Ultrasonic

 Ultrasonic machining and drilling

 Ultrasonic cleaning
 Ultrasonic soldering and welding
 Emulsification: dispersal of pigments in paint, medicine,
cosmetic products, dyes, shoe polish, etc.
 Medical applications: Sonograms
 Non destructive testing
Contents in this topic
• Introduction of Ultrasonics
• Production of Ultrasonic waves
i) Magnetostriction Method
ii) Piezo Electric Method
• Detection of Ultrasonic waves
• Applications –
i. green energy
ii. sound signalling
iii. dispersion of fog
iv. Car’s airbag sensor
Ultrasonic
The word ultrasonic combines the Latin roots ultra, meaning
‘beyond’ and sonic, or sound.
Ultrasonic refers to any study or application of sound waves that
are higher frequency than the human audible range.

Classification of sound:
(i) Infrasonic < 20 Hz (Inaudible)
(ii) Audible ~20 to 20,000Hz (Music and Noise)
(iii) Ultrasonic >20,000Hz (Inaudible)

Generally ultrasonic waves are called high frequency waves.

Ultrasonic:
Hearing range for different species:
Properties of ultrasonic waves :
 They are mechanical/elastic waves i.e. need a medium to travel.
 They have high frequency and hence, high energy content.
 Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected, refracted
and absorbed.
 They can be transmitted over large distances with no appreciable loss of
energy. Because of small wavelength, diffractions is negligible.
 They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.
Hence, these can be used for drilling and cutting of materials.
 When ultrasonic waves are propagated is to a liquid media, they include
alternate regions of rarefaction and compression.
Properties of ultrasonic waves :
 When ultrasonic waves are propagated in to a liquid bath, stationary wave
pattern is formed due to the reflection of wave from the other end. The
density of the liquid thus varies from layer to layer along the direction of
propagation. In this way the plane diffraction grating is formed which can
diffract light.

 Velocity is, .
where E is modulus of elasticity and is
density of medium.
Production of ultrasonic waves :

Methods by which ultrasonic waves can be produced :

1. Piezoelectric Oscillator

2. Magnetostriction oscillator
 Piezoelectric Effect:
If mechanical pressure is applied to the opposite faces of certain crystal slices cut
suitably, then equal and opposite electric charges are developed on opposite
faces. But when crystal slice is under tension, sign of charges is reversed. This is
called as Piezoelectric effect.
Naturally occuring Quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salt exhibit this effect.
Artificial crystals such as lead zirconate (PbZrO3), lead zirconate–titanate (PZT)
[Pb(Zr,Ti)O3] and potassium niobate (KNbO3).

(P is polarization, σ is applied stress)

Inverse Piezoelectric Effect:
The inverse of piezoelectric effect is also true. If an electric field is applied to one
pair of faces, the corresponding changes in the dimensions of the crystal are
produced. This is known as inverse piezoelectric effect.

All materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect also exhibit inverse piezo electric
effect.

Inverse piezoelectric effect is used for production of ultrasonic waves.

Inverse Piezoelectric Effect:

If an alternating electric field/potential is applied then crystal will start

vibrating at frequencies equal to frequency of alternating field. Amplitude of
vibrations will be maximum when frequency of alternating field is equal to
natural frequency of the crystal.
The natural frequency of crystal is given by
where n = 1, 2, 3… for fundamental, first overtone, second overtone, etc.
l = length of the crystal
E = Young’s modulus of the crystal
ρ = density of the crystal.
Production of ultrasonic waves by Piezoelectric method :
Construction :
The circuit consists of a primary
and a secondary circuit. In the
primary circuit L1 and L2 are two
inductances connected with
transistor through a battery.

C1 is a variable capacitor
connected parallel to L1. This
combination of L1 and C1 is
known as tank circuit.
L1 and L2 are connected inductively with the secondary circuit. The secondary circuit
consists of an inductance L3 and a parallel plate condenser. The quartz crystal is kept
between the plates of the parallel plate capacitor.
Production of ultrasonic waves by Piezoelectric method :
Working :
On passing alternating current through coil L1, changing magnetic field is set up which gets
linked with coil L2 and induces emf. This acts as feedback circuit to keep the amplitude of
oscillations constant.

Changing magnetic field of coil L1 also gets inductively coupled to coil L3 producing
alternating emf. This results in alternating current in secondary circuit. The charge on plates
between which quartz crystal is placed oscillates with frequency of current. This sets Quartz
crystal into vibrations resulting in ultrasonic waves.

Tank circuit lead to alternating current through coil L1.

With the help of variable capacitor in tank circuit, frequency of current and hence
magnetic field oscillations can be made equal to the natural frequency of quartz crystal
E is Young’s Modulus of crystal
i.e. =
is density of the crystal
l is length of crystal
Production of ultrasonic waves by Piezoelectric method :
Advantages
• Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 500 MHz can be obtained with
this arrangement.
• It is not affected by temperature and humidity.

Disadvantages
• The cost of piezoelectric quartz is very high
• The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.
Magnetostriction effect :
Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt,
nickel that causes them to change their shape (elongation or contraction) when
subjected to a magnetic field. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule.

Magnetostriction is
used for production of
ultrasonic waves.

The change in length of rod

i) depends upon the strength of the magnetic field,
ii) depends upon the nature of the ferromagnetic materials
iii) does not depend of the direction of the field.
Magnetostriction effect :

Suppose a ferromagnetic rod is placed inside a coil carrying an alternating current.

This alternating current would give rise to a time-varying field and the rod will be
put into vibration. The amplitude of this vibration is generally small.

If the frequency of the alternating signal can be the same as the natural frequency
of the rod, a resonance will occur. This resonance will reinforce the vibrations that
would result in the rod. The ends of the rod would then emit sound waves. By
ensuring a sufficiently high applied frequency, ultrasonic waves can be generated.
Inverse Magnetostriction effect :

A ferromagnetic rod develops a varying field when subjected to alternate stresses.

Production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction method :
Construction:
The magnetostriction generator
c consists of a ferromagnetic rod
b clamped at the centre. The two
e ends of the rod are wound by
coils L1 and L2.

The coil L2 is connected to the base of the transistor and the coil L1 along with
variable capacitor C forms a tank circuit.
The frequency of the oscillatory circuit can be adjusted by the variable capacitor C
connected across the coil L1. A battery is connected in the circuit that acts as a source.
Production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction method :
On passing alternating current through coil L1 (because of
tank circuit), changing magnetic field is set up which gets
linked with coil L2 and induces emf. This acts as feedback
circuit to keep the oscillations constant.

Alternating magnetic field sets the rod into vibrations

resulting in ultrasonic waves.
1

0 to 1, rod AB AC
4
1 to 2, rod AC AB
B

0 2 Hence, during 1 cycle of B,

2 to 3, rod AB AC rod completes 2 vibrations.
3 to 4, rod AC AB
3

A B C
Production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction method :
How to have 1 vibration of rod during 1 cycle of B?

When coil L connected to DC supply and wound around rod leading to a constant
magnetic field on rod due to coil L and alternating magnetic field due to tank circuit.
Production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction method :
When coil L connected to DC supply and wound around rod is present, there is constant
magnetic field on rod due to coil L and alternating magnetic field due to tank circuit :c
1
a Let us say that constant magnetic filed increases length
4
B

0 2 of rod from B to C
a
A B E C D
3
Constant magnetic
Field F 0 to 1, Field F F+a, rod AC AD
1 to 2, Field F+a F, rod AD AC
0
2 to 3, Field F F-a rod AC AE
Max magnetic field = F+a 3 to 4, Field F-a F, rod AE AC
Min Magnetic field = F-a

Hence, during 1 cycle of B,

rod completes 1 vibration.
Production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction method :

With the help of variable capacitor in tank circuit, frequency of current and
hence magnetic field oscillations can be made equal to the natural
frequency of the rod material i.e. =

E is Young’s Modulus of rod material

is density of rod material
l is length of the rod
Production of ultrasonic waves by Magnetostriction method :

Advantages
• The design of this oscillator is very simple and its production cost is low
• At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output can be produced without
the risk of damage of the oscillatory circuit.

Disadvantages
• It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate ultrasonic frequency
above 3MHz.
• The frequency of oscillations depends on temperature.
• There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and eddy current.
Detection of ultrasonic waves :
1. Piezoelectric Detector : Piezoelectric crystals have the ability to develop an
electric potential when a stress is applied across certain faces of the crystal.
This phenomenon can be used to detect ultrasonic waves. One pair of faces
of a quartz crystal (piezoelectric material) is subjected to ultrasonic waves,
An alternating potential then develops which can be amplified and measured
to detect the presence of ultrasonic waves.
Detection of ultrasonic waves :
2. Kundt’s tube method : Kundt’s tube consists of a horizontal glass tube about
1 m long and 5 cm in diameter. A small amount of lycopodium powder is
scattered in the tube. When ultrasonic waves are incident on the tube and pass
through it, the lycopodium powder collects in the form of heaps at the antinodes
points and is blown off at the nodal points. The distance between subsequent
nodes is then equal to half the magnitude of the wavelength of ultrasonic waves.
This information can then be used to determine the frequency of the waves.

Can only be used if

A wavelength is at least few
N
mm.
Detection of ultrasonic waves :
2. Kundt’s tube method :
Detection of ultrasonic waves :
3. Sensitive Flame Method : If a narrow sensitive flame is moved through
the medium that carries the ultrasonic waves, the flame remains stationary
at antinodes and tends to flicker at nodes because there is a change in
pressure. The frequency of the ultrasonic wave can be found by equating the
distance between subsequent nodes or antinodes to half the wavelength.
Detection of ultrasonic waves :
4. Thermal Detector Method : Whenever an ultrasonic wave propagates
through a medium, it causes alternate compressions and rarefactions in the
medium. Due to these compressions and rarefactions the temperature of the
medium changes at the nodes while remaining almost constant at antinodes. A
thermal detector comprises of a fine platinum wire whose resistance changes at
the nodes due to these temperature variations.
Application of ultrasonic waves :
1. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) : Sharp beams of ultrasonic
frequency are sent out in various directions in the sea. Objects like submarine,
icebergs, shipwrecks, etc., result in reflections that are picked up, amplified, and
displayed on suitable screens. The time lag between the incident pulse and the
reflected pulse is used to estimate the location of the object that resulted in
reflection.
Application of ultrasonic waves :
2. Fog dispersion : Fog is defined as a mass of water vapour condensed into
small water droplets on powdery materials made from smoke, tyres etc.
Ultrasonic waves can be used to bind or coagulate solid or liquid pollutants
present in air such as dust, smoke, mist etc., into large clump. This process is
called ultrasonic scrubbing. It is used at airports to increase visibility.
Application of ultrasonic waves :
3. Green Energy : Direct Piezoelectric effect can be used for generation of
pollution free energy by installing these transduces in highly crowded areas
such as roads, airport runways, pedestrian walkways and even discotheques.

A prototype for the piezoelectric technology designed and developed by

Innowattech has been successfully tested over a ten meter stretch of road in
Israel. Accordingly, several piezoelectric generators were installed underneath
the asphalt to absorb the mechanical energy generated by cars driving by.
This piezoelectric generators transform the stored mechanical energy to
electricity which is then converted to power. A successful test implementation
saw a total power output of 2000 Wh for the 10 meter strip of road.
Application of ultrasonic waves :
4. Car’s air bag sensor : Ultrasonic sensors of piezoelectric materials detect the
intensity of shock and send an electric signal to trigger airbag.

Some other applications:

• Non destructive testing
• Ultrasonic imaging
• Ultrasonic cleaning
• For homogenization of two immiscible liquids in food, pharmaceutical and
cosmetic industry. In frozen food industry, sauces produced by this method
will withstand repeated freezing and thawing.
Additional:
Production of ultrasonic waves by Piezoelectric method :
Tank circuit connected to collector
 Top animation: actual standing wave particle motion.

The particles immediately to the right in front of the piston move with the piston as it oscillates back and forth.
Elsewhere in the pipe, the particles oscillate back and forth, right and left, though they are not all moving in the
same direction at the same time; some are moving to the right while others are moving to the left. And, you should
notice several locations (four, to be exact) where the particles do not move at all. I've placed three red particles in
the pipe to illustrate the extremes of motion. One of the red particles does not move at all -- it is located at
a displacement node, a location where the amplitude of the displacement always zero. Actually, the node is a line or
plane that extends across the entire cross-section of the pipe. Notice that the particles to the right and left of this
stationary node alternately move inward toward the node or outward away from the node. As the particles move
toward the node, they become closer together and the local particle density at the node location increases (this
would represent a compression). As the particles move outward away from the node the local particle density at the
node location decreases (a rarefaction). To the right of this stationary red particle is another red particle that moves
with maximum displacement; this particle is located at a displacement antinode. Notice that the local particle
density near an antinode does not change as the particles move back and forth. The closed end of the pipe acts as a
displacement node; the particles cannot move beyond the rigid end, so the displacement is zero at the closed end.
The piston face acts as a displacement antinode; the particles move with maximum displacement amplitude.
 Middle animation: graph representing longitudinal particle
displacement.
The middle animation shows a graph representing the
horizontal displacement of the air particles in the standing
wave. When the graph is a horizontal line at zero all of the
particles are at their equilibrium positions. Regions where the
graph becomes positive represent regions where the particles
are displaced from their equilibrium locations toward the right,
in the positive x-direction. Regions where the graph becomes
negative represent regions where the particles are displaced
from their equilibrium positions toward the left, in the
negative x-direction. Locations where the particle displacement
graph is always zero correspond to the to the displacement
nodes.

Bottom animation: graph representing pressure variation.

The bottom animation shows a graph representing the pressure variation associated with this standing sound wave.
When the local density of the particles increases above the ambient value, the pressure variation is positive; this occurs
when the particles are moving inward toward a displacement node location. When the local density of the particles
decreases below the ambient value, the pressure variation is negative; this occurs when the particles move outward
away from a displacement node location. If you compare the three animations, you'll notice that the pressure nodes
(locations where the pressure is always zero) coincide with the displacement antinodes, there the local particle density
does not change as the particles move back and forth together.