
𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶light→energy
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 + 𝟔𝑶𝟐
Hence, photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, water, light, chlorophyll and appropriate
temperature (because of the involvement of enzymes), producing glucose and oxygen gas.
- Part IV: Fate of glucose in leaves

Glucose produced by the plant during photosynthesis are
1. Used immediately by plant cells for cellular respiration or to form cellulose cell walls.
2. Excess glucose is temporarily stored as starch in the leaves.
3. Converted into sucrose which is transported to storage organs.
4. Reacts with nitrates and mineral salts to form amino acids which are combined to form
proteins for synthesis of new protoplasm in the leaf.
5. Used to form fats for storage.

- Part V: Adaptations of leaf
• External adaptations
Structure Function Lamina
Lamina Large surface area to maximise absorption of sunlight. This
increases SA:V ratio, increasing rate of diffusion of carbon
dioxide into the inner cells of the leaf. Veins
Petiole Positions the lamina for maximum absorption of sunlight
and gaseous exchange.
Veins Allows the transport of water and mineral salts to the cells in
the lamina.
Leaves are arranged in a regular pattern around the stem to ensure that Peitole
leaves are not blocking one another from sunlight and that each leaf
receives optimum amount of light.
• Internal adaptations
Cuticle Upper There are no chloroplasts in the
epidermis upper epidermis!
Palisade
mesophyll
Spongy Vascular
mesophyll bundle
Note!
Lower
The phloem is always closer to the lower
epidermis
epidermis/guard cells than the xylem.
Structure Function
Cuticle A waxy layer above the epidermis (surface), preventing excessive water loss.
It is transparent to allow sunlight to penetrate the mesophyll.
Palisade Few layers of closely packed cells which are long, cylindrical and contains
mesophyll numerous chloroplasts for maximum absorption of light.
Spongy Irregular shaped cells with numerous large intercellular air spaces. This allows
mesophyll for rapid diffusion of gases inside the leaf.
Lower A single layer of closely packed cells. There are many small openings called
epidermis stomata (plural – stoma) for the diffusion of gases in and out of the cell.

- Part VI: Guard cells
Each stoma is surrounded by guard cells. Guard cells control the size of the stomata.
Stomata opens in the light and closes in the dark.
• Day time H2O (𝑙)
Guard cells contain chlorophyll, hence, photosynthesis will occur.

① The concentration of carbon dioxide is lower inside the leaf than the
atmospheric air because it is rapidly used up during photosynthesis. Hence,
carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf via the stomata.
② Carbon dioxide dissolves into the film of water surrounding the mesophyll
cells and diffuses into the cells.
③ Water vapour and oxygen will diffuse out of the cell.
+
④ Guard cells also increases K ions concentration by active transport into the
cell, lower the water potential in the guard cells.
⑤ The glucose concentration increases by light-independent stage of
photosynthesis, further reducing water potential in the guard cells.
CO2 H2O (g)
⑥ Water moves into the guard cells from the xylem vessels, cell to cell, by osmosis, until
they become turgid.
• Night time
+
① No active transport of K ions into guard cells and they also diffuse out of the guard cells.
② No glucose would be produced by guard cells as there will be no photosynthesis.
③ This increases the water potential of the cell. Hence, water moves out of the guard cells
by osmosis.
④ The guard cells will become flaccid, causing the stomata to close, reducing gases diffusing
in and out of the leaf.
- Part VII: Chloroplast (IP Syllabus)
Structure Description
Double membrane -
Thylakoid A thylakoid contains chlorophyll which contributes to its intense
green colour.
A stack of thylakoid is called granum, a few stacks of thylakoid is
called grana. Thylakoids are arranged into stacks to increase SA:V
ratio of the thylakoid membrane.
Stroma A colourless fluid around the thylakoids which contain many
enzymes and provide a suitable pH for Calvin cycle to occur.

- Part VIII: Adaptations of plants (IP Syllabus)
• Cactus
Cactus (plural: cacti) grows in hot and dry environments.
Feature Adaptations
Spines instead of leaves This helps to reduce transpiration.
Thick stems Thick stems allow for water storage tissue, allowing it to
survive in hot and dry areas like a desert.
Thick waxy cuticle Prevents excessive water loss.
covering the stem
Vertical stems Maximise absorption of sunlight early and late in the day, but
not at the mid-day when the light is most intense.
Wide-spread network of To maximise absorption of water after rain.
shallow roots
• Marram grass
Similarly, marram grass also grows in hot and dry environments.
Feature Adaptations
Leaves roll up This helps to enclose a humid atmosphere.
Tiny hairs that lie in the This helps to trap packets of still and moist air.
grooves
Stomata are sunken Decrease the rate of transpiration.
• Water lily
Water lily grows on the surface of water.
Feature Adaptations
Air spaces in the leaf Provide buoyancy in the plant so that it stays afloat.
More stomata in the So that it is in contact with the air, since the lower epidermis
upper epidermis would be in contact with the water instead.
Waxy cuticle on the To prevent excessive water loss since there are more stomata
upper surface of the leaf in the upper epidermis.
Small amounts of xylem It does not need xylem to provide mechanical support as it
in stem and leaves will be floating on the surface of the water.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 8: TRANSPORT IN HUMANS
- Part I: Blood
Blood is a fluid tissue made up of plasma (55% of blood), red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets.
blood centrifugation
• Plasma
Plasma is a pale-yellowish liquid, 90% made up of water. Plasma
White blood cells and

The plasma transports dissolved substances such as platelets
1. Proteins (e.g. fibrinogens, prothrombin, antibodies)
Red blood cells
2. Mineral salts
3. Food substances (e.g. glucose, amino acids, fats)
4. Waste products (e.g. carbon dioxide in the form of hydrogen carbonate ions HCO-3, urea)
5. Hormones
• Red blood cells

Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and are destroyed at the spleen when
they are worn out.
Structure Function
Contains haemoglobin (a protein) To transport oxygen to all parts of the body.
No nucleus To carry more haemoglobins, therefore, transport more
oxygen.
Circular biconcave disc shape Increases surface area to volume ratio for faster
diffusion of oxygen in and out of the cell.
Elastic The cell would be able to squeeze through the lumen of
tiny blood capillaries.
• Leucocytes (white blood cells)

White blood cells, similar to red blood cell, is produced in the bone marrow and destroyed at
the spleen when worn out.
All white blood cells are mobile, able to move and change their shape to squeeze through
walls of thin blood capillaries.
There are two types of white blood cells:

1. Lymphocytes
non-granular
Lymphocytes have large, rounded nucleus. They produce antibodies to protect cytoplasm
against pathogens. They destroy the bacteria by rupturing their surface
membrane, clump bacteria together so that phagocytes can easily engulf nucleus
them and they also neutralise toxins produced by the bacteria.
2. Phagocytes
Phagocytes have lobed nucleus. They are responsible for phagocytosis, granular
cytoplasm
engulfing and ingesting foreign particles.
lobed
nucleus
• Platelets
Platelets have irregular shape. They are important in blood clotting.

- Part II: Function of Blood
Blood acts as a transport medium carrying substances such as digested food substances,
excretory products, hormones, heat and oxygen.
1. Transport of oxygen
Blood passes through the alveoli of the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the
blood. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. Blood transports
oxygen to all the tissues of the body. At the tissue cells, oxygen diffuses from the
oxyhaemoglobin to the tissue cells. (More in Chapter 10: Respiration in Humans)
2. Blood clotting
Blood clots when it is exposed to air.
① When tissues are damaged, platelets release an enzyme, thrombokinase.
② Thrombokinase converts prothrombin (inactive form), a protein found in the blood
plasma, to thrombin in the presence of calcium ions.
③ Thrombin catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads which
entangle blood cells, forming a clot.
④ The clot helps to seal the wound to prevent entry of bacteria and further loss of blood.
3. Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is the process of phagocytes engulfing and ingesting foreign particles (e.g.
bacteria)
4. Production of antibodies
Antibodies, produced by lymphocytes, protect the body against diseases.
Antibodies destroy bacteria, cause bacteria to agglutinate so that they can easily ingested by
the phagocytes and also neutralise toxins which are produced by bacteria.
• Tissue rejection
Tissue or organ transport involves replacing a damaged or diseased tissue with a healthy
tissue from the same person or a donor.
Tissue rejection occurs when antibodies are produced to destroy the transplant.
Tissue rejection can be reduced by

a. a tissue match, ensuring that tissues of both donor and recipient are genetically close as
possible.
b. use of immunosuppressive drugs which hinders the response of the recipient’s immune
system.
c. X-ray radiation of borrow marrow and lymphatic system.

- Part III: Blood Groups
Plasma contains natural antibodies which recognise and bind to specific antigens which are
found on the surface of red blood cells.
Blood Type A Blood Type B
Antigens on RBC: Antigen A Antigens on RBC: Antigen B

Antibody in blood plasma: Antibody B Antibody in blood plasma: Antibody A
Blood Type AB (Universal acceptor) Blood Type O (universal donor)
Antigens on RBC: Antigen A & B Antigens on RBC: NIL

Antibody in blood plasma: NIL Antibodies in blood plasma: Antibody A & B
When the same type of antibody and antigen binds together, agglutination (clumping of red
blood cells) occurs.
Example
Recipient is blood group A and the donor is blood group B.
Agglutination occurs as the donor’s blood contains antibody A, which will react with antigen
A on the recipient’s red blood cells. Hence, blood group A should not donated to someone
who is blood group B.
Blood Type AB is the universal acceptor – no antibodies in the plasma of the recipient, thus
will not react with donor’s red blood cells antigens, thus, agglutination will not occur.
Blood Type O is the universal donor – no antigens on the donor’s red blood cell and will not
react with the recipient’s antibodies, thus, agglutination will not occur.
Recipient Donor (antibodies)
(antigen) A B O AB
A ✓ ✘ ✓ ✘
B ✘ ✓ ✓ ✘
O ✘ ✘ ✓ ✘
AB ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

- Part IV: Vessels
• Artery (right side of heart)
Function: Transport oxygenated blood from the heart to other organs of the body.
With the exception of pulmonary artery, all arteries carries oxygenated blood.
Structure Function
Thick, muscular, and elastic wall Withstand the high blood pressure from the heart.
Muscular layer Muscle contracts to constricts the diameter of the artery
which narrows the artery. Muscle relaxes causes the artery
to dilate which widens the lumen.
Elastic walls and small lumen Maintains the high blood pressure in the arteries.
• Vein (left side of heart)

Function: Transport deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
With the exception of pulmonary vein, all veins carries deoxygenated blood.
Structure Function
Thin wall with less elastic tissue Able to accommodate a large volume of blood at relatively
low pressures.
Large lumen To reduce resistance to blood flow which is at low pressure
so that blood flows more easily.
Valves Prevent the backflow of blood since there is low blood
pressure.
• Capillaries
Function: Exchange of materials between blood and tissue.
Structure Function
Thin wall – only one-cell thick Allow diffusion of water and other dissolved substances
through the wall easily.
Branched and small lumen; To slow down blood flow for effective diffusion of
total SA:V ratio increases materials between blood and cells.
Leaky Allow white blood cells to squeeze through the endothelial
cells into the tissues.
Formation of tissue
fluid is in Part IX.
- Part V: Double Circulation

In double circulation, the blood passes through the heart twice for every complete circuit of
the body – pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. Oxygenated blood is separated
from deoxygenated blood. This ensures that only oxygenated blood would reach tissue cells.
• Pulmonary circulation
The pulmonary (heart and lungs) circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to
the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the heart.
Pressure in the pulmonary circulation is lower to ensure slower blood flow, allowing more
time to ensure sufficient time for blood to be fully oxygenated.

• Systemic circulation
The systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood from the heart around the body and
returns to the heart with deoxygenated blood.
Pressure in the systemic circulation is high to ensure oxygenated blood is quickly distributed.
- Part VI: Structure of Heart

The heart is a muscular pump which pumps blood out of the heart and around the body.
Interior View (simplified)
Exterior View
pulmonary artery aortic arch
pulmonary arch
superior pulmonary artery
vena
cava
pulmonary veins
inferior
vena cava
The heart consists of four chambers – right atrium (plural – atria), left atrium, right ventricle
and left ventricle.
• Thickness of the chambers of the heart

Atria Right ventricle Left ventricle
Relatively thinner walls as Relatively thick muscular Thicker muscular walls than
not much force is needed to walls to move blood into the right ventricle to pump
force blood into ventricles the pulmonary circulation blood into the systemic
circulation at a higher
pressure
• Main blood vessels in the heart

Structure Function
vena cava To carry deoxygenated blood into the heart
pulmonary artery To carry deoxygenated blood into the lungs
pulmonary vein To carry oxygenated blood from the lungs
aorta To carry oxygenated blood to the body at a high pressure
• Valves in the heart

Valve Description
tricuspid valve Chordae tendineae is attached to the valve flaps to the respective
atrioventricular bicuspid valve ventricle walls.
valves tricuspid valve – located on the right side of the heart
bicuspid valve – located on the left side of the heart.
They prevent backflow of blood from ventricle to atrium.
semilunar valves There are two semilunar valves, they are found in the aorta and
pulmonary artery, to prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles.

• Blood flow through heart
① Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the vena cava. When the right atrium
contracts, the blood flows into right ventricle.
② Right ventricle contracts and blood leaves through the pulmonary arch.
③Blood leaves the heart and enters the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
④ Blood is being reoxygenated blood in the lungs. The oxygenated blood then flows back to
the left atrium via the pulmonary vein.
⑤ When the left atrium contracts, the blood flows into the left ventricle.
⑥ The left ventricle contracts and the blood flows towards the aortic arch. Blood leaves the
heart via the aorta and is pumped to the rest of the body.
- Part VII: Cardiac Cycle

① Both atria and ventricles are relaxed. The right and left atria are filled with blood from the
vena cava and pulmonary veins respectively.
② When the atria contracts (atrial systole), blood is forced into the ventricles.
③ After a short pause, the ventricles contract (ventricular systole). The atrioventricular
valves (bicuspid and tricuspid valves) will close to prevent the backflow of blood into the
atria. A “lub” sound is produced by the closure of these valves.
④ When the ventricles contract, the pressure in the ventricles increases and becomes higher
than that of aorta and pulmonary artery, forcing the semi-lunar valves to open.
⑤ Blood enters the pulmonary and systemic circulation via the pulmonary arch and aortic
arch respectively.
⑥ When the ventricles relax, there is a drop in pressure in the ventricles, causing semi-lunar
valves to close to prevent backflow of the blood into the ventricle. A “dub” sound is
produced by the closure of these valves.
⑦ When the pressure in the ventricles is lower than that of the atria, the atrioventricular
valves would open, allowing blood to enter the ventricles.
⑧ The cycle would repeat again.
Memory Flowchart ⑥
② AS (small peak in left atrium)
③ VS (AV valves close, prevent pressure in the aorta
backflow of blood, “lub” sound) ④
④ Pressure in left ventricle >
pressure in aorta, SL valves open.
⑥ VR (pressure in left ventricle
drop, SL valve closes, “dub
sound”)
⑦ Pressure in left ventricle <
pressure in atria, AV valves open
pressure in the left atrium
② ⑦ pressure in the left
③
ventricle

- Part VIII: Coronary Heart Disease
The tissues of the heart are supplied blood by two coronary arteries. Coronary heart disease
is caused by the build-up of fatty substances (cholesterol) in the coronary arteries.
When there is build-up of fatty substances on inner surfaces of coronary arteries

(atherosclerosis), the lumen of the arteries are narrowed. Blood clot would form in these
arteries (thrombosis). This causes a reduced blood flow to heart and the heart muscle cells
will receive reduced oxygen supply. This may lead to a heart attack.
• Causes of Coronary Heart Disease Normal artery blocked artery

1. A high-fat diet rich in cholesterol and saturated animal fats
2. Emotional stress
3. Smoking
4. Sedentary lifestyle
fatty deposits
• Preventive measures narrowed lumen
1. A healthy diet with
a. reduced intake of animal fats which can be replaced with polyunsaturated plant fats;
b. rich in vegetables and fruits.
2. Manage stress in an appropriate way
3. Avoid smoking
4. Exercising regularly
- Part IX: Tissue Fluid & Lymphatic System (IP Syllabus)

The lymphatic system is a drainage system for tissue fluid.
• Tissue fluid
Tissue fluid is a colourless fluid found in the tiny spaces between cells. Tissue fluid is formed
when blood plasma are forced out through the capillary walls. The old tissue fluid is drained
through the lymph capillaries.
• Functions of lymphatic system

1. Lymph returns excess tissue fluid to the blood circulation.
2. Returns plasma proteins to maintain a low tissue fluid protein concentration and
maintain the osmotic pressure gradient across the capillary membrane.
3. To transport wastes from tissue cells.
4. Lymph nodes act as filters or traps for foreign particles and kill bacteria.
5. Absorb and transport fats from the small intestine.
Note!
Only about 10% of tissue fluid
enters the lymph capillaries, most
tissue fluid re-enters the blood
capillaries.
Fluid in the blood is called plasma. Fluid surrounding the cells is called tissue fluid. Fluid in
the lymphatic system is called lymph (contains water, antibodies and lipids).

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 9: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
- Part I: Stem
Transverse section of dicotyledons stem
The vascular tissue included the xylem and phloem.
The phloem, cambium (helps separate phloem and xylem vessels) and xylem form the
vascular bundle in the stem.
Walls of xylem are thicker than the walls of phloem because it is heavily lignified.
Vascular bundle of the dicotyledons stem is neatly arranged around the epidermis.
The cortex and pith are both storage tissues.
- Part II: Xylem

Function: Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant.
Provides mechanical support to the plant as the walls are heavily lignified. It is a
unidirectional flow (up).
Structure Function
Tracheids and vessels -
Dead cell walls with no Allows water to move easily through the lumen.
protoplasm1
Adjacent cell walls broken
down to form a long,
continuous thin hollow tube
Lignified walls Prevent the collapse of vessels. (Provides mechanical support)
• Studying the pathway of water experiment

1. Allow a young plant to stand in a dilute blue ink solution.
2. After a few hours, cut a transverse section of the stem and a transverse section of a portion
of the root that was not immersed in ink.
Result: The xylem would be stained blue.
1Protoplasm is the nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm.

- Part III: Phloem
Function: Transport sucrose and amino acids from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
It is a bi-directional flow.
Structure Function
Sieve tube cells form sieve Sieve tube cells have very little protoplasm and are arranged
tubes; in a continuous column. Reduces resistance to the flow of
Do not have cell organelles substances within the phloem.
Companion cells The companion cells help to keep the sieve tube cells alive by
providing it with nutrients and energy.
They are capable of aerobic respiration to release energy in

the form of ATP molecules for active transport of sucrose
from leaves to phloem.
• Translocation
Translocation is the transport of manufactured food substances such as sucrose and amino
acids in the phloem.
① Loading of sugar into the sieve tube at the source2 reduces

the water potential in the sieve tube elements, causing the
tube to take up water via osmosis from the xylem.
② The uptake of water causes a positive pressure in the sieve

tube that forces the sap to flow along the tube.
③ This pressure is relieved by the removal of sugar from the

sieve tube at the sink3, which results in the loss of water at the
sink as well.
④ In leaf-to-root translocation, xylem recycles water from sink

to source.
© Campbell Biology, 12th Edition
2The source refers to a sugar source, which is a plant organ (e.g. leaf) that is a net producer of sugar, by photosynthesis or
by breakdown of starch.
3A sink refers to a sugar sink (e.g. roots, developing fruits), which is a net consumer or storage of sugar.

- Part V: Roots
Transverse section of dicotyledons root
Function: To absorb water and mineral salts from the surroundings. (Water is absorbed via
osmosis, mineral salts via active transport)
• Entry of mineral salts

Mineral salts are absorbed into the root hair by either diffusion or active transport. When
the concentration of ions is higher in the soil solution than in the root hair cell, ions diffuse
into the root hair cell.
However, when the concentration of ions is higher in the root hair cell than the soil solution,
ions are taken into the cell via active transport.
• Entry of water
① The sap in the root hair cell is very concentrated due to the presence of sugars and
mineral salts. Hence, water potential of the root hair cell is lower than the surrounding soil.
Hence, water enters the root hair by osmosis.
② The entry of water dilutes the root hair’s cell sap. The sap of the root hair cell now has a
higher water potential than that of the next inner cell. Hence, water passes by osmosis from
the root hair cell into the inner cell.
③ Similarly, water passes from the inner cell into the next inner cell. This process continues
until the water enters the xylem vessels.
Structure Function
Long and thin Increases surface area to volume ratio, increasing rate
of absorption.
High concentration of cell sap Maintains the low water potential in the cell to
facilitate the intake of water via osmosis.
Living cells Living cells contains mitochondria. With mitochondria,
the cell is able to undergo aerobic respiration to
release energy in the form of ATP molecules for the
active transport of mineral salts from the
surroundings into the cell.

- Part VI: Movement of water
1. Transpiration pull
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from a plant, mainly through the stomata of the
leaves.
Transpiration pull is a suction force caused by transpiration which results in water to move
up the xylem.
① Water that moves out of the mesophyll cells

form a thin film of moisture around the cells.
② Water from the thin film of moisture
evaporates to form water vapour in the air
spaces. Water vapour is accumulated in the air
spaces near the stomata.
③ Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata
into the environment via the stomata.
(Transpiration)
④ Water in the cell moves out of the cells to
replace the thin film of moisture that has
evaporated, decreasing the cell sap’s water
potential.
⑤ The water in the xylem vessels have a higher
water potential than the cell’s water potential.
Hence, water will diffuse into the leaf cell via
osmosis from the xylem vessels, through the
partially permeable cell membranes. This
results in transpiration pull.
Importance of transpiration pull

Water and mineral salts from the roots can be drawn to the stems and leaves.
The evaporation of water from the cells in the leaves removes latent heat of vaporisation.
(This helps cool the plant)
Water transported to the leaves can be used for photosynthesis.
Turgidity of the cells is maintained.
• Excessive transpiration (wilting)

When rate of water loss exceeds rate of water absorption, wilting occurs.
Wilting
Advantages Disadvantages
Reduce rate of transpiration Stomata close, decreasing intake of CO2
Prevents excessive water loss and rate of photosynthesis decreases.
Cooling of plant Leaves droop and hence decrease
absorption of sunlight, hence rate of
photosynthesis decreases.

2. Capillary action
Capillary action occurs when the forces binding a liquid together (cohesion and surface
tension) and the attracting forces that bind water molecules to another surface (adhesion)
are greater than the force of gravity.
Adhesion is the attractive forces that attract water molecules to other molecules. (Water
molecules ‘stick’ to the surface of the xylem wall)
Cohesion is the attractive forces that attract water molecules together. (Water molecules
have strong cohesion forces between the molecules).
3. Root pressure
Root pressure is caused by the low water potential of xylem sap which is created by
dissolved minerals and ions. This helps water to diffuse via osmosis to the inner cells.
- Part VI: Factors affecting rate of transpiration

1. Humidity
Higher humidity (more water vapour in the surrounding air) → reduces concentration
gradient of water vapour between intercellular air spaces and outside air → reduces the rate
of diffusion of water vapour out of the stomata → reducing rate of transpiration.
2. Temperature
Higher temperature → increase the rate of evaporation of water in the leaf cells → increase
the rate of diffusion of water vapour out of the cell → increase the rate of transpiration.
3. Light
Presence of light triggers the opening of the stomata, therefore leading to an increase rate
of transpiration.
4. Wind speed
Higher wind speed → increase rate of removal of water vapour from the leaves surface →
steepening the concentration gradient → increase rate of transpiration.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 10: RESPIRATION IN HUMANS
- Part I: Respiration
Respiration is the breakdown (oxidation) of food molecules with the release of energy in
living cells.
Breathing is the process where oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide removed
from the body.
There are 2 types of respiration.

1. Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose molecules in the presence of oxygen with
the release of large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste
products.
𝐶" 𝐻#! 𝑂" + 6𝑂! → 6𝐶𝑂! + 𝐻! 𝑂 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
38 ATP molecules
2. Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose molecules in the absence of oxygen. It
releases lesser energy compared to aerobic respiration.
𝐶" 𝐻#! 𝑂" → 2𝐶! 𝐻' 𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂! + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

2 ATP molecules
Respiration v.s. Photosynthesis

Respiration Photosynthesis
Energy is released Energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules
Oxygen is used whereas the products are Carbon dioxide and water are used whereas
carbon dioxide and water the product is oxygen
Catabolic process (breakdown) Anabolic process (building up)
Occurs at all times – independent of Occurs in the presence of sunlight –
chlorophyll and sunlight dependent on chlorophyll
Loss of dry mass Gain of dry mass
- Part II: Lactic Acid Fermentation

When human muscle cells are in an oxygen debt during continuous vigorous muscle
contractions, muscle cells carry out anaerobic respiration for energy. In this process, lactic
acid is produced. 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 → 2𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
" #! " ( " (
2 ATP molecules
Effect: Lactic acid is a toxin which can cause fatigue, soreness, pain and stiffness in muscles
in high concentration.
During the period of rest, increased breathing rate and deeper breathing continues to
provide sufficient oxygen to repay the oxygen debt.
① Latic acid is removed from muscles and transported to the liver.
② In the liver, some lactic acid is oxidized to produce energy.
③ This energy is used to convert the remaining lactic acid back to glucose.
④ Glucose is then transported back to the muscle where it may be stored as glycogen.
Note!
In a sprint race (e.g. 100m), the athlete gets more of its energy from anaerobic respiration.
This is because within the short period of time, the oxygen supply to the muscles is
insufficient for aerobic respiration to meet the energy needs.

- Part II: Common respiration experiments (regurgitation not required)
• Is carbon dioxide given off during aerobic respiration?
Suction pump to
suck out air through
E
tube E; causes air to
C flow into flask A
B D
A
Turns chalky when

Absorbs the carbon 𝐶𝑂! enters from
dioxide from the tube D
air entering tube B 𝐾𝑂𝐻 solution limewater snails limewater
𝐶𝑎𝑂𝐻! 𝐶𝑎𝑂𝐻!
• Is carbon dioxide given off during alcohol fermentation?

Note!
Anaerobic respiration does not need
to release carbon dioxide. (e.g.
lactic acid fermentation)
Layer of oil to prevent

oxygen from mixing (no
oxygen in alcohol Limewater; turns
fermentation) chalky when 𝐶𝑂! is
produced from alcohol
Boiled glucose solution (to
fermentation
remove dissolved oxygen to
prevent aerobic respiration)
with yeast suspension
• Is heat produced during respiration?
vacuum flask; prevent

heat from escaping
germinating seeds rate of respiration is higher than

dormant seeds
(germinating) pea seeds in antiseptic solution; prevents

the growth of microorganisms like bacteria
cotton wool plug; allow gaseous exchange

between the seeds and the environment
thermometer
• Is the amount of carbon dioxide in inspired air different from expired air?
less chalky more chalky

- Part III: Respiratory System External nostrils
nasal passage Nasal passages
nose pharynx Pharynx

larynx
Larynx
trachea
Trachea
bronchus
(plural: bronchi) Bronchi
bronchiole
lung Bronchioles
cluster of alveoli
(singular: alveolus)
Alveoli
• Nose
Air enters the body at the nose, through the two external nostrils. The nostrils lead into the
two nasal passages which are lined with a moist mucus membrane.
Dust and foreign particles are trapped by the hairs in the nostrils as well as by the mucus on
the mucous membrane. As air passes through the nasal passages, it is warmed and
moistened.
The air will then enter the pharynx and passes into the larynx and down the trachea.
• Trachea
The trachea is supposed by C-shaped rings of cartilage. The cartilage keeps the lumen of the
trachea open.
Transverse section of trachea

The membrane next to the lumen is the epithelium which consists of the gland cells and
ciliated cells.
The gland cells secrete mucus to trap dust particles and bacteria.
The ciliated cells have hair-like structures, cilla, on their surfaces which sweep dust-trapped
mucus up the trachea towards the pharynx.

• Bronchi (singular: bronchus)
The two bronchi are divided from the trachea and each bronchus carries air into a lung. Each
bronchus branches repeatedly into bronchioles. At the end of every bronchiole is a cluster of
alveoli.
• Adaptations for gaseous exchange

Structure Function
External nostrils Trap dust and foreign particles in the nostrils as well as
by the mucus on the mucous membrane.
Gland cells Secrete mucus to trap dust particles and bacteria.
Ciliated cells Sweep the dust-trapped mucus up the trachea.
- Part III: Gaseous exchange

Gas exchange is the exchange of gases between an organism and the environment.
In human, gaseous exchange takes place through the walls of the alveoli.
• Adaptations of alveoli
Structure Function
Numerous alveoli in the lungs Larger surface area for gaseous exchange
One-cell thick Shorter diffusion distance for gases, hence, faster rate of
diffusion
Thin film of moisture covering This enables oxygen to be able to dissolve in it
the surface of alveoli
Walls are richly supplied with Flow of blood maintains the steep concentration
blood capillaries gradient of gases

• Absorption of oxygen in the lungs
When the deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery of the heart reaches the lungs, it
branches out into capillaries which go around alveoli. As the concentration of oxygen in the
capillaries is lower than the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli, a concentration gradient
is setup and oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries through the one-cell thick
wall. The oxygen will then combine with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form
oxyhaemoglobin. When the blood passes through oxygen-poor tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin
releases oxygen which will diffuse through the walls of the blood capillaries into the tissue
cells.
Recall!
Blood is reoxygenated and will return to the heart in the pulmonary circulation via the
pulmonary vein.
• Removal of carbon dioxide from the body

enzyme: enzyme:
carbonic anhydrase carbonic anhydrase
𝐶𝑂! + 𝐻! 𝑂 → 𝐻! 𝐶𝑂( → 𝐻𝐶𝑂() → 𝐻! 𝐶𝑂( → 𝐶𝑂! + 𝐻! 𝑂
Tissue cells produce a large amount of carbon dioxide as a result of aerobic respiration. As
blood passes through these tissues via blood capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses into the
blood and enters the red blood cells. The carbon dioxide reacts with water in the red blood
cells to form carbonic acid. This reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase (an enzyme in
the red blood cell). The carbonic acid is then converted into hydrogencarbonate ions
(𝐻𝐶𝑂() ) which will diffuse out of the red blood cell. Most carbon dioxide is carried as
hydrogencarbonate ions in the blood plasma. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried
and dissolved in the red blood cells. In the lungs, hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse back into
the red blood cell and is converted back into carbonic acid, and then into carbon dioxide
and water. At the alveoli, as the concentration of carbon dioxide in the capillaries is lower
than the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli, another concentration gradient is
setup and carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli through the one-cell
thick wall. This carbon dioxide is expelled out of the body when exhaling.
- Part IV: Inspiration and Expiration

Inhalation is taking in of air. Exhalation is giving out of air.
Inhalation Expiration
diaphragm muscle contracts and flattens diaphragm muscle relaxes and arches up.
down.
external intercostal muscles contract, while External intercostal muscles relax, while the
the internal intercostal muscle relax. internal intercostal muscle contract.
(antagonistically) (antagonistically)
rib cage move upwards and outwards. rib cage move downwards and inwards.
(make space for lungs to expand)
sternum also moves up and forward. sternum also moves down to its original
position.
volume of the thoracic cavity increases. volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.
lungs expand and air pressure inside lungs compress and air pressure inside
decreases as volume increased. increases as volume decreased.
atmospheric pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure is lower than the
pressure in the lungs, forcing atmospheric pressure in the lungs, forcing atmospheric
air into the lungs. air out of the lungs.

• Stimulus for breathing
When there is high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood or alveoli, it triggers
breathing.
high
90% O2 + 10% CO2

Number of breaths per minute
Normal: 21% O2 + 0.03% CO2
100% O2
Time
low
• Inspired air v.s. expired air

The regular volume of inspired air is approximately 500 cm3.
Inspired air Expired air
O2 About 21% About 16.4%
CO2 About 0.03% About 4.0%
N2 About 78.0% About 78.0%
H2O (g) Varies (rarely saturated) Saturated
Temperature Varies (according to the environment) About body temperature (37°C)
Dust particles Varies but usually present Little, if any
- Part V: Effects of tobacco smoke

Chemical Properties Effects on the body
Nicotine Addictive drug that causes the Increased heartbeat rate and blood pressure
release of hormone adrenaline Increased risks of blood clots in arteries, leading
Makes blood clot easily to increased risk of coronary heart disease
Carbon Combines with haemoglobin to Reduces oxygen transport efficiency of red
Monoxide form carboxyhaemoglobin blood cells
(competes with oxygen) Narrows the lumen of arteries and lead to
Increase the rate of fatty deposits increase in blood pressure, leading to increased
on the inner arterial wall risk of coronary heart disease
Tar Cancer-causing chemical – Increased risk of lung cancer
induces uncontrolled cell division Dust particles trapped in the mucus lining the
Paralyses cilla lining the air airways cannot be removed, increases risk of
passages chronic bronchitis and emphysema
Irritants Paralyses cilia lining the air
passages

• Smoking during pregnancy (IP Syllabus)
Chemical Properties Specific effects on the foetus Overall effect on the foetus
Nicotine Narrows the arteries Amount of nutrients that It affects the foetus’ brain
that bring blood to reach the foetus is reduced development.
the placenta When the baby is born, the
Carbon Combines with Amount of oxygen reaching baby would be underweight.
monoxide haemoglobin to form the foetus through the Increased risk of baby being
carboxyhaemoglobin placenta is reduced born prematurely.
Increased risk of a
miscarriage or baby stillborn
(born dead).
- Part VI: Chronic obstructive lung disease

Chronic obstructive lung disease is when a person suffers from both chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.
• Chronic bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis is an inflammation caused by irritants and excess mucus in bronchioles.
Effect of chronic bronchitis

1. Epithelium lining of the air passages become inflamed
2. Excessive mucus secreted by the epithelium
3. The cilla on the epithelium are paralysed. Mucus and dust particles cannot be swept out
of the bronchi and will enter the lungs. Air passages will be blocked, making breathing
difficult (results in persistent coughing in order to breathe, which can increase risk of
lung infections).
• Emphysema
Emphysema affects the alveoli. Persistent and violent coughing from chronic bronchitis may
lead to emphysema.
Effect of emphysema
1. Partition walls between alveoli breaks down due to persistent and violent coughing
(decreased surface area for gaseous exchange)
2. Lungs lose their elasticity and become inflated with air

3. Breathing becomes difficult (results in wheezing and severe breathlessness)

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 11: EXCRETION IN HUMANS
- Introduction
Catabolic reactions are reactions that break down complex substances into simpler ones.
Anabolic reactions are reactions which simple substances are built up into more complex
substances.
Metabolism is the sum of all reactions within the body of an organism. Metabolic reactions
produce waste products and can be harmful or toxic if accumulated in the body.
Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products and toxic substances (excretory
products) are removed from the body of an organism.
Excretory products are removed through various methods in the human body.
Excretory product Organ Excreted as
Carbon dioxide Lungs gas in expired air
Excess mineral salts, Kidney urine
nitrogenous waste products Skin sweat (in small quantities)
(urea, uric acid, creatinine)
Excess water Kidneys urine
Skin sweat
Liver water vapour in expired air
- Part II: Human Urinary System

inferior vena cava aorta
left renal artery kidney

The centre of the concave surface – where the
right renal vein hilus renal artery, renal vein and nerves are connected
to the kidney
Narrow tube connecting the kidney to the urinary

ureter
bladder
Elastic muscular bag - stores urine

urinary bladder
control urination sphincter

muscle urethra Duct which urine passes from the bladder to
outside the body
- Part III: Kidney
fibrous capsule
renal artery
nephron
(not to scale) renal vein
renal pyramid
renal pelvis Enlarged portion of ureter in the
kidney
ureter
renal cortex
By: Oscar Chiang renal medulla Page 45

- Part IV: Nephron
• Bowman’s Capsule (Ultrafiltration)

The afferent arteriole that brings blood into the glomerulus is
wider than the efferent arteriole. This creates a high hydrostatic
pressure (main force for filtration) in the glomerulus.
A partially permeable membrane, basement membrane, is a very

fine filter, that only allows water and very small molecules (e.g.
glucose, amino acids, mineral salts) to pass through.
reabsorption back into blood capillaries

• Loop of Henle (Selective Reabsorption)
① The filtrate travels down the proximal convoluted tube.
In a healthy person, all glucose and amino acids and 85% of mineral ions are reabsorbed into
the surrounding blood capillaries by active transport while 80% of water is reabsorbed via
osmosis.
Proximal convoluted tube

Structure Function
Many mitochondria To provide energy in the form of ATP molecules for active
transport of substances.
Many microvilli To increase surface area to volume ratio for absorption.
② Water is reabsorbed at loop of Henle by osmosis. At the bottom of the loop, it is very
concentrated.
+
③ At the distal convoluted tube, water and salts (Na ions) are reabsorbed.
④ The remaining water, salts and metabolic waste products (e.g. urea, uric acid, creatinine)
passes out of the collecting duct into renal pelvis (refer diagram of kidney) as urine.

- Part V: Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control of water and solute concentrations in the blood to maintain a
constant water potential in the body.
The amount of water in the blood plasma is controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which
is produced by the hypothalamus, a region in the brain. It is released by the pituitary gland.
When there is an excess of water, When there is a loss of water,
The water potential in blood plasma The water potential in blood plasma
increases. decreases.
This stimulates the hypothalamus causing This stimulates the hypothalamus causing
the pituitary gland to release less ADH. the pituitary gland to release more ADH.
Cells in the walls of the collecting ducts Cells in the walls of the collecting ducts
become less permeable to water, resulting become more permeable to water,
in less reabsorption of water from the resulting in more reabsorption of water
collecting duct back into the blood from the collecting duct back into the
capillaries. blood capillaries.
Larger volume of urine produced and it is Smaller volume of urine produced and it is
more diluted. more concentrated.
Water potential of blood returns to normal.
The amount of water affects the blood volume. If the blood volume increases, blood
pressure will rise.
A large increase in blood pressure can cause blood vessels in the brain to burst which causes
a stroke. A drug, diuretic, can be taken to reduce production of ADH so there would be a
larger volume of diluted urine produced to decrease blood volume.
Memorising Tip!
Diuretic drug causes a person to excrete urine more often, in a larger volume as well.
So, anti-diuretic hormone results in less urine excreted, hence, that means that more water
is reabsorbed back into the system.

- Part VI: Kidney Failure
When the kidney fails, waste substances build up in the bloodstream which can be toxic in
large amounts. A patient can be treated with dialysis using a dialysis machine which mimics
the function of a kidney.
• Dialysis Machine
① Blood is drawn from a vein in the patient’s arm. It will be pumped through a tubing to the
dialysis machine.
② The tubing is bathed in a special dialysis fluid and the tubing is partially permeable. Small
molecules such as urea and other metabolic waste products diffuse out of the tubing into
the dialysis fluid. Large molecules remain in the tubing.
③ The filtered blood returns to a vein in the patient’s arm.
Dialysis Tubing
Structure Function
Partially permeable Small molecules such as urea and other metabolic waste
membrane products diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Large
molecules remain in the tubing.
Long and narrow coiled Increase surface area to volume ratio for increased rate of
tubing diffusion of products.
Dialysis Fluid
Features Function
Equal concentration of Prevent diffusion of glucose and salts from blood into the fluid
essential substances to to ensure no loss of essential substances.
blood
No metabolic waste The concentration gradient would be steeper for waste
products products to diffuse out of the blood into the dialysis fluid,
increasing rate of diffusion for these waste products.
Direction is opposite to This maintains the concentration gradient for the removal of
blood flow waste products.
Constant temperature To maintain the temperature of the blood back to the body.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 12: HOMEOSTASIS
- Introduction
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Homeostasis is required so that internal conditions are kept constant (e.g. water potential,
temperature, pH, blood glucose concentration, concentration of metabolic waste,
concentration of carbon dioxide)
Recall!
If cells are placed in a hypertonic solution or hypotonic solution, the cell will shrink or burst
respectively.
Enzymes require an optimum temperature and pH level in order to function properly.
Homeostasis allows an organism to be independent from the change in the external
environment.
- Part I: Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is a set of corrective mechanisms, stimulated by a deviation from the set-
point, to restore normal conditions.
When there is a change in the internal environment (the stimulus), a receptor (sense
organs) detects the stimulus and sends signal to the control centre for a corrective
mechanism. The control centre will “activate” the corrective mechanism to bring about the
reverse effect of the stimulus. When the internal environment reverts to its normal
condition, a feedback is sent to the receptor to stop the corrective mechanism.

- Part II: Regulating Blood Glucose Concentration
The normal blood glucose concentration is about 70 to 90 mg of glucose per 100cm3 of
blood.
• Blood glucose concentration increases

When blood glucose concentration increases, the Islets of Langerhans are stimulated. The
Islets of Langerhans, also the control centre, secretes insulin into the bloodstream.
Function of insulin (hormone)

1. Insulin increases the permeability of the cell surface membrane to glucose so that
glucose is absorbed more quickly.
2. Insulin stimulates the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which is
stored in the liver and muscles.
When blood glucose concentration decreases back to normal, a feedback is sent to the
receptor to reduce insulin production.
• Blood glucose concentration decreases

When blood glucose concentration decreases, the Islets of Langerhans are stimulated. The
Islets of Langerhans, also the control centre, secretes glucagon into the bloodstream.
Function of glucagon (hormone)

1. Glucagon stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen back to glucose. From the liver,
glucose enters the bloodstream.
When blood glucose concentration increases back to normal, a feedback is sent to the
receptor to reduce glucagon production.

- Part III: Regulating Blood Water Potential
• Water potential decreased

When water potential decreases, the hypothalamus in the brain is stimulated. The pituitary
gland, the control centre, will release more ADH into the bloodstream and transported to
the kidney.
The cells in the walls of the collecting ducts become more permeable to water. More water
will be reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. There would be less water excreted, resulting
in less urine and more concentrated urine excreted.
When water potential of blood increases back to normal, a feedback is sent to the receptor
to reduce the release of ADH.
• Water potential increased

When water potential increases, the hypothalamus in the brain is stimulated. The pituitary
gland, the control centre, will release less ADH into the bloodstream and transported to the
kidney.
The cells in the walls of the collecting ducts become less permeable to water. Less water
will be reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. There would be more water excreted, resulting
in more urine and more diluted urine excreted.
When water potential of blood decreases back to normal, a feedback is sent to the receptor
to increase the release of ADH.

- Part IV: Human Skin (excretory organ)
Epidermis
• Cornified layer
The cornified layer is made of dead, dry and flat cells with keratin deposits. It prevents
uncontrolled water loss by evaporation. It serves as a protective layer, preventing
mechanical injury. It prevents the entry of micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria) into body.
• Granular layer
The granular layer is made of living cells which move from the Malpighian layer. When it
becomes dry and dead, it forms the cornified layer.
More melanin = darker skin
• Malpighian layer
Continuous cell division of melanin occurs in the Malpighian layer to form upper cell layers
of the epidermis. The Malapighian layer also protects skin from harmful ultra-violet rays
from the sun.
Dermis
• Blood capillaries
The dermis has numerous blood capillaries supplying blood to skin.
When blood vessels dilate, more blood flows to the skin surface (vasodilation). When more
blood flows to the skin surface, heat is lost by conduction, convection and radiation.
When blood vessels constrict, less blood flows to the skin surface (vasoconstriction). When
less blood flows to the skin surface, less heat is lost by conduction, convection and radiation.
(more in Part V: Regulating Body Temperature)
• Sweat gland, sweat duct and sweat pore

Sweat gland is a coiled tube (in a tight knot) in the dermis which is surrounded by blood
capillaries. Sweat, secreted at the sweat gland, flows through a sweat duct to sweat pore.
Sweat helps to regulate body temperature.

Hair
• Hair follicle
Hair follicle is a hollow tube through epidermis and dermis. The hair grows inside the hair
follicle.
• Hair papilla
Hair papilla is a tissue which contains blood capillaries and nerves. Epidermal cells constantly
divide, die and harden to form hair. It provides nutrients and oxygen to keep the hair alive.
• Hair erector muscle

The hair erector muscle is attached to the hair follicle. When the muscles contract, it causes
the hair to ‘stand’.
• Sensory receptors (thermoreceptor, touch receptor and pressure receptor)

Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment or detect the stimulus.
• Adipose tissue
Adipose tissues are fats storage and serves as an insulating layer, reducing heat loss. Layers
of adipose tissue are called subcutaneous fat.

- Part V: Regulating Body Temperature
The body loses heat through radiation, convection, conduction and evaporation of water in
sweat from the surface of the skin. The body also loses heat through excreted faeces and
urine, and also exhaled air.
Key Terms
constrict – make narrower
dilate – make wider
• When blood and skin temperature decreases

When arterioles constrict and shunt vessels dilate, less blood flows to the blood capillaries
in the skin, reducing heat loss.
When sweat glands become less active, less sweat is produced and less latent heat is lost.
Shivering is a reflex contraction of the skeletal muscles to generate heat by expending

energy.
Shivering occurs when the blood and skin temperature decreases because there is
insufficient heat produced in the body.
• When blood and skin temperature increases

When arterioles dilate and shunt vessels constrict, more blood flows to the blood
capillaries in the skin, increasing heat loss.
When sweat glands become more active, more sweat is produced and more latent heat is
lost.

CORE NOTES CHAPTER 15: HORMONES
- Introduction
A hormone is a chemical substance produced in minute quantities by an endocrine gland4.
It is transported in the bloodstream to target organ(s) where it exerts its effect(s).
After hormones have performed their functions, they are eventually destroyed by the liver.
Hormone Endocrine gland

Insulin Islets of Langerhans (pancreas; 𝛽-cells)
Glucagon Islets of Langerhans (pancreas; 𝛼-cells)
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) Pituitary gland
Adrenaline Adrenal gland (kidney)
Testosterone Testis
Oestrogen & Progesterone Ovaries
- Part I: Insulin
When the concentration of blood glucose increases above normal levels, more insulin is
secreted from the Islets of Langerhans.
• When blood glucose concentration increases, more insulin is secreted,

1. The permeability of cell membrane to glucose increases, increasing rate of glucose
uptake by cells.
2. The liver and the muscle cells are stimulated to convert glucose into glycogen for
storage.
3. The oxidation of glucose during aerobic respiration increases.
Amount of insulin secreted Effect

Lack of secretion Blood glucose concentration will increase as glucose
cannot be stored or utilized by tissue cells à glucose
lost in urine (gives rise to diabetes mellitus)
Muscle cells have no reserve of glycogen à body

grows weak and continuously loses weight
Body oxidises fat instead of glucose to produce

energy à production of poisonous substance called
ketones
Over-secretion Blood glucose concentration will decrease à at a low
blood glucose concentration, the body goes into shock
May result in coma and death.
- Part II: Glucagon

When the concentration of blood glucose decreases below normal levels, more glucagon is
secreted from the Islets of Langerhans.
• When blood glucose concentration decreases, more glucagon is secreted,

1. The liver is stimulated to convert glycogen into glucose.
2. The liver is stimulated to convert fats and amino acids into glucose.
4
An endocrine gland produces and releases hormones directly into the blood.

- Part III: Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a disease such that the body is unable to control its blood glucose
concentration and remain within normal levels.
• Signs of diabetes mellitus

1. Persistently high blood glucose level
2. Presence of glucose in urine (cannot be completely reabsorbed by kidneys)
3. Healing of wounds is slow and difficult
• Type 1 diabetes
Type 1 diabetes occurs when the islets of Langerhans are unable to produce or secrete
sufficient insulin.
Type 1 diabetics need to inject insulin regularly and ensure they do not have excessive
sugary food so as to prevent blood glucose levels from increasing to extreme high levels.
• Type 2 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes occurs when target cells (e.g. muscle cells) do not respond well to insulin.
Type 2 diabetics need to carefully regulate the carbohydrate content in their diet and
exercising. Else, they may need to take regular medication and insulin injections.
- Type IV: Adrenaline

The adrenal gland secretes adrenaline to prepare the body for ‘fight or flight’ or for states of
emergency.
Motor neurone Transmission of
transmits impulses impulses down
to adrenal gland spinal cord
Adrenal gland Receptor
feedback
is sent
back secretes adrenaline Hypothalamus in
-to rece
ptor
into bloodstream brain
Blood transports
adrenaline to Stimulus
target organs
S
•
When adrenaline is secreted
1. Stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose à more glucose is available for
muscle contraction
Insulin
2. IncreaseTblood glucose level
-
3. secreted
Increase metabolic rate à more energy released during aerobic respiration
Condition
receptor
Condition 4.
feedback is Increase
sent back to receptor rate of heartbeat à rise in blood pressure, oxygen and glucose are carried
increases decreases &
Receptor and Control centre
faster toIslets muscles
-
of Langerhans
2
5. Increase rateinand depth of ventilation à rate of uptake of oxygen increases
pancreas
Normal condition 6. Constricts arterioles to the gut à decreases digestive activities
7.
Stimulus Constrict arterioles in skin à paleness, channelling more blood the muscles
cose Blood8. glucose Dilate pupils à enhanced vision
ation concentration
9. Contracts hair muscles à ‘goosebumps’, causing hair to stand
es increases
10. Increase rate of blood clotting àwhen skin is cut, blood clots faster, preventing
excessive loss of blood

- Part V: Endocrine Controls v.s. Nervous Controls
Endocrine control Nervous control
Involves hormones Involves nerve impulses
Hormones are transported by blood Impulses are transmitted by neurones
Slow responses Quick responses
Responses can be short-lived (adrenaline) Responses are short-lived
or long-lived (growth hormones)
Involuntary Voluntary or involuntary
May affect more than one target organ Usually localised

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Biology

By: Oscar Chiang

By: Oscar Chiang Page 1

By: Oscar Chiang Page 2

Light microscope Electron microscope

- Part II: Measurement Units

a. Nucleus (double membrane)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 3

d. Cell wall (only in plant cells)

- Part IV: Inside the Cytoplasm

Golgi body attached ribosome

b. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 4

e. Golgi body / Golgi apparatus

f. Mitochondria (double membrane)

g. Chloroplasts (double membrane, only in plant cells)

i. Centrioles (only in animal cells)

Structures Plant Cell Animal Cell

By: Oscar Chiang Page 5

2. Xylem vessels (more in Chapter 9: Transport in Plants)

3. Red blood cell (more in Chapter 8: Transport in Humans)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 6

b. Surface area to Volume ratio

• Factors affecting diffusion

- Part II: Osmosis

When placed in… Animal Cells Plant Cells

- Part III: Active Transport

By: Oscar Chiang Page 7

- Part V: Endocytosis and Exocytosis (IP Syllabus)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 8

• Chemical reactions involving water

- Part II: Carbohydrates

By: Oscar Chiang Page 9

They all are made up of Glucose but

By: Oscar Chiang Page 10

Free amino acids Polypeptide Protein

- Part V: Food tests

• Testing for reducing sugars

Blue colour Green Yellow Brick-red

By: Oscar Chiang Page 11

• Test for proteins

By: Oscar Chiang Page 12

- Part I: Characteristics of Enzymes

- Part II: Models

The enzyme has a specific active

By: Oscar Chiang Page 13

Enzymes can also

- Part III: Factors affecting enzyme activity

③ The optimum temperature, 37℃, is the temperature at which

enzymes catalyse a reaction at the maximum rate. Most enzymes in

human have an optimum temperature of about 37℃.

③ Enzymes denature (irreversible) à the active site will change

By: Oscar Chiang Page 14

- Part IV: Enzyme Inhibition (IP Syllabus)

me concentration Competitive inhibitor rate of reaction can be eventually surpassed at

A non-competitive inhibitor will always have a maximum rate lower

By: Oscar Chiang Page 15

By: Oscar Chiang Page 16